Problem Solving and Search

TechniqueS

In the field of Artificial Intelligence (AI), problem solving is a

fundamental aspect of building intelligent systems. Problem
solving involves designing algorithms that enable agents to
make decisions and find solutions to complex challenges. This
unit covers key techniques in problem solving, including
various search strategies, heuristic search, constraint
satisfaction problems (CSP), game playing strategies, and
optimization problems. These methods are essential for AI
applications such as robotics, decision support systems, and
game AI.
1. Search Strategies
Search algorithms are techniques used to navigate through a
problem’s state space to find solutions. A state space
represents all the possible configurations of a problem, and
search algorithms explore this space to reach the goal state.
a) Uninformed Search
Uninformed search, also called blind search, refers to search
algorithms that explore the state space without any prior
knowledge or heuristics to guide them. They search blindly
and systematically. These algorithms do not evaluate how
close a state is to the goal, so they may take a long time to
find a solution in large state spaces. The primary uninformed
search algorithms are:

• Breadth-First Search (BFS):

o This algorithm explores the state space level by
level, expanding all nodes at the current depth
before moving on to the next level. BFS guarantees
finding the shortest path if one exists, but it can be
slow and requires significant memory as the search
space grows.
o Example: BFS is ideal for problems like maze
solving, where the shortest path from the start to
the goal is important.
• Depth-First Search (DFS):
o DFS explores as far as possible along a branch of the
state space before backtracking. It goes deep into
the search tree, exploring one path fully before
moving to the next. While DFS uses less memory
than BFS, it is not guaranteed to find the optimal
 solution and may get stuck in deep, unproductive
paths.
o Example: DFS is useful in puzzles where a solution
might exist deep in the tree, such as the "8-puzzle"
problem.

b) Informed Search
Informed search, also known as heuristic search, uses
additional information (heuristics) to guide the search more
efficiently toward the goal. Heuristics are problem-specific
knowledge that estimates how close a given state is to the
goal. Informed search algorithms are more efficient than
uninformed search, especially in large state spaces.
• A Algorithm*:
o A* is one of the most popular informed search
algorithms. It combines the benefits of both BFS
and greedy search by evaluating each state using a
function f ( n ) = g ( n ) + h ( n ), where:
▪ G ( n ) is the cost to reach the current state
from the start.
 ▪ H ( n ) is a heuristic estimate of the cost to
reach the goal from the current state.
o A* is optimal and complete, meaning it will find the
shortest path if one exists, as long as the heuristic is
admissible (it never overestimates the true cost).
• Greedy Search:
o Greedy search is a simpler informed search
algorithm that focuses only on minimizing the
estimated cost to the goal, using the heuristic
function h ( n ). It selects the node with the smallest
heuristic value at each step, but it does not
consider the cost incurred from the start. While
faster than A*, greedy search is not guaranteed to
find the optimal solution and may get stuck in local
minima.
2. Heuristic Search
Heuristics are critical for efficient search in large problem
spaces. A heuristic is a function or rule that provides an
estimate of the distance (or cost) from a given state to the
goal. Designing and evaluating heuristics is a key aspect of
heuristic search.
a) Introduction to Heuristics
Heuristics are used to guide the search process by evaluating
which states are more promising. They provide a way to
prioritize exploring certain paths in the state space. The
quality of a heuristic directly affects the efficiency of the
search process. A good heuristic leads to faster solutions,
while a poor heuristic may result in inefficiency.

b) Designing Heuristics
To design an effective heuristic, it is essential to have domain-
specific knowledge about the problem. A heuristic must
balance accuracy with computational efficiency. Some
heuristics are admissible, meaning they never overestimate
the true cost, while others are consistent (or monotonic),
meaning the heuristic value of a node is always less than or
equal to the cost of reaching any successor plus the heuristic
of the successor.
• Example: In pathfinding problems like the travelling
salesman problem, a common heuristic might be the
straight-line distance (Euclidean distance) between the
current state and the goal.
 •

c) Evaluating Search Strategies

To evaluate the performance of a search strategy, we
consider factors such as:
• Completeness: The algorithm will always find a solution
if one exists.
• Optimality: The algorithm finds the best solution in
terms of cost.
• Time complexity: The amount of time the algorithm
takes to find a solution.
• Space complexity: The amount of memory required to
store the search process.
3. Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSP)
Constraint Satisfaction Problems (CSPs) are a class of
problems where the goal is to find a solution that satisfies a
set of constraints. These problems can be solved using
techniques such as backtracking, forward checking, and
constraint propagation.
a) Definition of CSP
A CSP consists of:
• Variables: A set of variables that need to be assigned
values.
• Domains: The set of possible values for each variable.
• Constraints: Conditions that must be satisfied by the
variable assignments.
b) Backtracking
Backtracking is a depth-first search technique used to solve
CSPs. It systematically explores the space of possible variable
assignments. If a partial assignment violates a constraint,
backtracking occurs, and the algorithm returns to the
previous step to try a different assignment. Backtracking can
be made more efficient by pruning the search tree and only
pursuing feasible solutions.

c) Forward Checking
Forward checking is an optimization of the backtracking
algorithm. It works by checking the consistency of each
variable assignment with the future variables before making
the assignment. When a variable is assigned a value, the
algorithm looks ahead to ensure that future variables have
valid values within their domains, which reduces the search
space and eliminates infeasible paths early on.
d) Constraint Propagation
Constraint propagation is a technique used in conjunction
with forward checking to further prune the search space. It
works by enforcing constraints locally and globally to
eliminate values that cannot possibly satisfy the problem’s
constraints. This is useful in problems with a high number of
constraints and variables, such as Sudoku or scheduling
problems.

4. Game Playing
In AI, game playing involves creating algorithms to play
competitive games, such as chess, checkers, or Go, against
human or other AI opponents. Game playing requires making
decisions based on the actions of the opponent and
evaluating possible future game states.
a) Minimax Algorithm
The Minimax algorithm is a decision rule used for two-player,
zero-sum games, where one player’s gain is another player’s
loss. The algorithm works by simulating all possible moves
and their outcomes and selecting the move that minimizes
the possible loss for a player while maximizing their potential
gain.
• The algorithm constructs a game tree where each node
represents a game state, and each edge represents a
move. The algorithm recursively explores all possible
moves and evaluates them based on a utility function,
assigning a value to each state. The objective is to
maximize the player's minimum payoff (hence
"minimax").

b) Alpha-Beta Pruning
Alpha-Beta pruning is an optimization technique for the
Minimax algorithm. It reduces the number of nodes
evaluated in the game tree by pruning branches that will not
affect the final decision. The algorithm maintains two values,
alpha and beta, representing the minimum score that the
maximizing player is assured of and the maximum score that
the minimizing player is assured of, respectively. If a branch’s
value falls outside this range, it is pruned.
Alpha-Beta pruning significantly reduces the computational
effort of the Minimax algorithm while still guaranteeing the
same optimal move.

5. Optimization Problems
Optimization problems involve finding the best solution from
a set of possible solutions, according to some objective
function. These problems are often complex and cannot be
solved using brute force methods.
a) Genetic Algorithms

Genetic algorithms (GA) are inspired by the process of

natural evolution. They use a population of possible
solutions, applying genetic operators such as selection,
crossover, and mutation to evolve better solutions over
successive generations. GAs are particularly useful for
problems with large and complex search spaces.

• Selection: Chooses individuals from the population

based on their fitness (quality of solution).
• Crossover: Combines two parents to create a new
offspring with features from both.

•
 • Mutation: Introduces random changes to the offspring
to maintain diversity in the population.
b) Simulated Annealing
Simulated Annealing (SA) is a probabilistic optimization
technique inspired by the annealing process in metallurgy. It
searches for a global optimum by simulating the cooling
process of a metal, where higher temperatures allow for
more exploration of the search space. As the temperature
decreases, the algorithm becomes more focused on refining
the solution. SA allows for escaping local optima by accepting
worse solutions with a certain probability.
Conclusion
Problem solving and search techniques are integral to
artificial intelligence. Understanding how to navigate through
problem spaces using search strategies, heuristics, and
optimization methods is essential for developing efficient AI
systems. From solving CSPs and designing game-playing
algorithms to tackling complex optimization problems, these
techniques form the backbone of intelligent decision-making
and automated problem-solving systems.