UNIT – I

ENVIRONMENT AND ECOSYSTEMS

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Introduction:
Environment is derived from the French word ―Environ” which mean ―encircle or surround‖
Environmental Studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. So, Environment refers to
surroundings which vary from place to place and continent depending upon Physiography,
Topography, Climate and the available Natural resources. Since the beginning of the culture, the
natural resources such as Soil, Land, Water etc are being over-exploited causing the environment
gets polluted or degraded. This has resulted in multi – dimensional environmental crisis like soil
erosion, landslides and in turn have created soil pollution, air pollution, water pollution, noise
pollution etc.
Definition:
The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces and other living
things, which provide conditions for development and growth .
Importance of Environment:
1.Environment is concerned with day – to – day interaction with the surroundings with which
human being is closely associated.
2. Environmental Science is related to many branches of Sciences
3. Environment is concerned with the importance of wild life and its protection.
4. Environmental Science explains the significant role of biodiversity in establishing ecological
balance.
5. Environmental Science gives information relating to Population growth, Population explosion
and impact on Population growth.
Environmental Science also gives information about water conservation, watershed management
and the importance of water
Introduction of Ecology: The term ―Ecology‖ was derived from Greek words viz., Oikes means
house or place and logs means a discussion or study. So, ecology is the scientific study of the
distribution and the interactions between organisms and their natural environment. The
environment (surroundings ) consists of: living organisms ( biotic ) and non-living things (
abiotic ) such as physical components of wind, temperature, rainfall, water, humidity , light, soil
etc and chemical components of C,H,N,K,P,S etc..(in-organic components) and carbohydrates,
proteins (organic components). Hence, Ecology involves studying the ecosystems. According to
George Jackson, an Ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-
organisms in an area functioning together with all of the non-living things. An ecosystem is the
smallest unit of biosphere that has all the characteristics to support life. Pond ecosystem, forest
ecosystem, desert ecosystem, marine ecosystem, urban ecosystem are some of the examples for
ecosystems. An ecosystem varies in sizes from a few square kms to hundreds of square kms.
Similarly an ecosystem may be temporary like a fresh pool / agriculture field or permanent like a
forest / ocean.

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Scope of ecosystem:
Ecology plays an important role in agriculture crop rotation, weed control (unwanted land);
management of grasslands, forestry etc., biological surveys, fishery surveys, conservation of soil,
wild life, surveys of water bodies like rivers, lakes; ponds etc...

Concept of ecosystem:
In an ecosystem, the interaction of life with its environment takes place at many levels. A single
bacteria in the soil interacts with water, air around it within a small space while a fish in a river
interacts with water and other animals, rivals in a large space. Considering the operational point
of view; the biotic and biotic components of an ecosystem are so interlinked such that their
separation from each other is practically difficult. So, in an ecosystem both organisms (biotic
communities) and a biotic environment (rainfall, temperature, humidity) each influence the
properties with other for maintenance of life.

Types of Ecosystems: Ecosystem may be natural or artificial.

Artificial Ecosystem: These are maintained or created artificially by man. The man tries to
control biotic community as well as physico chemical environment.
Eg: Artificial pond, urban area development.
Natural Ecosystem: It consists of Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems which are maintained
naturally.
Terrestrial Ecosystem:
This ecosystem relates to biotic components living on the land. Vegetation dominates the
community and the types of vegetation affect the climate, soil structure & a rapid exchange of
O2, water & CO2
Aquatic Ecosystem:
This ecosystem relates to biotic community living in water. The types of water (fresh water,
saline water, polluted water) dominate and affect the pH of water, depth of water, temperature of
water etc. Aquatic ecosystem has been sub-divided into fresh water and saline water based on
the quality of water.

Sturcture & Function of Ecosystem

The two major aspects of an ecosystem are: (1) Structure and (2) Function together they illustrate
the organization of an ecosystem.
The Structure of an ecosystem consists of:
Abiotic structure includes the non-living things of the ecosystem such as physical factors (soil,
temperature, light & water) and chemical factors consisting the inorganic compounds (N, C, H,
K, P,S) & organic compounds ( carbohydrates, proteins).
Biotic structure includes plants, animals & microorganisms present in an ecosystem form the
biotic component. These organisms have different nutritional behavior and status in the
ecosystem and are known as Autotrophs Producers), Heterotrophy (Consumers) & Micro-
consumers (Decomposers) based on how they get their food. Hence, the structure of an
ecosystem comprises:
(a) The composition of biological community species (plants, animals, microorganisms), their
population, life cycles, distribution in space etc.

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(b) The quantity and distribution of non-living things such as soil; water etc.
(c) The range or intensity of conditions like temperature, light, rainfall, humidity, wind &
topography plays a major role in the structure of ecosystem.

Function of ecosystem means how an ecosystem works/ operates under natural conditions. The
rate of biological energy flow ; the rate of nutrient cycles ie Bio- Geo-Chemical cycles and
Ecological regulation ( means regulation of organisms by Environment and regulation of
Environment by organisms ) plays a major role in the function of an ecosystem
1. Autotrophic components (Producers):
Autotrophic means self nourishing. Since these organisms are self nourishing, they are also
called producers.
Eg: Algae, Green plants, Bacteria of photo synthetic. Green plants prepare their food themselves
by making use of CO2 present in the air & water in the presence of sunlight through the process
of photosynthesis.
CO2 + 2H2O →CH2O + O2 + H2O
( Carbon dioxide ) ( Water )( Carbohydrates ) ( Oxygen ) (Water )
A few micro-organisms which can produce organic matter (nutrients) to some extent through
oxidation of certain chemicals in the absence of sunlight known as chemo autotrophs.
Eg: In the Ocean depths, where there is no sunlight, chemo-autotrophic bacteria make use of the
heat generated by the decay of radioactive elements for preparation of their food.

2. Hetero-trophic components (Consumers):

Hetero-trophic means dependent on others for nourishment directly or indirectly upon the
utotrophs (producers) for their food. These are of the following types:
a. Herbivores (Primary consumers): These animals feed directly on living plants or remains of
plants. Eg: Rabbits, Deer‘s, Insects.
b. Carnivores (secondary consumers): These carnivores (flesh eating) feed on the herbivores. Eg:
Snakes, birds, Lizards, fox.
c. Tertiary consumers (or) Tertiary carnivores: These feed on the primary & secondary
consumers. Eg: Lions, Tigers.
d. Omnivores: These consumers feed on both plants & animals. Eg Human beings, Birds (hawk)

3. Decomposers or Micro consumers: They feed on organic compounds of dead or living

plants and animals for their food and energy. They absorb some of the products from
decomposed material and release organic compounds (nutrients) making them available to
producers.
Eg: Bacteria, Fungi, and Flagellates. The decomposers are also called as ―Saprotrophs‖.
Food Chain:
The transfer of food energy from the producers (plants) through a series of organisms
(Herbivores, Carnivores) successively with the repeated activities of eating and being eaten is
known as food chain. In an ecosystem(s), one organism is eaten by the second who in turn is
eaten by the third and so on... This kind of feeding relationship is called food chain.
Examples of food chain:
1. Grass→ Grasshopper→ Frog→ Snake→ Hawk.
2. Grass→ Mouse→ Snake →Hawk.
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3. Grass→ Rabbit→ Man.
4. Grass→ Mouse→ Hawk.
5. Plant leaf →Caterpillar →Sparrow →Hawk.

Explanation: A caterpillar eats a plant leaf, a sparrow eats the caterpillar, and a hawk eats the
sparrow. When they all die, they are all consumed by micro organisms like bacteria (or) fungi
which break down the organic matter and convert it into simple inorganic substances that can
again be used by the plants.
In nature, there are two basic types of food chains
viz: 1. Grazing food chain and (2) Detritus food chain
Grazing food chain: This food chain starts with green plants (primary producers) and goes to
herbivores and on to carnivores.
1. Phytoplankton‘s→ Zooplanktons →Small fish→ Tuna.
2. Phytoplankton‘s→ Zooplanktons→ Fish→ Man.
3. Grass→ Rabbit→ Fox→ Tiger.

Detritus food chain: This food chain starts from dead organic matter (dead leaves/ plants /
animals) and goes to Herbivores and on to Carnivores and so on…..
Leaves or dead plants→ Soil mites→ Insects→ Birds.
Dead organic matter→ Bacteria → Insects.
Dead leaves → Algae→ Fish→ Man.

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FOOD WEB:Food web is a net work of food chains where different types of organisms are
connected at different trophic levels so that there are a number of options of eating and being
eaten at each trophic level. (A trophic level refers to an organism‘s position in the food chain).
1. Grass→ Grasshopper→ Hawk
2. Grass→ Grasshopper→ Lizard→ Hawk
3. Grass→ Rabbit→ Hawk
4. Grass→ Mouse→ Hawk
5. Grass→ Mouse→ Snake→ Hawk

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID:
Ecological pyramids were first studied by a British ecologist Charles Eltan (1927). An
Ecological Pyramid is a graphical representation consisting varioustrophic levels with producers
forming the base and top occupy the carnivores. In an ecological pyramid the huge number of
tiny individuals form at the base and a few large individuals occupy the top / apex . This
formation is known as ecological pyramid. Hence, all producers (micro & macro plants) belong
to the I trophic level; all primary consumers belong to II trophic level and organisms feeding on
these consumers belong to the III trophic level and so on.
The ecological pyramids are of three types. They are:
1. The pyramid of Numbers (showing population).
2. The pyramid of Biomass (showing total mass of organisms).
3. The pyramid of energy (showing energy flow).

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1. The pyramid of Number:
It shows the relationships among the producers, herbivores and carnivores at successive trophic
levels in terms of their number. Mostly the pyramid of number is straight (or) upright with
number of individuals in successive higher trophic levels goes on decreasing from base to apex.
The maximum number of individuals occurs at the producers‘ level. They support a small
number of herbivores. The herbivores, in turn, support a fewer number of primary carnivores and
so on….. Top carnivores are very few in number.
For Example:
(1) In a grass land ecosystem: Grass→ Grasshoppers→ Frogs→ Snakes→ Peacock / Hawk.
(2) In a pond ecosystem: Phytoplankton→ Zooplankton→ Fish→ Crane

The pyramids may be inverted in a few cases:

A single plant may support the growth of many herbivores and each herbivore in turn provides
nutrition to several parasites which support many hyper-parasites. Thus, from the producer
towards consumers, there is a reverse position i.e., the number of organisms gradually shows an
increase making the pyramid inverted in shape.
(3) In a Forest ecosystem: Tree→ Birds / deer →Parasites→ hyper parasites
Tree→ Birds→ eagle

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2. The Pyramid of Biomass: The amount of organic matter present in environment is called
biomass. In pyramids of biomass, the relationship between different trophic levels is mentioned
in terms of weight of organisms. The pyramid may be upright for grassland ecosystem and
inverted for pond ecosystem.
Example: Vegetation produces a biomass of 1000 kg. Out of this 100 kgs of biomass for
herbivores, which in turn only 10 kg of biomass for primary carnivores that gives rise 1 kg of
biomass for second order carnivores and so on…

1000 kgs 100 kgs 10 kgs 1 kg

Vegetation Herbivores primary carnivores Secondary carnivores
Hence, a vegetarian diet can support a larger population than a Non – vegetation diet.

3. The pyramid of energy: The amount of energy trapped per unit time and area at different
trophic levels of a food chain with producers forming the base and the top carnivores at the apex
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is called pyramid of energy. The energy content is generally expressed as K cal /m / year or KJ /
2
m / year.
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Large Fish ---126 KJ / m / year
2
Small Fish ----840 – 126 KJ / m / year Zooplankton
2
---- 7980 KJ / m / year Phytoplankton (producers) --
2
- 31080 KJ / m / year

Energy flow /Transformation of energy in Ecosystem

The movement of energy (or) transfer of energy through a series of organisms in an ecosystem
from the external environment and back to the external environment again is known as energy
flow. In the universe, the main source of energy is SUN that produces energy in the form of light
or solar radiation. Different ecosystems in the world receive variable quantities of solar energy
depending upon their location on the globe. The other chief factors that control the amount of
solar energy received by an ecosystem are Latitude and Longitude; Slope; Cloud formation;
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Pollutants in the atmosphere The transformation of energy in an ecosystem begin first with the
input of energy from the sun by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is combined with
Hydrogen (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to produce carbohydrates (CH2O) and
the energy is stored in the high energy bonds of Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP).

Herbivores obtain their energy by consuming plants or plant products,

Carnivores eat herbivores and micro-organisms consume the droppings and carcasses (dead
bodies). In an ecosystem, the utility of energy is taken place in the following manner:
The sun provides heat to maintain the required temperature in which proper Physical and
chemical processes can take place. Certain bacteria obtain useful energy by oxidation of a few
elements such as sulphur and iron.

Bio – Geo-Chemical Cycles: In every ecosystem sunlight or solar radiant energy is accepted by
producers (green plants) and the energy doesn‘t recycle through an ecosystem. But nutrients like
Carbon; Nitrogen; Oxygen, Hydrogen; Water, Sulphur, Phosphorous etc move in circular paths
through biotic and abiotic components and they are known as Bio-geochemical cycles. About
forty chemical elements are considered to be essential for living organisms. They are
macronutrients of C, H, O, P, K, I, N, S, Mg, Ca etc.. and micro nutrients of Cu, Fe,
Co……While all inorganic nutrients have cycles, we focus on the following:

WATER CYCLE
CARBON CYCLE
NITROGEN CYCLE
PHOSPHOROUS
CYCLE
The Water Cycle Or Hydrologic Cycle: Due to the solar heat, water evaporates or water is lost
to the atmosphere as vapor from the seas / oceans which is then precipitated back in the form of
rain, snow, frost etc.. The evaporation and precipitation continues for ever, and thereby a balance
is maintained between the two. This process is known as Hydrologic cycle.

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Carbon Cycle: All life is based on the element carbon and hence carbon is the main constituent
of living organisms.. Carbon may be present in most organic matter from fossil fuels to the
complex molecules (DNA & RNA). In fact, the lithosphere is only 0.032% carbon by weight. In
comparison, oxygen and silicon make up 45.2% and 29.4% respectively of the earth‘s surface
rocks. Plants absorb CO2 during photosynthesis whereas animals emit CO2 during respiration.
Animals obtain all their carbon through their food and thus, all carbon in biological systems
ultimately comes from plants (autotrophs). The dead bodies of plants and animals as well as the
body wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms which release carbon in the form of CO2. Even
plant debris if buried a longer time cause for the formation of coal, oil, natural gas and these
releases carbon when they burned. Otherwise, the carbon in limestone or other sediments
released to the atmosphere when they are subducted (using forces) or undergo chemical
reactions. The weathering of rocks also contribute CO2 into the environment.

NITROGEN CYCLE: Nitrogen is used by living organisms to produce a number of complex

organic molecules like Amino acids; Proteins ; Nucleic acids ; Enzymes; Chlorophyll etc.. The
largest reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere where it exists as a gas mainly N2. But
atmospheric nitrogen is not utilized directly. However, nitrogen gas undergoes many changes in
the nitrogen cycle like: Nitrogen Fixation, Ammonification, Nitrification.
Nitrogen fixation or conversion of free nitrogen into biologically acceptable form is referred to
as Nitrogen Fixation.
N2 + 2(O) −electric discharge → 2 NO
Nitrogen gas oxygen radical nitrogen oxide In physico chemical process; nitrogen combines with
oxygen during lightning or electrical discharges in the clouds and produces different nitrogen
oxides (N2O5). These nitrogen oxides get dissolved in rain water and react with mineral
compounds to form Nitrates and Nitrogenous compounds on the earth.
N2O5 + H2O → 2HNO3
2HNO3 + CaCO3 → Ca (NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
Nitrogen fixation is also carried out by biological process by means of blue – green algae in the
oceans.
Examples: Rhizobium bacteria fix nitrogen in the roots of Leguminous plants
Blue – green algae ( Nostoc, Anabena ) fix Nitrogen.
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Ammonification: when plants or animals
die or release waste, the nitrogen is
returned to the soil as ammonia. The
bacteria ( nitrite bacteria ) in the soil and
in the water which take up ammonia and
convert it to Nitrite ( NO2). Another
bacteria ( Nitrate bacteria ) take nitrite
and convert it to Nitrate (NO3) which can
be taken up by plants to continue the
cycle.
Nitrification means conversion of
ammonia into nitrite by some of the
bacteri as such as Nitrosmonas,
Nitrococcus in oceans and soils.

Phosphorus cycle: Phosphorus cycle is the circulation of phosphorous among the rocks, soils,
water, and plants and animals of the earth. Human beings and all other organisms must have
phosphorus to live. In nature, most phosphorus occurs in phosphate rock, which contains
phosphate ions combined with calcium, magnesium, chlorine, and fluorine.

It cannot be found in air

in the gaseous. This is because phosphorous is usually liquid at normal

temperatures pressures.

 cycle basically starts out in the earth‘s soil. The soilcontains phosphate and when something
The
grows out of the soil it should have phosphate as well.

When the plants grow they are consumed by herbivore and omnivore animals. 
The animal‘s waste or the animal‘s body when it dies becomes detritus. 
Detritus is non-living organic material. When the detritus goes deep into the soil, detrivores in
the soil decompose and become the soil‘s phosphate and the cycle repeats.


Phosphorus cycle
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Biomagnification:

 Biomagnification is also known as bioamplification or biological magnification. Increase

 in the concentration of a pollutant as it passes from one trophic level to the next. 
 Small amount in environment → Large concentration at top of food chain. 

Biomagnification of DDT (Dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane):

DDT sprayed for pest control was in very low concentration, but it‘s concentration increased
along the food chain through phytoplanktons to zooplanktons and then to fish which was eaten
by the birds. The concentration of DDT was magnified several thousand times in the birds,
which caused thinning of shell in the birds eggs causing death of the young ones.

It becomes very clear from the above instance that the animals occupying the higher
trophic levels are at a greater risk of biomagnifications of toxic chemicals. Human beings
consuming milk, eggs and meet are at a higher trophic level. Therefore, we have to stop
indiscriminate use of pesticides and heavy metals if we wish to save ourselves from their
biologically magnified toxic levels.

In order for biomagnification to occur, the pollutant must be:

1. Long-lived 2. Mobile 3. Soluble in fats

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AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM:
Eco system that exists in water is known as aquatic ecosystem. Water is the primary requirement
for life in biological community. The aquatic ecosystems range from a small pond to a large
ocean. Varying quantities of nutrients are carried from terristrial ( land ) ecosystem by the
movement of water and deposited in aquatic ecosystems. The life in aquatic communities is
influenced mostly by physical factors like:
Water depth Amount of light
Temperature Salinity of water
Amount of oxygen and Carbondioxide.

Aquatic ecosystems are broadly classified into fresh water and marine water ecosystems. In
some regions, the marine and fresh water environments overlaps creating ―Estuaries‖.
Fresh Water: Eg: lakes, ponds streams, rivers water
Marine: Eg: salt lakes, seas, oceans
Estuaries: Eg: water bodies mix of fresh & sea

I. Ponds & Lake Ecosystems: A pond is a small area of still water, especially is artificial
whereas a lake is a large area of water body and the water is natural. The life span of ponds range
from a few weeks or months and whereas the life span for lakes depend upon their location, size
and depth. Depending upon temperature, the upper part of the lake becomes warm and is called
eplimnion and the lower part of the lake becomes cold which is called as hypolimnion. These
two zones are separated by thermocline zone which acts as a barrier to exchange of material /
nutrients within the pond. During rainy season, entire water body gets same temperature due to
mixing of water while in non-rainy season very small amount of mixing occurs by surface waves
due to wind blow.
The non-living ( abiotic ) components of a pond include Heat; light, pH value of water; organic
compounds ( water, CO2, O2, Ca, N, P) and living (biotic) components of Autotrophs or
producers ( green plants, bacteria, rooted plants of Trapa, Typha, Sagi Haria ), Consumers (
Herbivores, insects and large fish ) and micro cosumers ( bacteria, fungi).

2. Stream & River Ecosystems: Rivers and streams are flowing fresh water bodies. Out of all
natural ecosystems, rivers are the most intensively used ecosystems by man. The organization of
river and stream ecosystem include:
Abiotic Components: include volume of water, speed of water flow, dissolved oxygen content,
temperature etc. The energy flow usually the organic matter which is being imported from
adjacent terrestrial ecosystems.
Biotic Components: include Producers ( algae, grass, amphibians ); consumers ( leaches, water
insects, snails, fishes, crocodiles, reptiles ) and Decomposers ( bacteria, fungi, protozoa).

3. Ocean or Marine Ecosystems: The marine environment is characterized by its high

concentration of salts and minerals. The major oceans of the world are Atlantic; Pacific; Indian,
Arctic and Antarctic. These are deep and life extends to all its depths. The sea water contains salt
o o
content in the form of NaCl and rest are Mg, Ca, K . Temperature ranges from 0 to 30 C and
pressure of 1 ATM at surface and 1000 ATM at bottom of oceans. The ocean ecosystem consists
of the following;
Biotic components of Producers (phytoplanktons, marine plants, Ruppia, Zostera, Halophile are
true marine angiospers), Consumers of Molluscas, fishes and Decomposers of bacteria and
Fungi.
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Abiotic components include Na, Cl, Mg, Ca, Sulphur, Dissolved oxygen content, light,
temperature, pressure variations etc.

4. Estuarine Ecosystem: Estuary is the area at the mouth of the river joins the sea and
continents. It has a free connection with the open sea and is thus strongly affected by tidal action.
Estuaries are mixed with fresh water from land drainages. River mouth, coastal bay etc are the
examples for estuarine ecosystem. Estuaries are one among the naturally fertile in the world. The
components of estuarine ecosystem are given below:
Abiotic components: Estuaries have their own ecological characteristics. Physical factors such as
salinity, temperature, tidal activity etc are variable in estuaries when compared to the sea or
ocean.
Biotic components include Producers, consumers and Decomposers. Producers: Three major life
forms of Autotrophs play a significant role in grass production. They are
(c) macrophytes ( sea weeds, sea grass, spartina,Thalassia, marsh grass, nagrove trees )
(d) Phytoplankton and
(e) Benthic flora (algae).
Consumers include a number of zooplankton, oysters, crabs and some species of fishes capable
of surviving in estuarine conditions form primary, secondary, tertiary consumers of the estuarine
ecosystem. Decomposers include bacteria and fungi which actively take part in the breaking
down the complex and dead organic matter (Fungi of actinomycites ).

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Introduction: Forest is a type of terrestrial ( land ) ecosystem. It consists of trees, shrubs or
woody vegetation occupying an extensive area of land. Forests are important renewable
resources. A different types of forests are seen on this earth. The type of forest depend upon its
geographical location and environment factors ( Temperature and moisture ) that influence the
kind of vegetation that occur in an area.
Types of forests:
1. Savannas: These forests develop where a seasonal rainfall occurs. The grass lands of North
Africa are known as savannas.
Eg: North Africa, America, Burma & India.
2. Tropical forests: These exits in areas of good rainfall (>200cm per year) with uniform warm
temperature. The Soils found in there forests are old, acidic in nature & poor in nutrients.
Eg: Amazon rain forest (South America, India).
3. Deciduous forests (or) Temperate forests: Deciduous forests consists of broad leaved trees
& occur where rainfall is plenty (750 - 1000 cms per year).
Eg: Europe & North-East America.
4. Coniferous forest: These occur in areas with long winters with heavy snowfall. In other
words, where moisture is limited & rainfall is low. Herbivores (animals eating plants) & insects
exist in these forests.
Eg: Moscow.
(5) Tundras: These are the large flat Arctic regions of Northern Europe, Asia and North
America where no trees grow and where the soil below the surface of the ground is always
frozen. The growing season is short and plants grow very slowly.
Following are the types of forests present in India:
1. Tropical, forests present in Western Ghats of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala.
2. Deciduous forests present at Dehradun, Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, M.P.
3. Littoral and swamp forests present at Sunderbans in West Bengal and Andaman islands.

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4. Tropical Thorn forests present in New Delhi, Punjab and Gujarat.
5. Mountain wet temperature forests present at Nilgiri and Palani hills.
6. Alpine scrub forests present at Ladakh and Sikkim.
The characteristic features of a forest ecosystem are as follows:
Abiotic components include inorganic and organic compounds and dead organic debris. Further,
the natural light conditions are different in forests due to complex stratification in the vegetation.
Biotic components include Producers, consumers and Decomposers. Producers: These are plants
and trees and produce the food through photosynthesis. The dominant species of trees are
Quercus, Acer, Betula, Thuja, Picea, Abies, Pinus, Cedrus etc.
Consumers: The primary consumers are Ants, beetles, leaf hoppers, bugs, spiders, deers,
squirrels etc. The secondary consumers are Snakes, birds, lizards, foxes etc are the examples.
The tertiary consumers are lion, tiger, hawk etc.
Decomposers include micro organisms like bacteria, fungi etc. Consume the dead or decayed
bodies.
Tropical rain forests are found in the hot and humid regions near the equator: These regions
have abundant rainfall ( 2000 – 4500 mm per year ) that occurs almost daily. These forests are
found in South and Central America, Western and Central Africa, SE Asia and some islands of
the Indian & Pacific Oceans. These rain forests are marked by a variety of tall trees and a dense
canopy. The soils are thin and acidic with poor nutrients. A team of Brazilian scientists
conducted a research and found that a forest could return as much as 75% of the moisture it
received back into atmosphere. Hence, more trees are meant for more rain.

Temperate forests are very cold in winter and warm or humid in summer. These forests grow
where the annual rainfall is about 750 – 2000 mm per year and are found in Western and Central
Europe, Eastern Asia, Eastern America. Soil is rich in temperate forest areas. Oaks, maples,
beech, pine trees, ferns, lichens, mosses etc are found in these forests. Temperate forests contain
abundant micro – organisms and mammals (squirrels, porcupines, chipmunks, raccoons, hares,
deer, foxes, coyotes, bears. Birds like warblers, wood peckers, owls, hawks are seen. Snakes,
frogs are also common these forests.
Coniferous forests derive the name from the abundance of coniferous trees like spruce, fir, pine,
hemlock etc. Coniferous tree produces dry fruits called cones. In coniferous forests, winters are
usually long and cold. The soil in these forests is acidic and humus rich. The main animals found
in these forests are deer, moose, elk, caribon, mice, hares, squirrels, foxes, bears and birds.
Status of Forests in India:
Forest Survey of India (FSI) , Dehradun estimated, the country‘s forest cover as 6,76,000 sq km
Of this 6,76,000 sq km; 259000 sq km is open forest, 417000 sq km is covered by dense forest
and mangroves occupied 4490 sq kms. Madhya Pradesh accounts for the largest forest cover of
the country with 77265 sq km followed by Arunachal Pradesh 68045 sq km and Chhattisgarh
with 56448 sq km.

DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
Deserts occur in regions when the annual rainfall is in the range of 250 to 500 mm and
evaporation rate is high. Deserts occupy about 30% of land area on the globe. Deserts are
found 30 above north and below south of the equator. Deserts are characterized by extremely hot
days and cold nights. The largest deserts are found in the interiors of continents where moisture
bearing winds do not reach. The desert soils has very little organic matter but rich in minerals.
The desert plants have adapted to the dry conditions and conserve water by having few or no
leaves.

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Examples:
(1) A plant namely Saguaro cactus has a stem that can expand to store water
(2) Many desert plants have thorns or toxins to protect themselves from being grazed by animals.
(3) Some desert plants have wax – coated leaves that minimize the loss of moisture.
(4) Some desert plants have deep roots that reach the ground water.
(5) A few desert plants have shallow roots that collect water after any rain and store it in spongy
tissues. Desert ecosystem is characterized by scanty flora and fauna. The organisms which with
stand the extreme temperatures can survive here. Desert animals are usually small in size and
come out during the nights for food.

Human impact on deserts:

Slow rate of growth of vegetation if topsoil is eroded due to heavy vehicle transportation across
the desert. Desert cities, depletion of ground water, land disturbance, pollution from mining,
storage of toxic wastes are some of the
human activities that cause damage.
Abiotic components include temperature, rainfall, soil, water etc plays a major role to control the
desert ecosystem. Biotic components include producers ( shrubs, bushes, grasses, a few trees
and plants namely Cacti, Acacias, Euphorbias ).
Consumers of insects, reptiles, rodents of rats & rabbits; birds, camels which are capable of
living under desert conditions.
Decomposers include Bacteria, Fungi due to poor vegetation and the less quantity of dead
organic matter.

A Case study of Desert ecosystem:

The Thar desert (the Great Indian Desert) is spread over four states in India __ Punjab; Haryana;
Rajasthan and Gujarat and two states in Pakistan. Thar desert covers an area of about 4,46,000 sq
kms. Though the Thar desert is smaller than the Sahara desert in Africa and the Gobi desert in
Russia, the Thar desert is most populated in the world with about 13 million people. The average
rainfall is between 100 mm and 500 mm. The only river in the region is the Ghaggar which
enters Rajasthan from Punjab and dries up in the forest. The Thar desert has no Oasis. Flowering
plants like shrubs, grasses, trees (Khejra, Babul, Rohida ); fruit trees ( Ber; Pilu ) are found in
Thar desert. Sheep, goats, camels are the common animals found in the Thar desert. In addition,
wild ass, black buck deer, hare, red lynx, Jackal, Wild dog etc.. About 23 species of Lizard and
25 species of snakes are found in Thar desert region. part, is gleaning insects. The community
provides the habitat—the place where particular plants or animals live. Within the habitat,
organisms occupy different niches.

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