Introduction to Signals

• A Signal is the function of one or more independent

variables that carry some information to represent a
physical phenomenon.
e.g. ECG, EEG

• Two Types of Signals

1. Continuous-time signals
2. Discrete-time signals
 1. Continuous-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for all points in time
• Function of time
– Written as x(t) because the signal “x” is a function of time
• Commonly found in the physical world
– ex. Human speech
• Displayed graphically as a line

x(t)

t 2
 2. Discrete-Time Signals
• Signal that has a value for only specific points in time
• Typically formed by “sampling” a continuous-time signal
– Taking the value of the original waveform at specific intervals in time
• Function of the sample value, n
– Write as x[n]
– Often called a sequence
• Commonly found in the digital world
– ex. wav file or mp3
• Displayed graphically as individual values
– Called a “stem” plot
x[n]

Sample number

3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 n
 Examples: CT vs. DT Signals

x(t ) x[n]

t n

4
 Sampling

• Discrete-time signals are often obtained by

sampling continuous-time signals

x(t ) . . x[n] = x(t ) t =nT = x(nT )

5
 Unit Ramp Function

t , t  0  t
ramp ( t ) =   =  u (  ) d  = t u (t )
0 , t  0  −

•The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit step function.
•It is called the unit ramp function because for positive t, its
slope is one amplitude unit per time.
 Unit Impulse Function
As a approaches zero, g ( t ) approaches a unit
step and g ( t ) approaches a unit impulse

Functions that approach unit step and unit impulse

So unit impulse function is the derivative of the unit step
function or unit step is the integral of the unit impulse
function
 Representation of Impulse Function
The area under an impulse is called its strength or weight. It is
represented graphically by a vertical arrow. An impulse with a
strength of one is called a unit impulse.
Properties of the Impulse Function
The Sampling Property


 g ( t )  ( t − t ) dt = g ( t )
−
0 0

The Scaling Property

 ( a ( t − t0 ) ) =  ( t − t0 )
1
a
The Replication Property
g(t)⊗ δ(t) = g (t)
 Unit Impulse Train
The unit impulse train is a sum of infinitely uniformly-
spaced impulses and is given by

T ( t ) =   ( t − nT )
n =−
, n an integer
Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals
• Sinusoids and exponentials are important in signal and
system analysis because they arise naturally in the
solutions of the differential equations.
• Sinusoidal Signals can expressed in either of two ways :
cyclic frequency form- A sin 2Пfot = A sin(2П/To)t
radian frequency form- A sin ωot
ωo = 2Пfo = 2П/To
To = Time Period of the Sinusoidal Wave
 Sinusoidal & Exponential Signals Contd.

x(t) = A sin (2Пfot+ θ)

Sinusoidal signal
= A sin (ωot+ θ)

x(t) = Aeat Real Exponential

= Aejω̥t = A[cos (ωot) +j sin (ωot)] Complex Exponential

θ = Phase of sinusoidal wave

A = amplitude of a sinusoidal or exponential signal
fo = fundamental cyclic frequency of sinusoidal signal
ωo = radian frequency
Real Exponential Signals and damped Sinusoidal

x(t) = e- x(t) = eαt

at
 Signum Function
 1 , t  0
 
sgn ( t ) =  0 , t = 0  = 2 u ( t ) − 1
−1 , t  0 
 

Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph

The signum function, is closely related to the unit-step

function.
Rectangular Pulse or Gate Function

1/ a , t  a / 2
Rectangular pulse,  a (t ) = 
0 , t  a/2
 The Unit Triangle Function
A triangular pulse whose height and area are both one but its base
width is not, is called unit triangle function. The unit triangle is
related to the unit rectangle through an operation called
convolution.
Sinc Function

sin ( t )
sinc ( t ) =
t
 Discrete-Time Signals

• Sampling is the acquisition of the values of a

continuous-time signal at discrete points in time
• x(t) is a continuous-time signal, x[n] is a discrete-
time signal
x  n = x ( nTs ) where Ts is the time between samples
 Discrete Time Exponential and
Sinusoidal Signals
• DT signals can be defined in a manner analogous to their
continuous-time counter part
x[n] = A sin (2Пn/No+θ)
Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signal
= A sin (2ПFon+ θ)

x[n] = an Discrete Time Exponential Signal

n = the discrete time
A = amplitude
θ = phase shifting radians,
No = Discrete Period of the wave
1/N0 = Fo = Ωo/2 П = Discrete Frequency
Discrete Time Sinusoidal Signals
Discrete Time Unit Step Function or
Unit Sequence Function
1 , n  0
u  n = 
0 , n  0
Discrete Time Unit Ramp Function

n , n  0  n
ramp  n  =   =  u  m − 1
0 , n  0  m=−
Discrete Time Unit Impulse Function or
Unit Pulse Sequence
1 , n = 0
  n = 
0 , n  0

  n =   an for any non-zero, finite integer a.

 Unit Pulse Sequence Contd.
• The discrete-time unit impulse is a function in the
ordinary sense in contrast with the continuous-
time unit impulse.
• It has a sampling property.
• It has no scaling property i.e.
δ[n]= δ[an] for any non-zero finite integer ‘a’
 Operations of Signals
• Sometime a given mathematical function may
completely describe a signal .
• Different operations are required for different
purposes of arbitrary signals.
• The operations on signals can be
Time Shifting
Time Scaling
Time Inversion or Time Folding
 Time Shifting
• The original signal x(t) is shifted by an
amount tₒ.

• X(t)→X(t-to) →Signal Delayed→ Shift to the

right
 Time Shifting Contd.

• X(t)→X(t+to) →Signal Advanced→ Shift

to the left
 Time Scaling
• For the given function x(t), x(at) is the time
scaled version of x(t)
• For a ˃ 1,period of function x(t) reduces and
function speeds up. Graph of the function
shrinks.
• For a ˂ 1, the period of the x(t) increases
and the function slows down. Graph of the
function expands.
 Time scaling Contd.

Example: Given x(t) and we are to find y(t) = x(2t).

The period of x(t) is 2 and the period of y(t) is 1,

 Time scaling Contd.
• Given y(t),
– find w(t) = y(3t)
and v(t) = y(t/3).
 Time Reversal

• Time reversal is also called time folding

• In Time reversal signal is reversed with
respect to time i.e.
y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given
function
Time reversal Contd.
 Operations of Discrete Time
Functions
Time shifting n → n + n0 , n0 an integer
Operations of Discrete Functions Contd.

Scaling; Signal Compression

n → Kn K an integer > 1
 Important Condition of Periodicity for
Discrete Time Signals
• A discrete time signal is periodic if
x(n) = x(n+N)
• For satisfying the above condition the
frequency of the discrete time signal should
be ratio of two integers
i.e. fₒ = k/N
 Sum of periodic Signals – may not
always be periodic!
x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = cos t + sin 2t
T1=(2)/(1)= 2; T2 =(2)/(sqrt(2));
T1/T2= sqrt(2);
– Note: T1/T2 = sqrt(2) is an irrational number
– X(t) is aperiodic
Even and Odd Signals
Even Functions Odd Functions
g(t ) = g(−t ) g(t ) = − g(−t )
 Even and Odd Parts of Functions
g ( t ) + g ( −t )
The even part of a function is g e ( t ) =
2
g ( t ) − g ( −t )
The odd part of a function is g o ( t ) =
2
A function whose even part is zero, is odd and a function
whose odd part is zero, is even.
 Various Combinations of even and odd
functions
Function type Sum Difference Product Quotient

Both even Even Even Even Even

Both odd Odd Odd Even Even

Even and odd Neither Neither Odd Odd

 Derivatives and Integrals of Functions

Function type Derivative Integral

Even Odd Odd + constant

Odd Even Even

Discrete Time Even and Odd Signals
g  n  = g  −n  g  n = − g  −n

g  n + g  −n g  n − g  −n
g e  n = go  n =
2 2
 Combination of even and odd
function for DT Signals
Function type Sum Difference Product Quotient

Both even Even Even Even Even

Both odd Odd Odd Even Even

Even and odd Even or Odd Even or odd Odd Odd

Products of DT Even and Odd
Functions
Two Even Functions
Products of DT Even and Odd
Functions Contd.
An Even Function and an Odd Function
Products of DT Even and Odd
Functions Contd.
Two Odd Functions
Signal Energy and Power for DT
Signal
•A discrtet time signal with finite energy and zero
power is called Energy Signal i.e.for energy signal

0<E<∞ and P =0
•The signal energy of a for a discrete time signal x[n] is


 x  n
2
Ex =
n =−
Signal Energy and Power for DT
Signal Contd.
The average signal power of a discrete time power signal
x[n] is
1 N −1
 x  n
2
Px = lim
N → 2 N
n =− N

For a periodic signal x[n] the average signal power is

1
 x  n
2
Px =
N n= N

 The notation  n= N means the sum over any set of 

 
 consecutive n 's exactly N in length. 
 
 What is System?
• Systems process input signals to produce output
signals
• A system is combination of elements that
manipulates one or more signals to accomplish a
function and produces some output.

input output
system
signal signal
Types of Systems
Discrete-Time Systems
• A Discrete-Time System is a mathematical operation that
maps a given input sequence x[n] into an output sequence
y[n]
y[n] = T{x[n]}
Example:
Moving (Running) Average
y[n] = x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2] + x[n − 3]

Maximum y[n] = maxx[n], x[n − 1], x[n − 2]

Ideal Delay System y[n] = x[n − no ]
Memoryless System
A system is memoryless if the output y[n] at every value
of n depends only on the input x[n] at the same value of n
Example :
y[n] = (x[n])
2
Square

Sign y[n] = signx[n]

counter example:
Ideal Delay System y[n] = x[n − no ]
Linear Systems
• Linear System: A system is linear if and only if
T{x1[n] + x2[n]} = Tx1[n] + Tx2[n] (additivit y)
and
Tax[n] = aTx[n] (scaling)

Example: Ideal Delay System

y[n] = x[n − no ]
T{x1[n] + x2[n]} = x1[n − no ] + x2[n − no ]
T{x2[n]} + Tx1[n] = x1[n − no ] + x2[n − no ]
Tax[n] = ax1[n − no ]
aTx[n] = ax1[n − no ]
Time-Invariant Systems
Time-Invariant (shift-invariant) Systems
y[n] = T{x[n]}  y[n − no ] = Tx[n − no ]
A time shift at the input causes corresponding time-shift at
output
Example: Square
Delay the input the output is y n = (x[n − n ])2

y[n] = (x[n])
2 1 o

yn - no  = (x[n − no ])
2
Delay the output gives

Counter Example: Compressor System

Delay the input the output is y1 n = x[Mn − no ]
y[n] = x[Mn] Delay the output gives yn - no  = xM(n − no )
Causal System
A system is causal iff it’s output is a function of only the
current and previous samples

Examples: Backward Difference

y[n] = x[n] − x[n − 1]

Counter Example: Forward Difference

y[n] = x[n + 1] + x[n]

Stable System
Stability (in the sense of bounded-input bounded-output
BIBO). A system is stable iff every bounded input produces
a bounded output
x[n]  Bx    y[n]  By  

y[n] = (x[n])
2
Example: Square
if input is bounded by x[n]  Bx  
output is bounded by y[n]  B2x  
Counter Example: Log y[n] = log10 ( x[n] )
even if input is bounded by x[n]  Bx  
output not bounded for xn = 0  y0 = log10 ( xn ) = −
 Continuous Discrete
Time Time
Periodic

Discrete
Fourier
Fourier
Series
Transform

Continuous
Aperiodic

Fourier
Fourier
Transform
Transform