Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Digital Transmission
Prepared by-
Shyla Afroge & S. M. Mahedy Hasan
Assistant Professor, Dept. of CSE
RUET, Rajshahi-6204, Bangladesh
Digital Transmission
Digital transmission mainly two types:
1. Digital data to Digital signal
2. Analog signal to Digital data
✔ The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps).
❑ Signal Rate
✔ The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s. The unit is the baud.
✔ The signal rate is sometimes called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate.
Where N is the data rate (bps); c is the case factor, which varies for each case; S is the number of
signal elements; and r is the previously defined factor. Here, c=1 worst case, c=0 best case and c=1/2
average case.
Example: A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one signal element ( r =
1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution: We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is then
✔ In decoding a digital signal, the receiver calculates a running average of the received signal power
(voltage or amplitude).
✔ The incoming signal power is evaluated against this baseline to determine the value of the data
element.
✔ A long string of 0’s or 1’s can cause a drift in the baseline (baseline wandering) and make it
difficult for the receiver to decode correctly.
✔ When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the spectrum creates very low frequencies.
✔ For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies below 200 Hz.
✔ To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly
to the sender's bit intervals.
✔ If the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit intervals are not matched and the receiver might misinterpret
the signals.
✔ A self-synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the data being transmitted.
✔ This can be achieved if there are transitions in the signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle, or
end of the pulse.
✔ Notes: If receiver faster than sender than extra bit will be added to the receiver. If receiver is slower
than the sender than the receiver might loss some bits.
✔ Example: In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent faster than the sender clock. How many
extra bits per second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1
Mbps?
Solution:
❑ Immunity to Noise and Interference:- Another desirable code characteristic is a code that is immune to
noise and other interferences.
❑ Complexity:- A complex scheme is more costly to implement than a simple one. For example, a scheme that
uses four signal levels is more difficult to interpret than one that uses only two levels.
✔ The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
❑ Line Coding
✔ At the receiver, the digital data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
✔ Positive voltage defines bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0.
✔ It is called NRZ because the signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit.
✔ Very simple.
✔ No self synchronization.
✔ Change or lack of change in the level of voltage determines the values of bit.
Due to lack of synchronization in NRZ scheme, the receiver does not know when one bit has ended and
next bit is starting.
Polar return to zero scheme solves the problem by marking the middle of the by a
transition to zero.
✔ Synchronization is possible.
❑ Disadvantages
Note
❑ The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
1. Alternative Mark Inversion (AMI): For AMI, bit 1 alternate between +V and –V and bit 0 Zero Voltage. Let’s assume last non-zero
pulse was negative.
2. Pseudo-ternary: For AMI, bit 0 alternate between +V and –V and bit 1 Zero Voltage. Let’s assume last zero pulse was negative.
✔ No baseline wandering
✔ No dc component problem
❑ Disadvantages
✔ Synchronization problem
❑ 2B1Q
❑ Disadvantages:
✔ No self synchronization.
✔ No error detection.
❑ Uses:
✔ 2BIQ is used in DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) technology to provide a high-speed connection to the
Internet by using subscriber telephone lines.
2/24/2023 Digital Transmission 30
Line Coding
❑ 2B1Q
✔ Here, 8 bits are used as a pattern of 6 signal elements, where the signal has three levels (ternary). In this
type of scheme, we can have 2^8 =256 different data patterns and 3^6 =729 different signal patterns.
✔ There are 729 - 256 =473 redundant signal elements that provide synchronization and error detection.
✔ To make the whole stream Dc-balanced, the sender keeps track of the weight.
✔ If two groups of weight 1 are encountered one after another, the first one is sent as is, while the next one
is totally inverted to give a weight of -1.
✔ No dc component problem.
✔ Synchronization is available.
✔ The multiline transmission, three level (MLT-3) scheme uses three levels (+v, 0, and - V) and three transition
rules to move between the levels.
1. If the next bit is 0, there is no transition.
2. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is not 0, the next level is 0.
3. If the next bit is 1 and the current level is 0, the next level is the opposite of the last nonzero level.
✔ Assume that, last level was at 0 voltage and last non-zero pulse was negative.
✔ In general, block coding replaces a block of m bits with block of n bits, where n is larger than m. Block coding
is referred to as an mB/nB encoding technique.
✔ The four binary/five binary (4B/5B) coding scheme was designed to be used in combination with NRZ-I and
solve the synchronization problem of NRZ-I.
✔ It replaces each block of 4 bits with a block of 5 bits has no more than one leading zero (left bit) and no more
than two trailing zeros (right bits).
✔ A group of 4 bits can have only 16 different combinations while a group of 5 bits can have 32 different
combinations.
✔ This means that there are 16 groups that are not used for 4B/5B encoding.
✔ Some of these unused groups are used for control purposes; the others are not used at all.
✔ The latter provide a kind of error detection. If a 5-bit group arrives that belongs to the unused portion of the
table, the receiver knows that there is an error in the transmission.
2/24/2023 Digital Transmission 39
Block Coding
❑ 4B/5B
❑ Disadvantages
✔ It provides greater error detection capability than 4B/5B. The 8B/10B block coding is actually a combination of 5B/6B and
3B/4B encoding.
✔ The most five significant bits of a 10-bit block is fed into the 5B/6B encoder; the least 3 significant bits is fed
into a 3B/4B encoder.
✔ To prevent a long run of consecutive 0’s or 1’s, the code uses a disparity controller which keeps track of
excess 0’s over 1’s (or 1’s over 0’s).
✔ If the bits in the current block create a disparity that contributes to the previous disparity then each bit in the
code is complemented.
✔ The coding has 2^10 – 2^8 = 768 redundant groups that can be used for disparity checking and error detection.
✔ In general, the technique is superior to 4B/5B because of better built-in error-checking capability and better
synchronization.
✔ Four consecutive zero-level voltages are replaced with a sequence of 000V or B00V.
Digital Data
01010101100
Digitization Line Coding
Sampling
Quantizing
Encoding
✔ Sampling
Sampling Interval
✔ The sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the signal.
Example: A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for
this signal?
Solution: The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the
signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The sampling rate is
therefore 400,000 samples per second.
Example: A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?
Solution: We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case because we do not know where the
bandwidth starts or ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the signal.
Multiply
Sampler
Impulse Signal
Sampling Quantizing
Time Discrete
Amplitude Discrete
Sampled Signal
Message Signal
✔ Quantization process maps these infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known values.
✔ The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel, serial transmission
✔ For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be viewed at the same rate.
✔ If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should be no delays between frames.
✔ For this type of application, synchronization between characters is not enough; the entire stream of bits must be
synchronized. The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.