Unit – l l l – Matrices

Solution of linear algebraic equation-Rank of matrix -

Characteristic equation of a matrix - Inverse of matrix - Eigen
values and Eigen vectors - Trace of matrix - Clayey - Hamilton
theorem-Reduction of a matrix to a diagonal form
(Diagonalization) – Hermitian and unitary matrices - Matrices in
Physics: Derivations of spin matrix and Dirac matrices.

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Rank of Matrix
A natural number r is said to be the rank of a matrix A if it has the following two
properties.
(1) There is at least one non zero minor of a matrix A of order r.
(2) Every minor of A of order (r+1) , if any , vanishes

The rank of the matrix is the largest of any non – vanishing minor of the matrix.

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The rank of the matrix A is denoted by the symbol 𝝆 (A)
The following rules are determining the rank of the matrix.
1. The rank of every zero (null) matrix is zero.
2. The rank of every non – zero matrix is ≥ 1.
3. If every (r+1) rowed minor of a matrix vanishes. (or if matrix does not possess any
(r+1) rowed minor) Then the rank of the matrix is ≤ r.
4. If there is at least one non -zero minor of order r of a matrix, then the rank of the
matrix is ≥ r.
5. The rank of every n-square non-singular matrix is n.
6. If every (r+1) rowed minor of a matrix is zero, then every higher order minor is
automatically zero.
7. (a) The rank of any m×n matrix is ≤ m if m ≤ n
(b) The rank of any m×n matrix is ≤ n if n ≤ m
For example

(1) If A is a square matrix of order n such that | A | ≠ 0, then 𝜌 (A) = n.

(2) If In is a unit matrix or order n, then | In | ≠ 0 so that 𝜌 | In | = n.
(3) If A is any diagonal matrix with non-zero n – Diagonal elements then | A | ≠ 0
so that 𝜌 (A) = n.
Find the rank of the following matrices

1 − 1 3 6
(a) 1 3 − 3 − 4
 
5 3 3 11 

2 1 −1
(b) [0 3 −2]
2 4 −3

1 2 3
(c) [2 4 6]
−3 −6 −9

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 1 − 1 3 6

Solution (a) Here A = 1 3 − 3 − 4
5 3 3 11 

As the given matrix is of order 3 X 4 therefore the highest order of any minor of the matrix
A is 3

−1 3 6
We have [ 3 −3 −4]
3 3 11

To find the determinant value of A

= -1 (-3 X 11+3 X 4) -3 (3 X 11 + 12) + 6 (+9 + 9)
= -1 (-33+12) -3 (33+12) +6(+18)
= -1 (-21) -3 (45) +108
= 21-135+108
= -6.
|A|≠0
Hence there is at least one 3- square non zero minor of the matrix A.
Hence the rank of the matrix A, 𝝆 (A)=3

2 1 −1
(b) [0 3 −2]
2 4 −3

2 1 −1
| A | = [0 3 −2]
2 4 −3

= 2(-9+8)-1(0+4)-1(0-6)
= 2(-1)-4+6
= -2-4+6 = 0
|A|=0

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Here 3 – Square minor is the higher order minor of A which vanishes. Now consider
2 0
2- rowed minor of A = [ ]
1 3
| A | = (6-0)
=6
|A|≠0
2 – rowed minor of matrix A which does not vanish. Hence 𝜌 (A) = 2.

1 2 3
(c) [2 4 6]
−3 −6 −9

| A | = 1(-36+36)-2(-18+18) +3(-12+12)
=0
1 2
A = [ ]
2 4
|A|=4–4=0
A=1
3-rowed matrix of determinant is zero. When the matrix is 1 – Square minor of A.
Hence of rank of matrix 𝜌 (A) = 1.

Assignments Sums:

6 1 3 8
4 2 6 −1
(1) A = [ ]
10 3 9 7
16 4 12 15

1 2 3
(2) B = [4 5 6]
0 1 2

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 1 1 −1 1
(3) C= [1 −1 2 −1]
3 1 0 1

Ans: 𝜌 (A), 𝜌 (B), and 𝜌 (C) = 2.

Eigen Values, Eigen Vectors, Characteristic equation of a matrix.

Consider the linear transformation
AX=⋋X ……………. (1)

Where ⋋ is a scalar and A is the square matrix of order n. Obviously, the only effect of
the matrix A on the vector X is to multiply it simply by the constant scalar factor ⋋.
A vector X define by the equation (1) is called an invariant vector under the linear
transformation equation (1) may be written as
(A-⋋l) X=0……………... (2)
Where I is the unit matrix
Any value of ⋋ foe which (1) or (2) has a non-zero solution (i.e. X ≠ 0) is called
Eigen value or Characteristic root or latent root of the matrix A and the
corresponding non zero solution X is called an Eigen vector or Characteristic
vector or latent vector of A corresponding to that value of ⋋.
The matrix (A-⋋l) is called the characteristic matrix of A. The determinant ∅ (⋋) =
(A-⋋l) is called the characteristic polynomial of A.
The system of homogeneous equations (1) or (2) has non-trivial equation if and
only if (A-⋋l) is singular i.e.
∅ (⋋) = (A-⋋l ) =0 ……………………………………(3)
Or its equivalent ∅ (⋋) = a0 + a1 ⋋+ a2 ⋋2 +….an ⋋n = 0… (4)
Where a’s are the functions of the element of A.
Equation (3) and (4) is called the characteristic equation or secular equation of
A.
From equation (3) it follows that every characteristic root ⋋ of matrix A is a root of
its characteristic equation.

1. Find characteristic equation, Eigen values and Eigen vectors of the given matrix.
3 −4 4
A = [1 −2 4]
1 −1 3
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 To find characteristic equation

| A-⋋I | = 0 , I is the unit matrix

3 −4 4 ⋋ 0 0
| A-⋋I | = [1 −2 4] - [ 0 ⋋ 0]
1 −1 3 0 0 ⋋

3 −⋋ −4 4
= [ 1 −2 −⋋ 4 ]
1 −1 3 −⋋
= (3 -⋋ ) [ (-2-⋋ ) (3 -⋋ ) +4] +4 [ 1 (3 -⋋ ) -4] + 4 [ -1 -1 (-2-⋋ ) ]
= (3 -⋋ ) [ -6-3⋋ +2⋋ +⋋2 +4] +4 [ 3 -⋋ -4] + 4 [ - 1 +2 + ⋋ ]
= (3 -⋋ ) [ ⋋2 - ⋋ -2] + 4 [ -⋋ -1] +4 [ ⋋ +1]
= 3⋋2 - 3⋋ - 6 - ⋋3 + ⋋2 +2⋋ - 4 ⋋ - 4 + 4 ⋋
= - ⋋3 + 4⋋2 - ⋋ - 6 = 0………………………. (1)
This is the characteristic equation of the given matrix A.
To find Eigen values
Take characteristic equation of the given matrix A is
- ⋋3 + 4⋋2 - ⋋ - 6 = 0. ─1 ─1 4 ─1 ─6
0 1 ─5 6
__________
─1 5 ─6 0
⋋=─1 6
─⋋² + 5⋋ ─6=0 ─3x─2=6
⋋²─ 5⋋+6=0 ─3+─2=─5
⋋²─3⋋─2⋋+6=0
⋋ (⋋─3) ─2(⋋-3) =0
(⋋-3) (⋋-2) =0
⋋= 3, ⋋=2

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The Eigen Values are: ⋋ = -1, 3 ,2.

To find eigen vectors:

⋋=─1
[A - ⋋ I] [ X ]=0
3 −⋋ −4 4 𝑥1 0
[ 1 −2 −⋋ 4 ] |𝑥2| = |0|
1 −1 3 −⋋ 𝑥3 0
4 −4 4 𝑥1 0
[1 −1 4] |𝑥2| = |0|
1 −1 4 𝑥3 0
4x1─4x2+4x3=0…. (2)
x1─x2+4x3=0.…… (3)
x1─x2+4x3=0 …… (4)

(2) ─ (3) X 4⇉ 4x1─4x2+4x3=0

(─) (+) (─)
4x1─4x2+16x3=0

─12x3=0
__________________________________________________________________________
Substituting X3=0 in equation (3)
X1─X2+4(0) =0
X1─X2=0
X1=X2
X2=K
Therefore X1=K X2=?
X2=K
Put K=1
X2=1
1 𝑘
The eigen vector of X1 = |1| (or) X1 = | 𝑘 |
0 0
⋋=2

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 1 −4 4 𝑥1 0
Equation (1) reduces to [1 −4 4] |𝑥2| =| 0 |
1 −1 1 𝑥3 0

x1─4x2+4x3=0… (5)
x1─4x2+4x3=0… (6)
x1─x2+x3=0 …… (7)
Eqn(5)- 4 X eqn(7)
x1─4x2+4x3=0 (5)- 4 X eqn(7)
(─) (+) (─)
4x1─4x2+4x3=0
__________________
─3x1=0
x1=0 substituting in equation (6)
0─4x2+4x3=0)
4x2=4x3
x2=x3
put x2=K ( K is a constant ie is K =1) x3 =?
x2=K
x3=K
x3=1( K =1)
0 0
The eigen vector of X2=| 1| (or) | 𝑘|
1 𝑘
⋋=3
0 −4 4 𝑥1 0
[1 −5 4] |𝑥2| = | 0 |
1 −1 1 𝑥3 0
─4x2+4x3=0…… (8)
x2=x3 , x3=K x3=?
x3=K
x1─5x2+4x3=0… (9)
x1─x2=0……. (10) x2=?
x1=x2 x2=K

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 1 𝑘
The eigen vectors of x3 = | 1 | (or) | 𝑘 |
1 𝑘

Cayley- Hamilton Theorem

Theorem:
Every square matrix satisfies its own character equation.ie if for a square matrix A of
order n the characteristic polynomial is
[A - ⋋ I] =a0+a1⋋+a2⋋2+………+an ⋋n
Then the matrix equation is a0I+a1 X+a2X2+………anXn=0 is satisfied by X=A.
Proof:
The characteristic polynomial is
[A - ⋋ I] =a0+a1⋋+a2⋋2+………+an⋋n … (1)
The characteristic equation of A is
[A - ⋋ I] =a0+a1⋋+a2⋋2+………+an⋋n =0… (2)
The matrix equation is a0 I+ a1X+ a2X2+………an X n=0., (3)
If this equation is satisfied by A, then we have to show that
a0 I + a1A + a2A2+………an An = 0… (4).
Since each element of characteristic matrix [A - ⋋ I ] is an ordinary polynomial of degree
n (at most) therefore the cofactor of every element of degree n-1(at
most).Consquently,each element of
B = adj (A-⋋I) is an ordinary polynomial of degree (n-1) (at most). Therefore, we can
write
B = adj(A-⋋ I)
= B0 + B1⋋ + B2⋋2 +……. + Bn-1⋋n-1…. (5) where B0, B1 , B2, Bn-1 are all square matrices
of the same order n whose elements are polynomials in the elements of A
From theorem we have
[A - ⋋ I] adj (A-⋋I) = [A - ⋋ I] I using equations (5) and (1) we get
[A-⋋I][B0+B1⋋+B2⋋2+…….+Bn-1⋋n-1] = (a0+a1⋋+a2⋋2+………+an⋋n) I…(6)
A B0 + A B1⋋ + AB2⋋2 +……+. A Bn-1⋋n-1 ─⋋I B0 ─⋋2 I B1─ ⋋3 I B2 +….⋋I Bn-1⋋n-1 =

a0 I + a1⋋ I + a2⋋2 I +………+an⋋n I

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comparing the co-efficient of like powers of ⋋, ⋋2 on both the sides we get

AB0=a0 I
AB1-B0=a1 I
AB2-B1=a2 I
………………….
…………………..
ABn-1-Bn-2=an-1 I
- Bn-1=an I
Now Pre-multiplying these equations respectively by I, A, A2, A3…. An and then adding, we
get

0= a I+a A+a A +………a A which is equation (3). This proves the theorem.
0 1 2 2 n n

Find the characteristics equation of the following matrix and verify the
Cayley- Hamilton Theorem.
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
A=[𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
Soln:Given matrix is A=[𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏

𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
[A - ⋋ I]= [𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒] ─⋋[𝟎 𝟏 𝟎]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏
𝟏 −⋋ 𝟐 𝟑
=[ 𝟐 −𝟏 −⋋ 𝟒 ]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 −⋋
𝟏 −⋋ 𝟐 𝟑
Therefore [A - ⋋ I]= [ 𝟐 −𝟏 −⋋ 𝟒 ]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 −⋋

[A - ⋋ I] = ( 1 −⋋) [(─1─⋋)( 1 −⋋) − 4 − 2[2(1 −⋋) − 12] + 3(2 − 3(−1 −⋋)]

= ( 1 −⋋)[−1 +⋋ − ⋋ + ⋋2 − 4 − 2(2 − 2 ⋋ −12) + 3(2 + 3 + 3 ⋋]
= −1 +⋋ − ⋋ + ⋋2 − 4 +⋋ − ⋋2 +⋋2 −⋋3 + 4 ⋋ −4 + 4 ⋋ +24 + 6 + 9 + 9 ⋋
= − ⋋3 +⋋2 + 18 ⋋ +30

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Hence, the characteristics equation of given matrix A is
− ⋋𝟑 +⋋𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖 ⋋ +𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎
Now, in order to verify Cayley- Hamilton Theorem we have to show that
−𝑨𝟑 + 𝐀𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖𝑨 + 𝟑𝟎 𝐈 = 𝟎
Where 𝐈 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐫𝐲 𝐦𝐚𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐱
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
I =[𝟎 𝟏 𝟎] and A=[𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝐴2 = [𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒 ] [𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒]
𝟑 𝟏 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟒
𝐴2 = [𝟏𝟐 𝟗 𝟔 ] and
𝟖 𝟔 𝟏𝟒
𝟏𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝐴3 = 𝐴2 . A= [𝟏𝟐 𝟗 𝟔 ] [𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒]
𝟖 𝟔 𝟏𝟒 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝟔𝟐 𝟑𝟗 𝟔𝟖
𝐴3 =[𝟒𝟖 𝟐𝟏 78 ]
𝟔𝟐 𝟐𝟒 𝟔𝟐
𝟔𝟐 𝟑𝟗 𝟔𝟖 𝟏𝟒 𝟑 𝟏𝟒 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟑 𝟐
−𝑨 + 𝐀 + 𝟏𝟖𝑨 + 𝟑𝟎 𝐈 = − [𝟒𝟖 𝟐𝟏 78 ] + [𝟏𝟐 𝟗 𝟔 ] + 18 [𝟐 ─𝟏 𝟒] +
𝟔𝟐 𝟐𝟒 𝟔𝟐 𝟖 𝟔 𝟏𝟒 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
30 [𝟎 𝟏 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏

−𝟔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟑𝟎 −𝟑𝟗 + 𝟑 + 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟎 −𝟔𝟖 + 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟓𝟒 + 𝟎

=[ −𝟒𝟖 + 𝟏𝟐 + 𝟑𝟔 + 𝟎 −𝟐𝟏 + 𝟗 − 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟑𝟎 −78 + 6 + 72 + 0 ]
−𝟔𝟐 + 𝟖 + 𝟓𝟒 + 𝟎 −𝟐𝟒 + 𝟔 + 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟎 −𝟔𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟏𝟖 + 𝟑𝟎
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
= [𝟎 𝟎 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Every square matrix satisfies its own character equation.
−𝑨𝟑 + 𝐀𝟐 + 𝟏𝟖𝑨 + 𝟑𝟎 𝐈 = 𝟎
This shows that Cayley- Hamilton Theorem is verified.

DIAGONALISATION OF A MATRIX:2x2 MATRIX

1.Find a matrix S. Such that S─1AS=D.

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Step:1. To find eigen values
─1 3
A diagonal matrix of A =[ ]
─2 4

[ 𝐴─ ⋋ 𝐼] =[─1 3 ⋋ 0
][ ]
─2 4 0 ⋋
─⋋ 3
=[ ]
─2 4─ ⋋
= (─1─⋋) (4─⋋) +6
=─4+⋋─4⋋+⋋²+6
=>⋋2─3⋋+2=0 2
⋋─⋋ ─2⋋+2=0 ─1X─2=2
⋋ (⋋─1) ─2(⋋─1) =0 ─1+─2=─3
(⋋─1) (⋋─2) =0
The eigen values are ⋋=1; ⋋=2
Step 2:To find a Eigen vectors
[A - ⋋ I] [ X ]=0
⋋=1
─1─1 3 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦 ] = [ ] 2x=3y2
─24─1 0
─2 3 𝑥 0 3
[ ][ ] = [ ] x=2 𝑦2
─2 3 𝑦 0
1
─2x+3y=0 x=3x2 y2=>k

=>2x─3y=0 x=3k k=1

x=3(1)
x=3
2x=3y2
2(3) =3y2
y2=2
⋋2─3⋋+2=0
⋋2─3c1⋋+2c2=0
C1= ─1+4=3
C2= ─4+6=2
⋋=2

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 ─1─2 3 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦]= [ ]
─2 4─2 0
─3 3 𝑥 0
[ ] [𝑦]=[ ]
─2 2 0
─3x+3y=0
─2x+2y=0
x─y=0
x=y
1
x=1 and y=1.The eigen vector X is [ ]
1
Step 3: To find S
S─1AS=D.
3 1
S= [ ] (change the diagonal and sign(2nd
2 1
|S|=3─2=1 only sign)
1 ─1 ─1 3 3 1
S─1=[ ] [ ] [ ]
─2 3 ─2 4 2 1
─1 + 2 3─4
=[ ]
2─6 ─6 + 12
1 ─1 3 1
=[ ] [ ]
─4 6 2 1
3─2 1─1
=[ ]
─12 + 12 ─4 + 6
1 0
S─1AS=D= [ ]
0 2
2.Diagonalisation of 3x3 matrix.
𝟏 1 3
A= [1 𝟓 1]
3 1 𝟏
Step:1 To find the characteristic equation of A
|A─⋋I|=0
𝟏─ ⋋ 1 3
|A─⋋I|= [ 1 𝟓─ ⋋ 1 ]
3 1 𝟏─ ⋋
|A─⋋I|= (1─⋋) [(5─⋋) (1─⋋) ─] ─1[1(1─⋋) ─3)] +3[1─3(5─⋋)]
= (1─⋋) [⋋²─6⋋+4─1[─⋋─2] +3[3⋋─14]
=⋋²─6⋋+4─⋋3+6⋋²─4⋋+⋋+2+9⋋─42

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 = > ─⋋3 +7⋋²─36=0 3 1 ─7 0 36
⋋3 ─7⋋²+36=0 0 3 ─12 ─36
⋋²─4⋋─12=0 __________________________
(⋋─6) (⋋+2) =0 1 ─4 ─12 0
⋋=6, ⋋= ─2 _______________________________

eigen values are ⋋=3, ⋋=6, ⋋= ─2

Step:2 To find eigen vectors when ⋋= ─2

𝟏─ ⋋ 1 3 𝑥 0
[ 1 𝟓─ ⋋ 1 ] | 𝑦 |= | 0 |
3 1 𝟏─ ⋋ 𝑧 0
(1─⋋)x+y+3z=0
x+(5─⋋) y+z=0
3x+y+(1─⋋)z=0
The eigen vectors corresponding to the eigen values ─2,3,6 are
⋋= ─2= > X1= (─1,0,1)
⋋=3= > X2= (1, ─1,1)
⋋=6 = >X3= (1,2,1)
─𝟏 1 1
0 ─1
Let B=[ 0 ─𝟏 2] [ ]=0+1=1
1 1
1 1 𝟏

Step:3 To find B─1

─1 2
To find co factor of the element -1 = -3 𝑥 [ ]=─1─2=─3
1 1

0 2
Co factor of the element 1 = 2 𝑦 [ ] = 0 − 2 = −2 (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 − 𝑠𝑜 2)
1 1
Co factor of the element 1=1 𝑧
Co factor of the element 0=0 𝑥
Co factor of the element -1=-2 𝑦
Co factor of the element 2=2 𝑧
Co factor of the element 1=3 𝑥

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Co factor of the element 1=2 𝑦
Co factor of the element 1=1 𝑧

Similarly, we find cofactor of all the elements of the matrix B

Using the co factor we form a Adj of matrix B
─𝟑 0 3
[2 ─𝟐 2]
1 2 𝟏
─𝟏 1 1
|𝐵| = [ 0 ─𝟏 2] = -1 (-1-2)-1(0-2) +1(0+1)
1 1 𝟏
=3+2+1
|𝐵| =6
Hence the inverse of the matrix B is
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐵
𝐵 −1 = |𝐵|

─𝟏/𝟐 0 1/2
=[ 1/3 ─𝟏/𝟑 1/3 ]
1/6 1/3 𝟏/𝟔
𝟏 1 3 ─𝟏 1 1
=[1 𝟓 1] [ 0 ─𝟏 2]
3 1 𝟏 1 1 𝟏
─𝟏 + 𝟎 + 𝟑 1─1 + 3 1+2+3
=[ ─1 + 0 + 1 𝟏─𝟓 + 𝟏 1 + 10 + 1]
─3 + 0 + 1 3─1 + 1 𝟖+𝟐+𝟏
𝟐 3 6
=[0 ─𝟑 12]
2 3 𝟔
Now=B─1AB
─𝟏/𝟐 0 1/2 𝟐 3 6
= [ 1/3 ─𝟏/𝟑 1/3 ] [0 ─𝟑 12]
1/6 1/3 𝟏/𝟔 2 3 𝟔
3 6
─𝟏 + 𝟎─𝟏 ─ 2 + 0 + 3/2 ─ 2 + 0 + 6/2
2 6 12
= + 0─2/6 𝟏+𝟏+𝟏 ─ + 6/3
3 3 3
2 3 3 𝟏𝟐
[ ─ 6 + 0─2/6 6
+ 6 + 3/6 𝟏 + 𝟏𝟑 + 𝟏 ]

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 ─𝟐 0 0
=[ 0 𝟑 0]
0 0 𝟔
Hence the diagonal matrix is D= B─1 A B
─𝟐 0 0
D=[ 0 𝟑 0]
0 0 𝟔
Assignment:
Diagonalise the following matrices.

4/3 √2/3
1.[ ]
√2/3 5/3
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 ─𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0
2. [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 0]
0 0 𝟏
Hermitian Matrix
Hermitian matrix is one whose transposed conjugate or Hermitian adjoint coincides with
the matrix itself.
aii=aii* for all values of i. Every diagonal element of a Hermitian matrix is equal
to its complex conjugate and it is only possible if all the diagonal elements of a Hermitian
matrix are real numbers.
Examples:
1 𝑖 0 1 −𝑖 −3𝑖
𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑖𝑐
A=[−𝑖 𝟎 −2𝑖 ] , [ 𝑖 5 0 ],[ ]
𝑏 − 𝑖𝑐 𝑑
0 2𝑖 0 3𝑖 0 2
1 −𝑖 0
AT=[ 𝑖 𝟎 2𝑖 ]
0 −2𝑖 0
If A is any Hermitian matrix, then KA is Hermitian if K is any real number.
Skew -Hermitian matrix:
A Skew -Hermitian matrix is one whose transposed conjugate coincides with negative of
the matrix.
aii=─ aii* ie
aii+ aii*=0________ (1)
aii =x+iy where x and y are real numbers.
Then aii* =x-iy_______ (2)
aii+ aii*=2x comparing (1) and (2) we get x=0.Therefore aii=iy=√ (─1) y.

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Unitary matrices:
A square finite matrix A is said to be unitary if
AT A=I
A AT=I where AT is conjugate transpose of A and I is a unit matrix.
A AT=I, |A*A|=|AT | |A|=|I|. This shows that the determinant of unitary matrix is always
of unit modulus and hence a unitary matrix is non-singular.
Trace of a matrix:
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix is called the trace of the matrix.
Example:
─𝟐 0 0
|A|=[ 0 𝟑 0]
0 0 𝟔
The sum of the diagonal elements is -2+3+6=7.so the trace of the matrix |A| is 7

MATERICES IN PHYSICS.
There are a large number of occasions where matrices arise in classical and quantum
physics. Here we consider only a few typical cases.
1.Rotation matrix.
2.Pauil spin matrices.
3. Dirac matrices
PAUIL SPIN MATRICES
While dealing with the problem of intrinsic angular momentum of an electron in
quantum mechanics, we come across spin angular momentum operators S which may
be expressed
ℎ
Sx=1/2ћ Ճx where ћ(h-cross), ћ= , h=planks constant
2𝜋

Sy=1/2ћ Ճy
Sz=1/2ћ ճz and Ճx, Ճy, ճz are certain entities which satisfy the following
relations.
Ճx2= Ճy2= ճz2=1 and
_____________________

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Ճx Ճy + ՃyՃx = 0
Ճy ճz + ճz Ճy = 0 (1)
ճz Ճx + Ճx ճz = 0
______________________ As Ճx, Ճy , ճz anticommute in pairs, they cannot be ordinary
numbers. It is well known that matrices may anti- commute with each other. Hence we
try simplest 2x2 matrices for ճ’s equation indicates that the square of matrices are
unity.
Let us first associate with ճz the simplest 2x2 matrix having eigen values +1 and ─1.
1 0
Ճz = [ ]………... (2) now we have
0 ─1
𝑎 𝑏 1 0 𝑎 ─𝑏
Ճxճz = [ ][ ]=[ ] and
𝑐 𝑑 0 ─1 𝑐 ─𝑑

1 0 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 ─𝑏
Ճzճx = [ ][ ]=[ ]
0 ─1 𝑐 𝑑 ─𝑐 ─𝑑
As Ճx ճz + Ճz ճx = 0,
𝑎 ─𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 2𝑎 0
we must have [ ]+[ ]=[ ] = 0 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 yields a=d=0
𝑐 ─𝑑 ─𝑐 ─𝑑 0 ─2𝑑
2a+(-2d) =0
2a-2d=0
a-d=0
a=d
so that every matrix that anti-commutes with equation (2) may be expressed in the
0 𝑏
form [ ]……. (3)
𝑐 0
The eigen values of (3) are ±√(bc) so that if they are +1 or ─1 we must set bc=1 and
simplest case is to take b=c=1, so that
02-(bc)2=0
-b2c2=0 (or)
±√(bc)=0
0 1
Ճx = [ ] for third matrix Ճx we may arbitrarily b=─c and
1 0
b2=c2=1; then 0-b+c=0 (or)
b=-i, c=i -b=-c, b=c=1
1x1=1, bxc=1

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 0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0
Hence the Pauli spin matrices are Ճx = [ ]; Ճy =[ ]; ճz = [ ]
1 0 𝑖 0 0 −1
Dirac Matrices:
While deriving Dirac’s relativistic wave equation for a free particle, Dirac used
linearised Hamiltonian H in the form,
H= C α .p +βmc2=C( αxpx + αypy + αzpz )+βmc2 where C – is the speed of light.
P = (px, py , pz ) the linear momentum vectors of free particle of mass m,αx,αy,αz,β are
entities that satisfy the following conditions.
1.Their squares are unity. i.e.
αx2 =αy2=αz2=β2=1
2.They anti commute in pairs.ie
αxαy+αyαx=0
αyαz+αzαy=0
αxβ+βαx=0
αxαz+αzαx=0 and so on.
𝐼𝑚 0
As before we choose β=[ ];m+n>2
0 −𝐼𝑛
Since there cannot be four matrices of order 2x2 which anti-commute in pairs.
𝐴 𝐵
Let α1 identically partitioned as β be given by αi=[ ]
𝐶 𝐷
The anti-commuting property of αi and β shows A=D=0 while the relation αi2=I show
that
BC=I AB=BA
CB=I BC=CB
Here B is of order mxn and C is of order nxm. As finite non-singular matrices must be
square. Hence n=m and for simplicity we choose m=2 then we have
1 0 0 0
β=[ ][ ]
0 1 0 0
0 0 −1 0
[ ][ ] and the knowledge of pauli spin matrices shows that
0 0 0 −1
B=C=Ճx in αx,
B=C=ճy in αy,

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 B=C=ճz in αz thus

0 Ճx 0 0 0 1
αx = [ ]=[ ][ ]
Ճx 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
[ ][ ]
1 0 0 0

0 Ճy 0 0 0 −𝑖
αy = [ ]=[ ][ ]
Ճy 0 0 0 𝑖 0
0 −𝑖 0 0
[ ][ ]
𝑖 0 0 0

0 Ճz 0 0 1 0
αz=[ ]=[ ][ ]
Ճz 0 0 0 0 −1
1 0 0 0
[ ][ ]
0 −1 0 0

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