Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Physics
Light
Contents
Reflection of Light
Investigating Reflection
Refraction of Light
Refractive Index
Total Internal Reflection
Ray Diagrams
Real & Virtual Images
Real Images
Virtual Images
Correcting Sight
Dispersion of Light

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 Reflection of Light
Your notes
Ray diagrams
In optics, a normal line is drawn at right angles to the boundary between two media
In reflection, angles are measured between the ray (showing the wave direction) and the
normal line
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r)
When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary

Ray diagram of reflection

A ray diagram for light reflecting at a boundary, showing the normal, angle of incidence
and angle of reflection

The law of reflection

The law of reflection states that the angles of incidence and reflection are equal:
Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)
This law of reflection is used in many devices such as:
mirrors
cameras
optical fibres

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 periscopes
Reflection in a plane mirror Your notes
When an object is placed in front of a plane mirror, an image of that object can be seen in
the mirror
The image will be:
The same size as the object
The same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of it
Virtual
A plane mirror defines a flat, smooth and polished surface
The formation of this image can be understood by drawing a ray diagram

Ray diagram showing reflection in a plane mirror

Diagram showing the formation of an image in a mirror by the reflection of light

Each incident ray on the diagram above can be drawn following these steps:
Light from the object hits the mirror, reflecting from it (i=r)
To an observer, the reflected ray appears to have come from behind the mirror
The reflected ray can be traced back in this same direction behind the mirror,
forming a virtual ray
This process is repeated for another ray travelling in a slightly different direction

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An image of the object will appear where these two virtual rays cross
The type of image formed in the mirror is called a virtual image because of the Your notes
divergence of the rays from the image
It cannot be projected onto a piece of paper (because the rays don’t go through the
image)

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When drawing light waves being reflected take care to get the angle about right.
If they are slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious difference
between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection then you will probably lose
a mark.

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 Investigating Reflection
Your notes
Investigating reflection
Extended tier only

Aims of the experiment

To investigate reflection by a Plane mirror

Variables
Independent variable = angle of incidence, i
Dependent variable = angle of reflection, r
Control variables:
Distance of ray box from mirror
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Ray Box To provide a narrow beam of light that can be easily reflected

Protractor To measure the angles of incidence and reflection

Sheet of Paper To mark the lines indicating the incident and reflected rays

Pencil To draw the incident and reflected ray lines onto the paper

Ruler To draw the incident and reflected ray lines onto the paper

Plane mirror To reflect the light beam

Method

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 Your notes

Apparatus to investigate reflection

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
2. In the middle of the paper use a ruler to mark a straight line about 10 cm long
3. Use a protractor to draw a 90° line that bisects (cuts in half) the 10 cm line
4. Place the mirror on the first line as shown in the diagram above
5. Switch on the ray box and aim a beam of light at the point where the two drawn lines
cross at an angle
6. Use the pencil to mark two positions of the light beam:
A point just after leaving the ray box
The point on the reflected beam about 10 cm away from the mirror
7. Remove the ray box and mirror
8. Use a ruler to join the two marked positions to the point where the originally drawn lines
crossed
9. Use the protractor to measure the two angles from the 90° line. The angle for the ray
towards the mirror is the angle of incidence, and the other is the angle of reflection
10. Repeat the experiment three times with the beam of light aimed at different angles

Results
Example results table
Angle of incidence, i (°) Angle of reflection, r (°)

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 10
Your notes
30

45

80

Analysis of results
The law of reflection states:
i=r
Where:
i = angle of incidence in degrees (°)
r = angle of reflection in degrees (°)
If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles of incidence and reflection
should be the same

Evaluating the experiment

Systematic errors
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
If the mirror is distorted, this could affect the reflection angle, so make sure there are
little to no blemishes on it
Random errors
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minutes
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment

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Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper
Take care using the mirror Your notes
Damages on the mirror can affect the outcome of the reflection experiment

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 Refraction of Light
Your notes
Ray diagrams for refraction
In refraction, angles are measured between the ray (showing the direction of the wave)
and the normal line
The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i)
The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of refraction (r)
When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling
An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary
A refracted ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary
The angles of incidence and refraction are usually labelled i and r respectively

Refraction ray diagram

A ray diagram for light refracting at a boundary, showing the normal, angle of incidence
and angle of refraction

Refraction of light
Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent
materials
At the boundary, the rays of light change direction
This change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two media:
From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the normal

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 From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the normal
When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all Your notes
Note that when a light wave enters and leaves the glass block there are two boundaries
The refracted ray at the first boundary becomes the incident ray at the second
boundary
Refraction diagram of light from air through a glass block

How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a
rectangular block
The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in different
substances
When light passes into a denser substance, the waves will slow down; hence, they
bend towards the normal
The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the
frequency of waves does not change
Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low frequency,
whilst blue has a high frequency)
When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of water),
therefore, the frequency does not change

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Practice drawing refraction diagrams as much as you can! It's very important to
remember which way the light bends when it crosses a boundary:
As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
Remember: Enters Towards
When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line

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 Remember: Leaves Away
You only need to know about light passing through the boundaries between two Your notes
media.

Investigating Refraction
Aims of the experiment
To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and
triangular prisms

Variables
Independent variable = shape of the block
Dependent variable = angle of refraction
Control variables:
Width of the light beam
Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Ray box To provide a narrow beam of light that can be

easily refracted

Protractor To measure the angles of incidence and

refraction

Sheet of paper To mark the lines indicating the incident and

refracted rays

Pencil To draw the incident and refracted ray lines

onto the paper

Ruler To draw the incident and refracted ray lines

onto the paper

Perspex blocks (rectangular, semi- To refract the light beam

circular & prism)

Resolution of measuring equipment:

Protractor = 1°

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 Ruler = 1 mm
Refraction diagram for equipment
Your notes

Diagram showing a ray box alongside three different-shaped glass blocks

Method
Refraction diagram set up

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 Apparatus to investigate refraction
1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the rectangular Your notes
perspex block using a pencil
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block
3. Mark on the paper:
A point on the ray close to the ray box
The point where the ray enters the block
The point where the ray exits the block
A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block
4. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the points
are
5. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines
6. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the
block at a different angle
7. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular)

Analysis of results
Consider the light paths through the different-shaped blocks

Refraction experiment results with different media

Refraction of light through different shapes of perspex blocks

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 The final diagram for each shape will include multiple light ray paths for the different
angles of incidences (i) at which the light strikes the blocks
Your notes
This will help demonstrate how the angle of refraction (r) changes with the angle of
incidence
Label these paths clearly with (1) (2) (3) or A, B, C to make these clearer
Use the laws of refraction to analyse these results

Evaluating the experiment

Systematic errors
An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly
Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines
Random errors
The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked
Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam
The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately
Use a protractor with a higher resolution

Safety considerations
The ray box light could cause burns if touched
Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes
Avoid looking directly at the light
Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In your examination, you might be asked to write a method explaining how you might
investigate the refraction of light through different shaped blocks
As part of this method you should describe:
What equipment you need
How you will use the equipment
How you will trace the rays of light before, while and after they pass through the
block

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 Refractive Index
Your notes
Refractive index as a ratio of speed
Extended tier only
The refractive index can be calculated in two different ways:
1. Using the ratio of speeds
2. Using the ratio of angles
The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for different
materials
Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, e.g. n is
about 2.4 for diamond
Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, e.g. n is about
1.5 for glass
Since the refractive index is a ratio, it has no units
The refractive index, n, for the ratio of speeds, is defined as:
The ratio of the speeds of a wave in two different regions
The refractive index, n, for the ratio of speeds, is given by the equation:

speed of light in a vacuum

n = speed of light in a material

Refractive index as a ratio of angles

Extended tier only
The refractive index, n, for the ratio of angles, is defined as:
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence and the sine of the angle of reflection of a
wave in two different regions
The refractive index, n, for the ratio of angles, is given by the equation:

sin i
n = sin r
Where:
n = the refractive index of the material
i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

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A refractive index formula triangle
Your notes

Formula triangle for the refractive index in terms of angles

See the example of Speed & velocity which explains how to use the formula triangle to
rearrange equations

Worked Example
A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle of 15° with
the normal before entering the block.
Calculate the angle it makes with the normal after it enters the glass block.

Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53
Angle of incidence, i = 15°
Step 2: Write the equation for refractive index in terms of the ratio of angles

sin i
n = sin r

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Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r)

sin i Your notes

sin r = n
sin 15
sin r = 1 . 53
sin r = 0 . 1692
Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function

r = sin−1 0 . 1692
( )

r = 9 . 7 = 10°

Examiner Tips and Tricks

sin i
n = sin r
is also known as Snell's law but you do not need to know this for your
exam.

sin i i
Important: ( ) is not the same as ( ). Incorrectly cancelling the sin terms is a
sin r r
very common mistake!
When calculating the value of i or r start by calculating the value of sin i or sin r.
You can then use the inverse sin function (sin–1 on most calculators by pressing 'shift'
then 'sine') to find the angle.
One way to remember which way around i and r are in the fraction is remembering that
'i' comes before 'r' in the alphabet, and therefore is on the top of the fraction (whilst r
is on the bottom).

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 Total Internal Reflection
Your notes
Total internal reflection
Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs at the boundary between two media when:
All the incident ray in medium 1 is reflected back into medium 1
When light passes between the boundary of an optically dense to a less dense medium
and the angles of incidence are small
The refracted ray is strong
The reflected ray is weak
The weak ray is reflected back into the denser medium
This means some internal reflection occurs
It is not TIR because not all of the ray is reflected, only some of it

Comparing refraction and total internal reflection

Refraction happens when the angle of incidence is smaller and total internal reflection
happens when the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection

Comparing internal reflection and total internal

reflection
Normal reflection produces a less intense light compared to TIR
In TIR the light ray is brighter and more intense
Normal reflection occurs independent of the refractive indices of both media

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 For TIR to occur, the incident material must be denser than the second material
Conditions for internal reflection
Your notes

Total internal reflection happens with the angle of incidence is bigger than the critical
angle

Internal reflection examples

Thin film interference is an example of internal reflection
An example of this is the shiny side of a CD

Example of internal reflection

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 The colourful pattern observed on a CD is a result of thin film interference
Other examples of thin film interference include: Your notes
Soap bubbles
Thin layers of oil on water
In these examples, internal reflection occurs at the boundaries between:
Air and water
Water and oil
A spectrum of colours will be seen by the observer due to the rays partially reflected at
the boundary

A ray diagram of an example of internal reflection

Light is reflected and transmitted at the boundary from a less dense to a more dense
material. Light is transmitted only at the boundary from a more dense to a less dense
material. Hence, in this diagram P and Q exist but the third unlabelled ray does not.

Total internal reflection examples

Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they can be
used for
communications
endoscopes
decorative lamps
Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits the
edge of the fibre

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Total internal reflection example: optical fibre
Your notes

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:
Periscopes
Binoculars
Telescopes
Cameras
Safety reflectors
A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects
It consists of two right-angled prisms

Total internal reflection example: a periscope

Reflection of light through a periscope

The light totally internally reflects in both prisms

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 Examiner Tips and Tricks
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total internal Your notes
reflection
Remember: total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a denser material
to less dense material and ALL of the light is reflected.
If asked to give an example of a use of total internal reflection, first state the name of
the object that causes the reflection (e.g. a right-angled prism) and then name the
device in which it is used (e.g. a periscope)

Critical angle
At the boundary between a more dense and a less dense medium, as the angle of
incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until it gets closer to 90°
When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the boundary
At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c

Obtaining total internal reflection examples

As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and lead to
total internal reflection of the light
When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is now
reflected
This is total internal reflection

Worked Example
A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at a vertical face
of the cube. The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39° and the angle of
refraction is 25° as shown in the diagram. The light ray is totally internally reflected for
the first time at X.

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 Your notes

Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and calculate
the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.

Answer:

Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary

When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary
At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side
Step 3: Calculate the critical angle
The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time”
meaning that this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs
Therefore, 65° is the critical angle

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 Examiner Tips and Tricks
If you are asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle in an exam, you can be Your notes
sure to gain full marks by drawing and labelling the same diagram above (showing the
three semi-circular blocks)

Refractive index & critical angle equation

Extended tier only
The critical angle, c, of a material, is related to its refractive index, n
The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

1
sin c = n
This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:

1
n = sin c
This equation shows that:
The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle
Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be totally
internally reflected

Worked Example
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers shape the
stones so that light is reflected inside. Compare the critical angles of opal and
diamond and explain which stone would appear to sparkle more.
The refractive index of opal is about 1.5
The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4

Answer:
Step 1: List the known quantities
Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5
Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4
Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index

1
sin c = n

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 Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co)

1 Your notes
sin c o
( ) = 1 . 5 = 0 . 6667
co = sin−1 ( 0 . 6667 = 41. 8 = 42°
)

Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd)

1
sin c d
( ) = 2 . 4 = 0 . 4167
cd = sin – 1 ( 0 . 4167 = 24. 6 = 25°
)

Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion

Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light is larger than
the critical angle (i > c)
In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between 42° and
90°
The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co > cd)
This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over a larger
range of angles (25° to 90°)
Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will appear
to sparkle more than the opal

Examiner Tips and Tricks

When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:
First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c)
Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c

Optical fibres
Extended tier only
Optical fibres have many uses, particularly in telecommunications
Endoscopes are used to look within the human body
A camera on the end of an optical fibre is placed down the throat and moved into the
stomach
Light from inside the stomach is captured by the camera, is totally internally
reflected along the optical fibre and viewed by doctors through the eyepiece

Total internal reflection example: endoscope

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 Your notes

Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body

Total internal reflection using telecommunication

Optical fibres can be used to transmit:
Home (landline) telephone signals

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 Internet signals
Cable television signals Your notes
In phone calls from landline phones:
Electrical signals are converted to light pulses
That travel close to the speed of light along optical fibres
At the receiving end, the digital signal is converted into sound

Total internal reflection example: landline telephone signal

path

Sound from a landline telephone travels through optical fibres to the landline of the
person listening
Optical fibres are installed:
In cables attached to telephone (or telegraph) poles in the street
Underground from the service box to the telegraph pole or under the sea

Total internal reflection example: telegraph poles

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 Your notes

Fibre optic cables can be found in the phone cables attached between the telephone
poles and the street

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 Ray Diagrams
Your notes
Features of ray diagrams
Ray diagrams can be described using the following terms:
Principal axis
Principal focus, or focal point
Focal length
The principal axis is defined as:
A line which passes through the centre of a lens
The principal focus, or focal point, is defined as:
The point at which rays of light travelling parallel to the principal axis intersect the
principal axis and converge or the point at which diverging rays appear to proceed
Focal length is defined as:
The distance between the centre of the lens and the principal focus

Converging & Diverging Lenses

A lens is a piece of equipment that forms an image by refracting light
There are two types of lens:
Converging
Diverging

Converging lenses
In a converging lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus
This point is called the principal focus
This lens is sometimes referred to as a convex lens
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length
This depends on how curved the lens is
The more curved the lens, the shorter the focal length

Converging lens diagram

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 Your notes

The focal length is the distance from the lens to the principal focus

Diverging lenses
In a diverging lens, parallel rays of light are made to diverge (spread out) from a point
This lens is sometimes referred to as a concave lens
The principal focus is now the point from which the rays appear to diverge from

Diverging lens diagram

Parallel rays from a diverging lens appear to come from the principal focus

Representing lenses
In diagrams, the following symbols are often used to represent each type of lens:

Converging and diverging lens symbols

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 Your notes

Concave and convex lens symbols

Examiner Tips and Tricks

To remember which lens is converging or diverging, think of the following: Convex
lens = Converging. You need to be able to describe how the lenses affect the light
rays.

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 Real & Virtual Images
Your notes
Real images & virtual images
Images produced by lenses can be one of two types:
A real image
A virtual image
Images can be described compared to their object as:
Enlarged/same size/diminished
Upright/inverted
Real/virtual

Real images
A real image is defined as:
An image that is formed when the light rays from an object converge and meet each other
and can be projected onto a screen
A real image is one produced by the convergence of light towards a focus
Real images are always inverted
Real images can be projected onto pieces of paper or screens
An example of a real image is the image formed on a cinema screen

A real image

A real image can be projected onto a screen

Virtual images

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 A virtual image is defined as:
An image that is formed when the light rays from an object do not meet but appear to Your notes
meet behind the lens and cannot be projected onto a screen
A virtual image is formed by the divergence of light away from a point
Virtual images are always upright
Virtual images cannot be projected onto a piece of paper or a screen
An example of a virtual image is a person's reflection in a mirror

A virtual image

A reflection in a mirror is an example of a virtual image

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 Real Images
Your notes
Converging lens - real image
Constructing converging ray diagrams
The three main rules for constructing ray diagrams are as follows:
1. Rays passing through the principal axis will pass through the optical centre of the lens
undeviated

2. Rays that are parallel to the principal axis will be refracted and pass through the focal
point f

3. Rays passing through the focal point f will emerge parallel to the principal axis

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 Your notes

Drawing converging ray diagrams of real images

Object placed beyond 2f

When an object is placed beyond 2f (to the left of the lens), the image that forms (to the
right of the lens) will have the following properties:

The image forms... between f and 2f

The nature of the image is... real

The orientation of the image is... inverted

The size of the image is... diminished

Object placed at 2f

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 Your notes

When an object is placed at 2f (to the left of the lens), the image that forms (to the right
of the lens) will have the following properties:

The image forms... at 2f

The nature of the image is... real

The orientation of the image is... inverted

The size of the image is... the same

Object placed between f and 2f

When an object is placed between f and 2f (to the left of the lens), the image that forms
(to the right of the lens) will have the following properties:

The image forms... beyond 2f

The nature of the image is... real

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The orientation of the image is... inverted
Your notes
The size of the image is... magnified

Worked Example
Draw a ray diagram to show how a converging lens can be used to form a diminished
image of a real object.
Label the object, image and principal foci of the lens on your diagram.

Answer:
Step 1: Start by drawing and labelling a principal axis and the lens as a line or a very
thin ellipse

Step 2: Mark and label the focal points on each side of the lens

Step 3: Draw and label the object at a distance greater than the focal length on the
left side of the lens

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 Your notes

Tip: For a diminished image the object should be placed a distance of at least 2F
away from the lens
Step 4: Draw a ray through the optical centre of the lens

Step 5: Draw a second ray from the object to the lens which is parallel to the
principal axis

Step 6: Draw the continuation of the ray passing through the focal point on the right
side of the lens

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Step 7: Draw and label the image at the point where the rays meet

Your notes

Step 8: Check your final image and make sure everything is included to gain the
marks

For a three-mark question, examiners will be looking for:

One ray drawn through the optical centre of the lens
A second ray drawn which produces a diminished (smaller) image (which
must pass through a labelled focal point)
Both the object and the image must be drawn and labelled correctly

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 Virtual Images
Your notes
Converging lens - virtual image
Extended tier only

Constructing converging ray diagrams of virtual

images
A single lens placed at a distance less than the focal length of an object can be used as a
magnifying glass

A converging lens ray diagram for an object placed less than f

Ray diagram showing light converging through a magnifying glass to form a magnified
virtual image
The image that forms will have the following properties:

The image forms... at 2f (on the same side as the object)

The nature of the image is... virtual

The orientation of the image is... upright

The size of the image is... magnified

Diverging lens - virtual image

Image formation by a diverging lens
No matter the position of the object all images formed by diverging lenses are:

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 Virtual (and not real)
Upright (the same as the object) Your notes
Diminished (smaller than the object)
On the same side of the lens as the object
For an object placed at any distance away from the lens (further than the focal point or
closer than):
The ray of light incident on the centre of the lens does not change direction
The rays of light parallel to the principal axis are refracted
These rays can be extrapolated backwards
It appears that they come from a virtual focus
A visible projection cannot be formed on a screen

Virtual image produced by a diverging lens with object

beyond f

A diverging lens always produces a virtual image no matter the position of the object in
relation to the focal point or the lens. Here the object is further away from the lens than
the focal point.

Virtual image produced by a diverging lens with object closer

than f

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 Your notes

A diverging lens always produces a virtual image no matter the position of the object in
relation to the focal point or the lens. Here the object is closer to the lens than the focal
point.

Comparing converging & diverging lenses

The image produced by a converging lens can be either real or virtual
This means the image can be inverted (real) or upright (virtual)
The image produced by a diverging lens is always virtual
This means the image will always be upright

Worked Example
An object is placed outside the focal point of a diverging lens.

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 Your notes

Complete the ray diagram by drawing where the image of this object will be seen.

Answer:

Step 1: Draw a line from the top of the object through the middle of the lens
The top of the image lies somewhere along this line
Step 2: Draw a line from the focal point through the top of the lens
The dashed line shows the continuation of the upward arrow
The top of the image is where the two lines cross

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Examiner Tips and Tricks Your notes
You are not expected to draw ray diagrams for a diverging lens but you must be able
to explain how the virtual images are formed.

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 Correcting Sight
Your notes
Correcting sight
Extended tier only
Converging and diverging lenses are commonly used in glasses and contact lenses to
correct defects of sight
Converging lenses can be used to correct long-sighted vision
Diverging lenses can be used to correct short-sighted vision

Use of lenses to correct long-sightedness

Long-sighted people have eyes that are less curved than normal or the eyeball is too
short
This means they cannot see things that are close and can only clearly see things that
are far away

Ray diagram to show long-sightedness

An eye that is long-sighted has a narrower lens with a smaller focussing power so the light
rays meet and form an image behind the retina and not on it
The eye refracts the light rays and they are brought to a focus beyond the retina
In other words, the focus point is behind the retina at the back of the eye
This can be corrected by using a convex or converging lens

The effect of a converging lens on a long-sighted eye

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 Your notes

The converging lens causes the rays to converge before they reach the eye, so the image
is formed on the retina and not behind it

Use of lenses to correct short-sightedness

People who are short-sighted have eyes that are more curved than normal or have an
eyeball that is too long
This means they cannot see things that are far away, and only see things that are
close to them

Ray diagram of short-sightedness

An eye that is short-sighted has a wider lens with a larger focussing power so the light
rays meet and form an image in front of the retina and not on it

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 This is because the eye refracts the light and brings it to a focus before it reaches the
retina
Your notes
In other words, the focus point is in front of the retina at the back of the eye
This can be corrected by using a concave or a diverging lens

The effect of a diverging lens on a short-sighted eye

The diverging lens causes the rays to diverge before they reach the eye, so the image is
formed on the retina and not in front of it

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 Dispersion of Light
Your notes
Dispersion of light
The dispersion of light is illustrated by the refraction of white light by a glass prism
White light contains the wavelengths of all the colours of the spectrum
Each colour has a different wavelength (and frequency), making up a very narrow
part of the electromagnetic spectrum
White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a glass prism
This is done by refraction
Violet light is refracted the most, whilst red light is refracted the least
This splits up the colours to form a spectrum
This process is similar to how a rainbow is created

Dispersion of light through a prism

White light may be separated into all its colours by passing it through a prism

The visible spectrum of light

Visible light is the only part of the spectrum detectable by the human eye
In the natural world, many animals, such as birds, bees and certain fish, can perceive
beyond visible light and can see infra-red and UV wavelengths of light
The seven different colours of visible light waves correspond to different wavelengths

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 In order of longest wavelength and lowest frequency to shortest wavelength and
highest frequency :
Your notes
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Indigo
Violet
The dispersion of light creates the seven colours of the visible
spectrum

The colours of the visible spectrum: red has the longest wavelength; violet has the
shortest

Examiner Tips and Tricks

To remember the colours of the visible spectrum you could remember either:
The name “Roy G. Biv”
Or the saying “Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain”

Monochromatic light
Extended tier only
A visible light source of a single frequency (a single colour) is monochromatic
A laser beam is monochromatic because it emits a single colour of light

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A laser beam
Your notes

The laser emits monochromatic green light

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