Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 1

Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure)

3.1 Introduction

Most reinforced concrete structures can be divided in to beams and slabs

subjected primarily to flexure (bending) and columns subjected to axial
compression accompanied in most cases by flexure. Typical examples of flexural
members are the slab and beams shown in Fig. 3.1. The load P applied at point A
is carried by the strip of slab shown shaded. The end reactions from this slab
strip load the beams at B and C. the beams, in turn, carry the slab reactions to
the columns at D, E, F, and G. The beam reactions cause axial loads in the
columns. The slab in Fig. 3.1 is assumed to transfer loads in one direction and
hence is called one way slab. If there were no beams, the slab would carry the
load in two directions. Such a slab is referred to as two-way slab. Two way slab
action will be discussed in chapter 7.

Fig. 3.1 One-way flexure

In this chapter the stress-strain curves for concrete and reinforcement as

recommended by EBCS-2 are used to develop flexural theory.

Analysis versus Design

Two different types of problems arise in the study of RC.

1. Analysis: Given a cross-section, concrete strength, reinforcement size,
location, and yield strength, and compute the resistance or capacity.
2. Design: Given a factored load effects such as Msd, and select a suitable
cross-section, including dimensions, concrete strength, reinforcement, and
so on.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 2

Although both types of problems utilize the same fundamental principles, the
procedure followed is different in each case. Analysis is easier as all the
decisions concerning reinforcement location, beam size and so on have been
made and it is only necessary to apply the strength calculation principles to
determine the capacity. Design, on the other hand, involves the choice of the
beam sizes, material strengths and reinforcement to produce a cross-section
and structural system that can resist the loads and moments which will be
imposed on it. As the analysis problem is easier, most sections in this and
other chapters start with analysis to develop the fundamental concept and
then move to consider design.

The fundamental principles involved in the analysis and design of reinforced

concrete beams are as follows.

- At any cross section there exist internal forces which can be resolved
in to components normal and tangential to the section.
- The normal components are known as the bending stresses (tension on
one side of the neutral axis and compression on the other), and their
function is to resist the bending moment at the section.
- The tangential components are known as the shear stresses, and they
resist the transverse or shear forces.

3.2 Behavior of RC beams

In reinforced concrete beams, the tension caused by bending moment is mainly

resisted by the steel reinforcement while the concrete alone is usually capable
of resisting the corresponding compression. Such joint action of the two
materials is assured if relative slip is prevented and it is achieved by using
deformed bars with their high bond strength at the steel-concrete interface or
by special anchorage of the ends of the bars.

There are three distinct stages of behavior for a reinforced concrete beam
when the load is gradually increased from zero to the magnitude that will cause
the beam to fail (see Fig. 3.2)

Uncracked concrete Stage: At low loads, as the bending moment in a flexural

member is so small that the tension stress in the concrete doesn’t exceed the
modulus of rupture, no flexural tension cracks will occur and the entire concrete

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 3

is effective in resisting stress, in compression on one side and in tension on the

other side of the neutral axis. In addition, the reinforcement, deforming the
same amount as the adjacent concrete, is also subject to tension stresses. At
this stage all stresses in the concrete are of small magnitude and are
proportional to strains (see Fig.3.2a).

As long as no tension cracks develop the strain and stress distribution is

essentially the same as in an elastic, homogeneous beam. The only difference is
the presence of another material, the steel reinforcement. In this
"transformed section" the actual area of the reinforcement is replaced with an
equivalent concrete area equal to nAs located at the level of the steel (see Fig.
3.2a). Where n is the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that concrete
(modular ratio) and As is the area of steel.

Once the transformed section has been obtained, the usual methods of analysis
of elastic homogeneous beams apply. That is, the uncracked transformed section
(gross cross-section) will be used in the computation of section properties and
stresses.

Bending stresses can be obtained from:  = My/Igross

The moment curvature diagram for this stage (segment O-B in Fig. 3.3) is linear.

Cracked Concrete Stage: At moderate loads, as the bending moment exceeds

the cracking moment of the section, tension cracks start to develop from the
bottom extreme fiber and propagate quickly upward to or close to the level of
the neutral plane, which in turn shifts upward with progressive cracking (see Fig.
3.2c). In well-designed beams, the width of these cracks is so small (hairline
cracks) that they are not objectionable from the viewpoint of either corrosion
protection or appearance. Their presence, however, profoundly affects the
behavior of the beam under load. Evidently, in a cracked section, the concrete
does not transmit any tension stresses and the steel is called upon to resist the
entire tension. Therefore, the cracked transformed section will be used in the
computation of section properties and stresses. At these loads, stresses and
strains continue to be closely proportional (see Fig. 3.2b). At this stage as the
stiffness of the beam is reduced due to the reduction in the effective area of
concrete, the slope of the moment curvature diagram (shown by B-C-D in Fig.
3.3) is also reduced.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 4

The cracking moment can be obtained using the maximum tensile stress equal to
the modulus of rupture of concrete, that is: Mcr = crI/C, where cr = 0.7fck

Ultimate Stage: At higher loads (close to the ultimate load), stresses and
strains rise correspondingly and are no longer proportional and the distribution
of concrete stresses on the compression side of the beam is of the same shape
as the stress strain curve (see Fig. 3.2b).

Once yielding has occurred, the curvature increases rapidly with very little
increase in moment (see Fig. 3.3). Eventually, the carrying capacity of the beam
is reached. And failure can be caused either due to the attainment of the yield
point in steel in moderately reinforced beams or due to crushing of concrete in
the compression zone in highly reinforced beams.

(n - 1)A s'
c fc
fs'
As' s'

d h

As s fs

ct fct b
b
(n - 1)A s
x-section strains stresses un cracked transformed section

(a)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 5

(n - 1)A s'
c fc b
fs'
As' s'

d h

As s fs
(n - 1)A s
b
x-section strains stresses cracked transformed section

(b)

(n - 1)A s'
c fc
b
As' s'

d h

As s fs
(n - 1)A s
b
x-section strains stresses cracked transformed section

(c)

Fig. 3.2 Behavior of reinforced concrete beam under increasing load

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 6

Failure
Reinforcement yields

M
Service load

 = /y

Cracking

Fig. 3.3 Moment-curvature diagram for a beam under increasing load

Basic principles and assumptions in flexure theory of RC

Although the method used in the analysis of RC beams are different from those
used in the design of homogenous beam such as structural steel, the
fundamental principles are essentially the same. Accordingly, the basic equations
for the flexural design of beams and slabs are derived based on the following
basic principles and assumptions at ultimate limit state. The derived equations
are then used to develop design Tables and Charts for various grades of
concrete and steel.
1. Internal stress resultants such as bending moments, shear forces etc. at
any section of a member are in equilibrium with the external action effects.
2. Plane sections before bending remains plane after bending
3. The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in the concrete at the
same level
4. The tensile strength of concrete is neglected
5. The stresses in concrete and reinforcement can be computed from the
strains using their - curves.
6. The behavior of the concrete under compression is as shown in Fig. 3.3. The
equivalent rectangular stress block as recommended by EBCS 2 is shown in
Fig. (Concrete is assumed to fail when the compressive strain reaches
its ultimate value. The compressive stress-strain curve for concrete
may be assumed to be rectangular trapezoidal, parabolic or any other
shape,(which is easier for computation) provided that it adequately
predicts the test results).
7. The stress -strain relation ship of the reinforcement is as shown in Fig.3.3

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 7

8. The strain diagrams at the ultimate limit state is as shown in Fig. 3.4
a) The maximum compressive strain in the concrete is taken to be
- 0.0035 in bending
- 0.002 in axial compression
b) The maximum tensile strain in the reinforcement is taken to be 0.01

For manual calculation, for the sake of simplicity, the simplified rectangular
stress block can be used whereas design Charts and Tables are based on the
parabola-rectangle stress distribution diagram.

Strain Distribution at the Ultimate Limit State

The entire range of strain distribution at the ultimate limit state is assumed to
pass through one of the three points A, B or C as shown in Fig. 3.4 (reproduce
from EBCS-2). This resulted in five possible zones with respect to the limiting
values of the ultimate strains in concrete and steel as shown in the same figure.

Each zone is characteristic of the particular type of loading on the section

and may be described as follows:

Zone 1 - The section is subjected to a tensile load with a small

eccentricity.
Zone 2 - The section is subjected to an axial load combined with bending
that will cause the strain in the steel to reach the maximum st = 0.01 while
the strain in the concrete c is less or equal to its maximum value of cu = -
0.0035.
Zone 3 - The section is subjected to axial load and large bending moments.
st sy while the concrete
strain cu = -0.0035.
Zone 4 - The section is subjected to axial load with moderate eccentricity.
sy while the concrete

cu = -0.0035.
Zone 5 - The section is subjected to predominantly compressive load with
small eccentricity.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 8

Fig. 3.4 Parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram for concrete in

compression

Fig. 3.5 Rectangular stress diagram

Fig. 3.6 Stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 9

Fig. 3.7 Strain diagram in the Ultimate Limit State

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 10

3.3 Tension, Compression and balanced Failure

Depending on the amount of reinforcing steel in a beam, flexural failures may

occur in three different ways.

Tension failure

If the steel content of the section is small, the steel will reach the yield
strength fyd before the concrete reaches its maximum capacity. Such a beam is
said to be under reinforced. With further loading, the steel force remains
constant at Asfyd and the strains in the remaining compression zone of the
concrete increases to such a degree that crushing of concrete, the secondary
compression failure, follow at a load slightly larger than that which causes the
steel to yield (i.e. Although failure is initiated by yielding of tension steel, the
steel does not fracture at the flexural strength of the section unless the steel
content is extremely small). Such yield failure is gradual and is preceded by
visible signs of distress, such as the widening and lengthening of cracks and the
marked increase in deflection. In the final loading stages, the beam deflected
extensively and developed wide cracks. This type of behavior is said to be
ductile since the moment curvature or load-deflection diagram has a long
plastic region. If a beam in a building fails in a ductile manner, the occupants of
the building have warning of the impending failure and hence have an opportunity
to leave the building before the final collapse, thus reducing the consequence of
collapse.

Compression failure

If the steel content of the section is large, the concrete may reach its maximum
capacity before the steel yields. Such a beam is said to be over reinforced. In
such a case the neutral axis depth increases considerably, causing an increase in
the compressive force. The flexural strength of the section is reached when the
strain in the extreme compression fiber of the concrete is approximately
0.0035. The section fails suddenly in a brittle fashion with out warning of the
failure as the widths of the flexural cracks in the tension zone of the concrete
are small, owing to the low steel stress.

Compression failure through crushing of the concrete is sudden, of an almost

explosive nature, and occurs without warning.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 11

Balanced failure

At a particular steel content, the crushing of concrete and yielding of

reinforcement occur simultaneously. Such a beam has balanced reinforcement.
This failure also exhibits a brittle type of failure which marks the boundary
between ductile tension failure and brittle compression failure.

Thus it is good practice to dimension flexural members in such a manner that

when overloaded, failure would be initiated by yielding of the steel rather than
by crushing of the concrete.

Negative Moment Redistribution in Continuous Beams

In ductile members, plastic hinge regions are formed at the locations of

maximum moments and cause a shift in the elastic moment diagram. The result is
a reduction in the negative moment and the corresponding increase in the
positive moment. Codes, including EBCS 2, permit redistribution of negative
moment depending on the rotational capacity of the member. Accordingly, as per
EBCS 2:

- Moments obtained from a linear analysis may be reduced by multiplying by

the following reduction coefficient δ provided that the moments are
increased in other sections in order to maintain equilibrium
- For continuous beams and for beams in rigid jointed braced frames with
span /effective depth ratio not grater than 20;
x
  0.44  1.25
d
The neutral axis depth, x, is calculated at the ultimate limit state and the
term x/d refers to the section where the moment is reduced.

- For other continuous beams and rigid jointed braced frames;

  0.75

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 12

Elastic Moment diagram

Redistributed Moment diagram

Fig. 3.8 Negative moment redistribution in continuous beam

3.4 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams for Flexure

Parabolic- rectangular stress block:

Although it is not easier for computation, the parabolic – rectangular stress

distribution at the ultimate is more realistic and rational than the others for
the concrete compression stress distribution. Accordingly, the General Design
Charts and Tables in EBCS-2 have been developed based on this stress
distribution (see Fig.).

c fcd fcd
Cc cd x
cc   f c ( y)bdy
dy c(y) 0
x y fc(y)
y d h y
N.A
z

steel As s Ts
Ts = Asfs

b
parabolic-rectangular
longitudinal view x-section strains actual stress block
stress block

Fig. 3.9 Strain and stress distribution across beam depth/parabolic-rectangular

stress block

Force Equation:

 FH 0  Cc  Ts
x
 As f s   f c ( y)dA (3.1)
0

Where: Ts = the resultant internal tensile force

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 13

As = area of steel
fs= steel stress
Cc = the resultant internal compressive force

Moment Equation:

Mrd = Cc Z = Cc d(1-c) or
Mrd = Ts Z = Ts d(1-c) (3.2)

Where: d, effective depth, is the distance of the centroid of steel area

from the extreme compression fiber..
c is the distance of the total resultant compression force Cc
from the outer compression fiber.
Z, the internal lever arm, is the distance between the resultant
internal forces.

(Analysis example)

General formula for Cc and  c for different cases:

Equations of equilibrium for cross-section strength analysis were generally

solved using numerical methods; however, for rectangular sections with
reinforcement on two faces, the following expressions were used for the
determination of the resultant compressive force Cc developed in the concrete
and its relative location c from the outer most compressive concrete fibers:

Definitions:

cm - compressive strain in outer most concrete fiber

c - non-dimensionalized Cc
o - strain at the point on the parabolic-rectangular stress-strain diagram
where the parabolic section joins the linear section
sy - strain in reinforcement at yield point

Case (i) cm  o and N.A with in the section (zone 2)

 (6   cm )
 c  cm kx
12

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 14

(8   cm )
c  kx
4(6   cm )
cc   c f cd bd

Case (ii) cm > o and N.A with in the section (zone 2)
(3 cm  2)
c  kx
3 cm
 (3  4)  2
 c  cm cm kx
2 cm (3 cm  2)
cc   c f cd bd

Zone 3 and zone 4 ( cu = 3.5 %)

K1 = 0.8095
K2 = 0.4160

Case (iii) cm > o and N.A outside the section (zone 5)

1
c  (125  64 cm  16 cm )
2

189
40 ( cm  2)2
c  0.5  ( )
7 125  64 cm  16 cm 2
cc   c f cd bd

In expressions (i), (ii) and (iii) strains are in o/oo, Kx o = 2 %o (0.002)

Case (i) cm  o and N.A with in the section (zone 2) )

Simplified Rectangular Stress Block

The actual distribution of the compressive force in a section has the form of a
rising parabola as shown in fig. The compressive stress-strain curve for concrete
may be assumed to be rectangular trapezoidal, parabolic or any other shape,
which is easier for computation, provided that it adequately predicts the test
results. Therefore; as a simplification, EBCS 2 recommends (ACI also) the use
of the equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution for sections which are
partly in tension (beams or columns with large eccentricity), as shown below.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 15

c fcd fcd
cc  0.8xbfcd
0.8x
x
d h
N.A
z = d - 0.4x

steel As s fs
Ts = Asfs

b
equivalent - rectangular
longitudinal view x-section strains actual stress block
stress block

Fig. 3.10 Strain and stress distribution across beam depth/equivalent

rectangular stress block
In order to define the effect of concrete compression stresses, it is not
really necessary to know the exact shape of the concrete stress
distribution. What is necessary is to know for a given distance of neutral
axis:
(1) the total resultant compression force C in the
concrete and
(2) its vertical location i.e. its distance from the
outer compression fiber.

Therefore; EBCS 2 recommends (ACI also) the use of the equivalent

rectangular concrete stress distribution for sections which are partly in
tension (beams or columns with large eccentricity), as shown below.

The equivalent rectangular stress block will be used in all manual

calculations.

Note: Two requirements are satisfied though out the analysis and design of
reinforced concrete beams and columns (stress and strain compatibility and
equilibrium)
- Stress and strain compatibility: The stress at any point in a member
must correspond to the strain at that point. Except for short deep
beams, the distribution of strain over the depth of the member must
be linear to satisfy the earlier assumptions 1 and 2.
- Equilibrium: The internal forces must balance the external load
effects.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 16

Extreme cu = 0.0035

compression
fiber
xt
xb Tension failure
xc fs = fy d  < b
d
Balanced failure
fs = fy d   b

Compression failure
fs < fy d   b
Centroid of
f yd
tension steel  s   yd 
f yd Es
 s   yd 
Es
f yd
 s   yd 
Es

Fig. 3.11 Strain profiles at the flexural strength of a section

Balanced Failure (balanced Reinforcement):  = b, X = Xb and s = yd = fyd/Es

From the strain line at balanced failure:

 cu
xb  d (3.3a)
 cu   yd

Force equation:

 FH  0  As f yd  0.8xbbfcd (3.3b)

Substituting for xb from eqn (3.3a) in to eqn(3.3b) and simplifying:

 cu
As f yd  0.8 dbfcd
 cu   yd
A  cu f cd
 s  0 .8
bd  cu   yd f yd

 cu f cd
    b  0. 8 (3.3c)
 cu   yd f yd
Moment equation:

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 17

The moment equation about Cc results in:

M rd  bdf yd (d  0.4 xb ) (3.4)

Tension Failure (under-reinforced Section) :  < b, X < Xb and s > yd = fyd/Es

Force equation:

 FH  0  As f yd  0.8xbfcd (3.5a)

 bdfyd  0.8xbfcd
x f
   yd
d 0.8 f cd
f yd
 x  d (3.5b)
0.8 f cd

Moment equation:

The moment equation about Cc results in:

M rd  As f yd ( d  0.4 x) (3.6a)

Substituting the value of x from eqn (3.5b) and simplifying:

M rd  0.8bd 2 f yd m(1  0.4 m) (3.6c)

f yd
Where m 
0.8 f cd
The singly reinforced section capacity may be obtained from:

M rd  0.8 xbfcd (d  0.4 x) (3.6d)

f yd
Where x  xmax   max d   maxmd
0.8 fcd

Compression Failure (over-reinforced Section):  > b, X > Xb and s < yd =
fyd/Es

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 18

From the strain line at compression failure:

s dx

0.0035 b x
dx
  s  0.0035
x
dx
Therefore; f s   s Es  0.0035 Es
x

Force equation:

 FH 0  As f s  0.8 xbfcd (3.7a)

dx
 bd (0.0035 Es )  0.8xbf cd
x
 f cd  2
   x  dx  0.8d 2  0 (3.7b)
 0.0035 Es  
Therefore the above equation may be solved to obtain X.

Moment equation:

The moment equation about Ts results in:

M rd  0.8 xbfcd (d  0.4 x) (3.8)

(Analysis example)

3.5 Design of Singly Reinforced Rectangular Beams for Flexure

Generally, ductility is a design requirement in reinforced concrete structures to

ensure that a brittle failure will not occur. In EBCS-2, ductility is ensured by
limiting the depth of the neutral axis kx (used to determine the maximum
carrying capacity of a singly reinforced beam) to specified values depending
on the percent plastic moment redistribution as:

Kx ≤ 0.8 (δ - 0.44)

Where: δ = reduction coefficient which multiplies the elastic moment (see

section 3.4)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 19

Accordingly,
Kx = 0.448 for condition of no redistribution and
Kx = 0.208 for a recommended max. of 30 %

Other codes of practice such as the ACI ensure ductility by limiting the
reinforcement ratio,  to a value below some specified value which is a function
of the balanced reinforcement ratio, bal.
  0.75bal

Parabolic-rectangular Stress block

Reconsider the two equilibrium equations for a rectangular section using the
expressions developed for a parabolic-rectangular stress block as follow:

As f yd  c fcd bd (3.9a)

c fcd bd 2k z  Msd (3.9b)

The number of unknowns in equations (3.9a) and (3.9b) are seven which are
greater than the number of available equilibrium equations (i.e. two), there fore
the designer should make decision on:

1) material strengths i.e. fcd, fyd

2) dimensions of cross sections b and d. The minimum thickness for

deflection specified in the code can be used as a guide and the ratio b/d
varies between 0.3 and 0.6 in usual practice.

So that c, As and kz are left as unknowns where c, and kz could both be
expressed in terms of kx or x. Thus the two equations are sufficient to uniquely
determine the remaining two unknowns As and Kx.

Equivalent-rectangular stress block

Reconsider the two equilibrium equations for a rectangular section using the
expressions developed for equivalent-rectangular stress block as follow:

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 20

As f yd  0.8xbfcd
(3.10a)

0.8 xbfcd (d  0.4 x)  Msd

(3.10b)

The number of unknowns in equations (3.10a) and (3.10b) are six which are
greater than the number of available equilibrium equations (i.e. two),
therefore the designer should make decision on:

3) material strengths i.e. fcd, fyd

4) dimensions of cross sections b and d. The minimum thickness for

deflection specified in the code can be used as a guide and the ratio
b/d varies between 0.3 and 0.6 in usual practice.

So that c, As and kz are left as unknowns where c, and kz could both
be expressed in terms of kx or x. Thus the two equations are sufficient to
uniquely determine the remaining two unknowns As and Kx.

Equation 3.6c can be re-written and simplified to give the reinforcement ratio
as:

1 4M 
 c1  c1  2  (3.10c)
2

2 bd c2 
2.5 f
Where: c1  , c2  0.32m2 fcd , m  yd
m 0.8 f cd

Then the area of steel required may be computed from:

As  bd (3.10d)

ongestion of reinforcements at the supports could be reduced by reducing

the beam support moments. But redistribution needs more ductile elements.
Most design do not use moment redistribution i.e. δ = Mp/ME = 1.0
Reducing by 20%implies δ =0.8 which in turn restrict the N.A depth Kx .
Limitation in Kx does affect ductility.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 21

Flexural Reinforcement for Beams as per EBCS 2:

- The geometrical main reinforcement ratio  at any section of a beam

where positive reinforcement is required by analysis shall not be less than
that given by: (to control cracking of concrete)
0 .6
 min  where fyk is in MPa
f yk
- The maximum reinforcement ratio max for either tensile or compressive
reinforcement shall be 0.04. (the tension reinforcement in a beam shall
not exceed 4% of the gross sectional area of the concrete to ensure
proper placing and compacting of concrete around the reinforcement)

Effective Span of Beams, EBCS 2 1995

- The effective span or length of a simply supported beam may be taken as

the lesser of :

a) The distance between the centers of supports

b) The clear distance between supports plus the effective depth d.

- The effective length of a continuous element shall normally be taken as

the distance between the centerline of the supports.

- For a cantilever the effective span is taken to be its length, measured

from:
a) The face of the support, for an isolated, fixed-ended cantilever
b) The centre line of the support for a cantilever which forms the
end of continuous beam.
Effective Span of Beams, EC 2

The effective span (leff) may be calculated as follows:

Leff = ln +a1 +a2

Where ln is the clear distance between the faces of the supports and a1 and a2
are as in the figure below.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 22

Fig.3.12 Geometrical data for overall analysis

Design Using Chart

In the general design chart no.1 (EBSC 2, 1995), all values necessary for design
are entered as a function of the relative moment about the center of the
tension steel. This diagram can be used for any concrete or steel grade. In the
zones of negative steel strains (sections entirely under compression), however
no accurate reading is possible. For that zone the use of interaction diagrams
can be used.

The following characteristic values are entered as a function of the relative

moment:

x
kx  the relative neutral axis depth
d
z
kz  the relative lever arm b/n the internal forces
d
c
 c  c the relative compression force in the concrete in the ultimate
f cd bd
limit state
εc = compressive strain in outer most concrete fiber
εs1 = strain intension reinforcement

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 23

εs2 = Strain in compression reinforcement

The upper limits of the design values of the ultimate relative moment capacities(
with out compression reinforcement) about tension steel, for 0%, 10 %, 20%, and
30% moment redistribution are shown by the broken vertical lines μ *u,s = 0.295,
0.252, 0.205, and 0.14 respectively. Compliance with these upper limits
implies compliance with the upper limit specification for the relative neutral axis
depth, Kx, thus ensuring ductile response of the cross section. For the cases
that μsd,s > μ*u,s, ductile behavior can be achieved by providing compression
reinforcement.

The area of reinforcement required is determined from the following equations:

If μsd,s ≤ μ*u,s , compression reinforcement is not required and

M sd , s N sd
As1  
zf yd f yd
If μsd,s > μ*u,s , compression reinforcement is required and

M sd , s  M *u, s
As 2 
(d  d2 ) s 2

M *u , s M sd , s  M u , s N sd
*
As1   
zf yd (d  d 2 ) f yd f yd

 Starting from a strain profile in ULS: αc, kx, kz, μRd etc. are
determined.
 In design the chart is entered by equating μsd = μRd, then kz is read
and As1 is determined from:
As1 = Msd / (kz d fyd)
 Another advantage is the possibility of handling axial forces in
addition to bending. The horizontal relative moment axis is designated
as μRd,s for this reason should an axial force be present, then it is
shifted to the location of tension reinforcement and the associated
moment is added to Msd to give Msd,s.
Msd,s = Msd – Nsd ye (Nsd is +ve when tension) &

Design Using Tables (Kd - Method)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 24

Procedure of computing design parameters using table involves the following and
the table has the following format.

Km Ks
C15 C20 C25 C30 C40 S300 S400 S460
15 17 19 21 24 3.95 2.96 2.58
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - -

M
- Evaluate km 
bd 2
Where: M in KN.m, b & d in m
- Enter the table for appropriate concrete grade used
- Obtain Ks corresponding to steel grade & Km
- Evaluate the area of steel required as :
M
As  K s d
d

Discussion

Consider Md = 0.8bd2fcd pm (1-0.4pm)

x f x f k x f
Recall   yd   0.8 cd  x where k x  , m  yd
d 0.8 f cd d f yd m d 0.8f cd
kx
When   is substituted in equation (3*) and simplified
m
Md
 0.8 f cd k x (1  0.4k x )
bd 2

Md
Note that (1*)   0.8 fcd k x (1  0.4kx ) which is essentially a
km 
bd 2
function of concrete grade & section property

Md M 1 M
On the other hand, As   d  ks d
f yd (d  0.4 x) d f yd (1  0.4k x ) d

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 25

1
 ks  Which implies that ks is a function of steel grade
f yd (1  0.4k x )
and section property.

Thus the following example can be solved using the table as follows
b/h/d = 250/730/675mm
Md = 431.45KN.m

M 431 .45 1
km   = 61.55, kd  = 0.0162
bd 2 0.25 * 0.675 2
km

The value of ks corresponding to C25, steel S300 is Ks = 4.68

M 432
Then As  K s d  4.68  2996 mm2
d 0.675

#  20 bars = 9.5

Use 10  20 bars

(Design examples using parabolic & rectangular)

3.6 Analysis and Design of One way Slabs for Flexure

One way slabs are concrete structural floor panels for which the ratio of the
long span to the short span equals or exceeds a value of two. When this ratio is
less than 2, the floor panel becomes a two way slab or plate, which will be
covered in chapter six. A one way slab is designed as a singly reinforced 1 meter
wide beam strip using the same design and analysis procedures discussed earlier
for singly reinforced beams. Fig. shows a one way slab floor system.

Loading for slabs is normally in KN per square meter (KN/m 2). One has to
distribute the reinforcement over the 1 meter strip and specify the center to
center spacing of the reinforcing bars.

Transverse reinforcement has to be provided perpendicular to the direction of

bending in order to resist shrinkage and temperature stresses.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 26

1 m strip

Fig.3.13 Isometric view of four-span continuous one-way-slab floor system

Flexural Reinforcement for Slabs as per EBCS 2:

- The geometrical main reinforcement ratio in a slab shall not be less than:
0 .5
 min  where fyk is in MPA
f yk
- The ratio of the secondary reinforcement to the main reinforcement shall
be at least equal to 0.2.
- The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of
2h or 350mm. where h is the thickness of the slab.
- The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm.

= 400mm

2h  350mm

Fig. 3.14 Bar spacing in slabs

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 27

(Analysis and design example)

3.7 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

Doubly reinforced sections contain reinforcement both at the tension and at the
compression face. Compression steel may be required in design for the following
reasons.

a. When either architectural limitation restrict the beam web depth at the
mid span, or the mid span section dimensions are not adequate to carry
the support negative moment even when the tensile steel at the support
is sufficiently increased. In such cases about one-third to one-half of
the bottom bars at mid span are extended and well anchored at the
supports to act as compression reinforcement.
b. To increase the ductility of the section at flexural strength. It is
evident that if compression steel is in the section, the neutral axis
depth will be smaller as the internal compressive force is shared by the
concrete and the compression steel.
c. To reduce deflection of beams at service loads
d. To support the shear reinforcement (stirrups)
c fcd fcd
d' f' s cs  As f s
' '
A' s ' s
steel 0.8x
x cc  0.8xbfcd
d h
N.A
z = d - 0.4x
As
steel s fs
Ts = Asfs

b
equivalent - rectangular stress block
longitudinal view x-section strains actual stress block & resultant internal Forces

Fig. 3.15 Doubly reinforced beam design

In the analysis or design of beams with compression reinforcement As’, the

section is theoretically split in to two parts, as shown in Fig.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 28

c fcd
A' s d'
' s cc  0.8xbfcd cs  As f s
' '
steel 0.8x

d h
 x
+ N.A
z = d - 0.4x
As
steel s Ts1 = As1fs Ts2 = As2fs

b Part I of the solution Part II of the Solution

longitudinal view x-section strains Singly reinforced Part contribution of compression
reinforcement

Fig. 3.16 doubly reinforced beam design (singly reinforced part plus contribution
of compression reinforcement)

The two parts of the solution comprise:

(1) The singly reinforced part involving the equivalent rectangular stress block
with the area of tension reinforcement being (As-As’); and

(2) The two areas of equivalent steel As’ at both the tension and compression
side to form the coupleTs2 and Cs as the second part of the solution. It can be
seen from Fig. that the total resistance moment Mrd = Md1 + Md2, that is, the
summation of the moments for Parts 1 and 2 of the solution.

The analysis of such section is best carried out by assuming the compression
reinforcement bars to be yielded and check for compatibility of strain to verify
whether the compression steel yielded or not and use the corresponding stress
in the steel for calculating the forces and moments.

Let Md be the total design bending moment which this section sustains. Then
Md = Md1 + Md2
As =As1 + As2
Where Md1 = is the bending moment carried by the concrete and the
corresponding steel which may be obtained using case of singly
reinforced section.
Md1 = 0.8bd2fcdp1m(1-0.4p1m) and As1 = p1bd

If the process involved is design: p1 = pmax = 0.75pb

If the process involved is analysis p1 = (As-As’) /bd < pmax

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 29

It can be seen from Fig. that the total resisting moment Mrd,t = Mrd1 +
Mrd2, that is, the summation of the moments for parts 1 and 2 of the
solution.

From part I:

Force equation

T1 = C1

As1fyd = (As-As’)fyd = 0.8xfcdb

( As  As ) f yd
'

x
0.8 f cd b

Moment equation

Taking the moment about the centroid of the compression zone:

Md1 = As1fyd(d - 0.4x) = (As - As’)fyd(d - 0.4x)

( As  As ) f yd
'

Where x 
0.8 f cd b
From part II:

Force equation

As’ = As2 = (As - As1)

T2 = C2 = As2fyd

Moment equation

Taking the moment about the tension reinforcement:

Md2 = As2fyd(d - d’)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 30

Adding the moments for parts 1 and 2 yields:

Mrd = Md1 + Md2

= (As - As’)fyd(d - o.4x) + As’fyd(d - d’)

This equation is valid if As’ yields. Otherwise the beam has to be treated as
a singly reinforced beam neglecting the compression steel or one has to find
the actual stress fs’ in the compression reinforcement As’ and use the
actual force in the moment equilibrium equation.

Beams are built with both tension and compression reinforcement for any of
the following reasons:
- To enhance strength (increase MRd)
- To increase ductility.
- To reduced sustained deflection (creep).
- To support the stirrups

Strain Compatibility Check

It is always necessary to verify that the strain across the depth follow a
linear distribution at the strength design levels. We recall that the minimum
depth for a singly reinforced section corresponds to Kx = 0.448 in order
that the cross section possesses the minimum ductility requirement. In this
condition εs1 = 4.3%o and εcm = 3.5%o. once the strain is verified to be
higher than the yield strain, the moment capacity can be computed using
the previous equations. If the design action effect is higher than that
corresponding to dmin, that is , μsd,s > 0.295, and if it is not possible to
increase the depth d, the capacity can be increased by using compression
reinforcement, whereby the minimum ductility is maintained.

a) Analysis of doubly reinforced beams

The general procedures are:

- Divide the x- section in to two hypothetical beams as shown above.
- Assume the compression reinforcement to be yielded
- Determine the tension steel which balances compressive force due to
the compression reinforcement

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 31

- Determine the moment capacity of the compression reinforcement and

the corresponding tension reinforcement.
- Determine the depth of the stress block by equating the compressive
force in the concrete with the tensile force as a result of the
remaining tension reinforcement.
- Determine the additional moment capacity.
- Determine the total moment capacity by super imposing the two
values.
- Check whether the assumption was correct or not
- If the assumption was not correct, use the force and moment
equilibrium equations considering the actual stresses in the
compression steels.

b) Design of doubly reinforced beams

Similar to the analysis, the general procedures for the design of doubly
reinforced sections are:
- Check whether double reinforcement is required or not
- Determine the moment capacity of the concrete with out compression
reinforcement
- Determine the tension steel which couple the compressive force
- Determine the extra moment to be resisted by the compression steel
and the additional tension steel.
- Determine the additional tension steel to carry this moment
- Calculate the compression reinforcement assuming that it has yielded.
- Check whether the compression reinforcement has yielded or not using
compatibility of strain

(Analysis and design Example)

3.8 Flanged Beams (T and L-beams)

When concrete roofs or floor slabs are cast monolithically with supporting
beams, T or L are created as shown in fig. below. Forms are built for beam
soffits and sides and for the under side of slabs, and the entire construction is
poured at once, from the bottom of deepest beam to the top of the slab. It is
evident, therefore, that a part of the slab will act with the upper part of the

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 32

beam to resist longitudinal compression. The resulting beam cross-section is T or

L-shaped rather than rectangular.

Fig.3.17 Flanged beams

Effective flange width

When the spacing between the beams is large, it is evident that simple bending
theory does not strictly apply because the longitudinal compressive stress in the
flange will vary with distance from the beam web, the flange being more highly
stressed over the web than in the extremities (see Fig.) . This variation in
flange compressive stress occurs because of shear deformations in the
flange (shear lag), which reduces the longitudinal compressive strain with
distance from the web.

Fig. 3.18 Distribution of maximum flexural compressive strength.

In design, to take the variation of compressive stress across the flange into
account, it is convenient to use an effective width of flange that may be smaller
than the actual width but is considered to be uniformly stressed (see Fig.)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 33

beff

Fig. 3.19 Flexural compressive stress distribution assumed in design

Effective width, EBSC 2, 1995

According to EBCS – 2 (Art. 3.7.8), the effective width bf shall not exceed the
lesser of :

For T beams:
a) thickness of the web plus one- fifth of the effective span or
b) the actual width of the top slab (extending b/n the centers
of the adjacent spans)
For L beams:
a) thickness of the web plus one- tenth of the effective span or
b) Thickness of the web plus half the clear distance to the
adjacent beam.

For analysis when a great accuracy is not required, for example, continuous
beams in buildings a constant effective width (beff) may be assumed over the
whole span.

The effective width for a symmetrical T- beam may be taken as :

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 34

beff = bw+1/5lo < b

And for an edge beam, that is with floor on one side only

beff = bw +1/10lo < bi + bw (i = 1 or 2)

The distance lo between points of zero moment may be obtained from the figure
below for typical cases:

The following conditions should be satisfied

i) The length of the cantilever should be less than half the adjacent span
ii) The ratio of adjacent spans should lie between 1 and 1.5

Analysis and Design of Flanged Beams

The basic principle used for analysis and design of rectangular beams are also
valid for the flanged beams. The major difference between the rectangular and
flanged sections is in the calculation of compressive force Cc. Depending on the
depth of the neutral axis, X, the following cases can be identified.

a) Depth of neutral axis X less than flange thickness hf, see Fig.

This case can be treated similarly to the standard rectangular section provided
that the depth 0.8x of the equivalent rectangular block is less than the flange
thickness. The flange width bf of the compression side should be used as the
beam width in the analysis or design.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 35

beff c f cd
x 0.8x Cc = 0.8xf cdbeff
hf
N.A

h d z = (d - 0.4x)

As s fs
T s =Asf y d
bw

x-section strains stresses resultant internal

forces

Fig.3.20 T- beam section with neutral axis within the flange

Force equilibrium gives:

As1fyd = 0.8xfcdbf

As1 f yd
 x
0.8 fcd b f

Moment equilibrium gives:

Mrd = As1fyd(d - 0.4x)

As1 f yd
Where x 
0.8 f cd b f

General design chart can be used.

b) Depth of neutral axis X Larger than flange thickness hf, see Fig.

In this case, x > hf, the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block 0.8x
could be smaller or larger than the flange thickness hf. If x is greater than h f
and 0.8x is less than hf, the beam could still be considered as a rectangular beam
for design purpose. Hence the design procedure explained above is applicable to
this case.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 36

If both x and 0.8x are greater than hf, the section has to be considered as a T-
section. This type of T-beam can be treated in a manner similar to that for a
doubly reinforced rectangular section (see Fig.).

beff c fcd fcd

Cc1= h f(beff - bw)fcd
hf hf Cc2 = 0.8xfcdbw
x 0.8x
N.A
h d
 z = (d - 0.5h f) + z = (d - 0.4x)
As1
s
T s1 =Asffy d T s2 =(As1 - Asf)fy d
bw

x-section strains Part I of the solution Part II of the solution

Overhanging portion web portion

Fig.3.21 T- beam section with neutral axis in the web

As a computational device, it is convenient to divide the total tensile steel

into two parts.

The first part, Asf, represents the steel area which, when stressed to fyd is
required to balance the compressive force in the overhanging portion of the
flange. Thus,

Asf* fyd = fcd (bf - bw)hf

 Asf = fcd*hf(bf-bw)/fyd

The partial resisting moment capacity as a result of these forces:

Mult1 = Asf* fyd (d - hf/2)

The remaining steel area (As – Asf), at a stress fyd is balanced by the
compression in the rectangular portion of the beam.

From force equilibrium:

(As- Asf)fyd = fcd ( bw*0.8x)

From Moment equilibrium:

Mult2 = (As - Asf)fyd (d - 04x)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 37

The total resisting moment, taking moments of the rectangles about the tension
steel, gives:

Mrd = 0.8xfcdbw(d-0.4x) + fcd(bf-bw)hf(d-0.5hf)

General design chart is not applicable.

The resultant compressive force acts at the centroid of the T-shaped

compressed area.

From force equilibrium

fcd(0.8xbw + hf(bf-bw)) = Asfyd

As f yd  f cd h f (b f  bw )
 x
f cd bw
The total moment

Mrd = 0.8xfcdbw(d-0.4x) + fcd(bf-bw)hf(d-0.5hf)

Note:
- When the T-section is subjected to bending moment and tension is
produced in the flange portion, the can be considered as a rectangular
with b = bw for design purpose.

- For T-beam sections, when the flexural strength is reached, the depth to
the neutral axis is generally small because of the large flange area.
Therefore; a tension failure generally occurs and it is usually safe to
assume in analysis that fs = fyd; and ck when the flexural strength is
reached check the validity of the assumption when the neutral axis depth
is found.

Note: the problem at hand is one of the following

(i) Analysis:
As is given

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 38

Determine Asf
Determine As-Asf
Determine N.A depth from force equilibrium.
(ii) Design:
If the N.A. is with in the flange
rectangular section(use the general design chart)
If the N.A. lies in the web:
Determine Asf and Mult1
Determine Mult2 = Msd - Mult1
Determine the required amount of reinforcement from
the two equations. (unknowns are As and x.)

Note: For -ve bending moment T- beams are not analyzed. It is rather
analyzed (designed) as rectangular beams.

(Analysis and Design Examples)

3.9 Ribbed Slabs

Ribbed slabs comprise closely spaced concrete joists which are monolithically
built with thin concrete slabs (See Fig). These are economical for buildings
where there are long spans and light and moderate live loads such as in hospitals
or apartment buildings.

An advantage of such constriction systems is either effectiveness in spanning

longer openings and in reducing the dead loads by essentially eliminating
concrete in tension in the space between the ribs below the neutral axis. Near
the supports the full depth is retained (the slab is made soild) to achieve
greater shear strength.

They can be formed in one of the following ways: (The topping is considered to
contribute to structural strength)

a) As a series of in situ concrete ribs cast between hollow or solid block

formers which remain part of the completed slab (See Fig.). Floors having
hollow blocks are generally constructed with blocks made of clay type
or with concrete containing a light weight aggregate.

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 39

Fig. 3.22 Cross section of a ribbed slab cast with integral hollow block

b) As a series of in situ concrete ribs cast monolithically with the concrete

topping on removable forms (see Fig).

Fig. 3.23 Cross section of a ribbed slab cast on removable formers

c) As an apparently solid slab but containing permanent forms to create

voids within the cross section (See Fig.)

Fig. 3.24 Cross section of a ribbed slab cast with permanent void formers

The design of ribs can follow the design principles of T-beams except that the
closeness of the joist ribs in a floor system resulting into a good redistribution
of local over loads to adjacent members

Design of ribbed Slab, as per EBCS 2 (general requirement)

Sizes:

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 40

1) Ribs shall not be less than 70mm in width; and shall have a depth,
excluding any toping, of not more than 4 times the minimum width of the
rib. The rib spacing shall not exceed 1.0m (must not exceed 1.5m).
2) thickness of topping shall not be less than 40mm, nor less than 1/10 the
clear distance between ribs

Minimum Reinforcement

1) The topping shall be provided with a reinforcement mesh providing in each

direction a cross sectional area not less than 0.001 of the section of the
slab.
2) If the rib spacing exceeds 1.0m, the toping shall be designed as a slab
resting on ribs, considering load concentrations, if any.

Transverse ribs

1) transverse ribs shall be provided if the span of the ribbed slab exceeds
6.0m
2) when transverse ribs are provided, the centre to center distance shall not
exceed 20 times the overall depth of the ribbed slab
3) The transverse ribs shall be designed for at least half the values of
maximum moments and shear force in the longitudinal ribs.

Fig. 3.25 General requirement for ribbed slabs, EC2

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 41

The ribbed slabs are formed using temporary or permanent shuttering. the
forms which remain part of the completed structure may contribute to the
structural strength of the slab. If not they can be regarded as non
removable formers. It should be remembered that we are talking about in
situ concrete slabs, not slabs consisting of pre-cast concrete ribs with in
fill blocks between them, on top of which is cast a concrete topping. Where
the block do contribute to the structural strength they will be referred as
structural-type blocks which comply with requirements of EBCS. Although
these blocks may contribute to flexural strength, their main contribution is
regarding shear and deflection.

(Analysis and design example)

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 42

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 43

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 44

Reinforced Concrete (I)

 Chapter Three: Ultimate Limit State (Flexure) 45

Reinforced Concrete (I)