Detector Building __ / 100

2023 Division C Answer Key

Grading note: for any problem with work, generally each step = 1 point and answer = 1
point. Getting the answer right will award all points unless specified otherwise.
Part 1: Stress and Strain __ / 28

1. Describe the Bulk Modulus, Young’s Modulus, and Shear Modulus. Provide a
(calculus or non calculus) formula, SI units, and layman’s description for each (1
sentence is enough). [6 points]

Bulk Modulus: Resistance to volumetric compression, or the change in volume of a

substance given some pressure applied.
K = -V dP/dV = -V ΔP/ΔV = - P / (relative change in V) or any equivalent forms.
Units are in Pascals (N/m2)

Young’s Modulus: Resistance to tension or compression in one direction, the

measure of stiffness when force is applied lengthwise
E = 𝛔/ε = stress / strain or any equivalent forms
Units are in Pascals (N/m2)

Shear Modulus: Resistance to shear force. Measure of stiffness when force is

applied in a shear direction
G = 𝜏/γ = shear stress / shear strain = (F/A) / (Δx/l) or any equivalent forms.
Units are in Pascals (N/m2)

2 points for each modulus, 1 point if any of the 3 parts are missing. Any
explanation that gets the meaning is valid

2. Describe Poisson’s Ratio. Can it ever be negative? Give an example of such a

substance if it exists, or explain why it cannot be. [5 points]

𝝂 = -dεtrans/dεaxial = negative of the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain

Poisson ratios near zero simply collapse without bulging outwards, while poisson
ratios near 0.5 have nearly no bulk compression and direct all energy towards
expanding transversely (see: rubber) [3 points]
The ratio can be negative (an auxetic material) where stretching on small scales
increases the cross sectional area. [1 point]
Examples include Crystalline Li, Na, K, Cu, Rb, Ag, Auxetic polyurethane foam,
Some types of Paper, Some forms of PTFE, Tendons, etc. [1 point]
Full list: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auxetics#Examples
3. The following graph shows 4 substances and their stress vs. strain: [7 points]

a. Label the four materials with the following categories: Plastic, Non-Ductile,
Brittle, Ductile [2]
Green: Brittle, Purple: Non-Ductile, Red: Ductile, Blue: Plastic [0.5 each]
b. Name the point labeled with A and the region marked by B [2]
A: Yield strength or Elastic Limit
B: Plastic region [1 each, no partial]
c. Calculate the Young’s Modulus of the red curve [2]
200 MPa / 0.001 = 200 GPa
d. The red curve describes a common metal alloy. From (c), can you deduce
what substance it is? [1]
Steel

4. Pretend we are making our own force sensitive resistor. We cut off a cylindrical
section of an unknown substance, with radius 1cm and length 1cm. [10 points]
a. Ideally, our resistor should work around 100 ohms at 20 C. What resistivity
material should we look for so that the resistance will be 100 ohms? [2]
R = ρ L/A, ρ = R A / L = 100 * (pi * 0.012) / 0.01 = 3.14
About 3.14 Ω m
b. We also want the resistor to react meaningfully to the press of a finger. Let
the average force of a finger press be 0.5 N. By how much will the resistor
deform given that its Young’s Modulus is 100 MPa? [3]
Stress = 0.5 N / (pi * 0.012) = 1592 Pa
ΔL/L = Stress / Y = -1592 / 100 * 106 = -1.59 * 10-5
The resistor will deform by -0.0016% or by -0.16 μm
 c. Let the Gauge Factor (GF) of our resistor be 200. The Gauge Factor is
defined as the ratio of the change in resistance to the mechanical strain of
a resistor. Assuming the 100 ohm figure from a), calculate the new
resistance of our resistor after force is applied. [2]
ΔR/R= GF ΔL/L = 200 * -1.59 * 10-5 = -0.00318
ΔR = -0.00318 * 100 = 0.318, final resistance = 99.682 Ohms
d. Assume the resistor is a non doped semiconductor. What will change about
the resistance, if anything, if we raise the temperature from 20 C to 40 C?
Assume unrealistically that the temperature change maintains the length
and area (or that the resistance remains proportional to the resistivity) [1]
The resistance of a semiconductor decreases exponentially with
temperature, so R < 100.
e. Let the resistance at 40 C be R. Find the resistance at 60 C in terms of R [2]
From the basic properties of an exponential, R60C / R40C = R40C / R20C, so:
R60C / R = R / 100, or R60C = R2 / 100

Part 2: Circuitry __ / 35

5. Let us construct our own DAC. For the sake of simplicity, we are going to construct
a 4 bit R-2R resistor network on a 3 V circuit. [13 points]
a. What does DAC stand for? [1]
Digital to Analog Converter
b. How many input values can be read by this DAC? [1]
24 = 16
Shown below is a drawn model of our DAC.

c. The R-2R network is beautifully self symmetric. Prove this by finding the
equivalent resistance for section Q of the circuit [2]
First we find the resistance of the left 3 = 1/(1/200 + 1/200) + 100 = 200
Then, combining them, we find RQ = 1/(1/200 + 1/200) + 100 = 200
Notice that no matter how many links we add, the resistance is always 200.
d. The R-2R network also does not depend on the resistances of the resistors.
Show this by finding the output voltage where only input D is on. [2]
From C, the resistance left of D = 200. Thus, because V is halfway between
ground and power, V = 3/2 = 1.5 Volts
 e. Which input is the Least Significant Bit? [1]
A
f. What is the smallest Voltage difference measurable by our output? [1]
3 / 16 = 0.1875 V
g. What Voltage will be coded for an input of 9 in binary? [1]
9 * 3 / 16 = 1.6875 V

Now say we wish to create an ADC

h. Given a 4-bit ADC running on 3V, what output will be registered if 2V is
given? [1]
2V / 3V = 0.667, 0.667 * 15 = 10
An input of 10 will be registered
i. (Tiebreaker 2) Try constructing a 2-bit 4V ADC using only circuit
components. You are given 3 inputs that are either on or off, dictating
whether the input voltage is greater than 1V, 2V, and 3V respectively. For
your convenience, the recommended circuit parts are going to be 2 XOR
gates and 4 diodes. [3]

6. Low and High pass filters are commonly used in audio applications. [11 points]
a. Describe the difference between a low-pass filter and a high-pass filter. [1]
Low pass filters let low frequency inputs pass while filtering out high
frequencies. High pass filters are the opposite.
 b. Is the following circuit a low pass or a high pass filter? Explain why [2]

Low pass. Low frequencies provide ample time for the charge in the
capacitor to build up, leading to an output at Vout. High frequencies
provide no time for the charge in the capacitor to build, making it act
essentially as a ground, giving no output. [1 for low pass, 1 for explanation]
c. Change the circuit so that it becomes the opposite type of filter [1]
Swap the two components
d. Draw another circuit using an inductor instead of a capacitor that does a
similar job. [2]
Any simple RL circuit with them in series will work.
e. Are these Passive or active filters? Give one advantage of an active filter
over a passive filter. [2]
Passive (no power requiring components like a transistor, op-amp, etc).
Active filters can amplify the output signal to be even higher than the input
while passive filters such as this one can only have lower outputs than
inputs.
f. (Tiebreaker 1) Use the laws of impedance to find the cutoff frequency
where the output energy is half that of the input. Show work. [3]
Vout = Vin * XC/(XC + XR), |Vout| = |Vin| * |XC| / sqrt(Xc2 + R2)
= |Vin| * (1/ωC) / sqrt(1/(ωC)2 + R2)
(Vout/Vin)2 = 1/(ωC)2 / (1/(ωC)2 + R2) = 1 / (1 + (ωC)2R2)
Also, Vout/Vin = 1/sqrt2 since amplitude2 = energy
So, (ωC)2R2 = 1, or ω = 1/RC. Therefore, f = 1/2piRC is the cutoff frequency.

7. You are the principle engineer of a bridge and decide that using strain gauges will
be the best way to measure the compression and tension forces. Two identical
strain gauges are placed at the midpoint of the bridge, one above and one below.
It can be assumed that the bridge without load is one uniform and flat rectangular
prism. [11 points]
a. Which strain gauge will have a higher resistance during load and why? [2]
The strain gauge at the top undergoes compression while the strain gauge
at the bottom undergoes tension.
This means the one at the bottom will have higher resistance because
 under tension, the gauge filaments will be stretched and longer wires
means higher resistance. (An explanation using the gauge factor formula is
also perfectly fine)
b. In order to measure the resistance accurately, you decide to use a
Wheatstone Bridge. The galvanometer reads 0 when R1 = 100 ohms, R2 =
200 ohms, and R3 = 300 ohms in the following diagram. What is the
calculated resistance of the strain gauge (labeled Rx)? [2]

Rx = R2 * R3 / R1 = 600 ohms
c. Explain why this setup can be much more reliable than a simple voltage
divider for measuring unknown resistances if your known resistances can
be arbitrarily precise. [1]
Measuring the current at 0 in a wheatstone bridge is much more precise
than measuring the current at some arbitrary nonzero value which is the
case for a voltage divider.
d. However, adjusting the resistances bit by bit every time you want to make
an observation about the bridge is quite the hassle. Instead, fix R1, R2, and
R3 to be 100 ohms each, and the battery to be 5V. Find VG in terms of Rx.
You may assume that the galvanometer’s resistance is infinitely high. [2]
VG = VD - VB = R2/(R1+R2)*V - Rx/(R3 + Rx)*V = 5*200/300 - 5*Rx/(300+Rx)
VG = 10/3 - 5Rx/(300+Rx) or
VG = 1500/(300+Rx) - 5/3
e. Over the course of a few months, you gather the following voltages from
the strain gauge on the top of the bridge during peak hours:
VG = {0.0006, 0.0009, 0.00108, 0.00117, 0.00126}
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the strain felt by the top of
the bridge during peak hours. Assume the gauge factor is set to be the
standard of 2, and the rest resistivity of the strain gauge = 600 Ohms [4]
From d): Rx measured = {599.676, 599.514, 599.417, 599.369, 599.320}
From definition of Gauge factor, strain = (dR/R) / GF = (Rmeas - 600) / 600 * 2
So, strain = {-0.00054, -0.00081, -0.00097, -0.00105, -0.00113}
Mean = -0.000901, standard deviation = 0.000235
(in scientific notation) mean = -9.01e-4, stdev = 2.35e-4
Part 3: Diodes __ / 37

8. Diodes are commonly used in countless everyday circuitry. [12 points]

a. What key task must all diodes do? [1]
Allow current to flow only in one direction
b. Draw a PN Junction diode under forward biasing voltage. Be sure to label
the N and P materials, depletion region and flow of current (or electrons).
Contrast this with a reverse biased diode. [3]

1 point for correct current flow, 1 point for the depletion layer contrast, and 1
point for correct N and P labeling
c. Illustrate on the molecular level what a PN Junction diode would look like.
Please include holes, free electrons, and any necessary positive or
negative ions. [2]

1 point for holes/electrons being in the right material, 1 for the right ion signs
in the depletion region
d. How does the conductivity of ultrapure silicon at room temperature
compare to that of an electrical conductor like copper and to that of an
 electrical insulator like glass? Explain how doping changes this conductivity
drastically in the context of a diode. [2]
The conductivity is not nearly as high as that of a metal but also not nearly
as low as that of an insulator.
Doping increases the conductivity in a diode because electrons have an
extremely easy time entering holes on the p side and free electrons are
simultaneously pushed out of the n side.
e. I doped my PN Junction diode with Arsenic on one side and Phosphorus on
the other. Will it work? Explain why it works or provide a substitute that will
work. [2]
No, Arsenic and Phosphorus both form N type semiconductors. A substitute
would be to replace one with a group 3 element like Gallium
f. Fill in the blanks with the words “zero”, “linear”, or “exponential” [2]
At low reverse biased voltages, a diode has _Zero_ growing current
At normal reverse biased voltages, a diode has _Zero_ growing current
At low forward biased voltages, a diode has _Exponential_ growing current
At normal forward biased voltages, a diode has _Linear_ growing current

9. LEDs are a special kind of diode, well known in many applications for their large
and small scalability, and low power usage. [10 points]
a. How do LEDs produce light? [1]
Light is produced from electrons jumping the “band gap”, the difference
between the valence and conduction bands.
b. One such LED has a band gap of 3 eV. What color is this LED? [2]
E = hv, v = 3 / 4.136 * 10-15 = 7.254 * 1014 Hz
c = vλ, λ = 413 nm = violet light
c. Name a semiconductor material that produces green light and one
produces violet light. [2]
Green: (GaP, AlGaInP, AlGaP, InGaN, GaN)
Violet: (InGaN)
Yes, InGaN is on both, the color depends on the ratio of In:Ga
d. 3 LEDs of colors Yellow, Blue, and Green are given to you. Rank them in
order of forward voltage. [1]
Yellow, Green, Blue
e. What are the 2 ways that white LEDs are made? [1]
1. Mixing multiple colors of semiconductors to form white
2. Coating the epoxy cap with fluorescent material like a phosphor material
f. You have 2 LEDs with forward voltage = 2.7 V in series attached to a 9V
battery. Let the brightness of each LED be L. How does the brightness
compare if one more LED is added in series? What about 2 more? [3]
Brightness is independent of voltage (within reason)
2 LEDs = 5.4 V = full brightness (L)
3 LEDs = 8.1 V = full brightness (L)
4 LEDs = 10.8 V > 9V = all of the LEDs are off (0)
 10. Diodes in Circuits. You may assume LEDs have 0 resistance. [15 points]

a. Assume that the LED operates between 10mA and 30mA. What is the
minimum and maximum resistance of resistor X so that the LED in the next
diagram will be powered? [5]

Since we may assume that the LED resistance = 0, the total resistance of the circuit =
Rtotal = 60 + 1/(1/120 + 1/x). Also, V1 = 5(Rtotal-60) / Rtotal. Finally, ILED = V1/x
Working backwards
First, note that ILED = V1/x = 10mA, 30mA, so V1 = 0.01x, 0.03x
Also, V1 = 5R2 / (R2 + 60). And, R2 = 1/(1/120 + 1/x) = 120x/(x+120)
Setting equal, 0.01x = 600x/(x+120) / (R2 + 60), or R2 + 60 = 60000/(x+120)
Finally, substituting and cross multiplying yields x = 293.33 ohms
For the 30mA case, x = 71.11 ohms.
So, x must be between 71.11 and 293.33 ohms

b. What is the maximum power emitted by the LED in part a? [2]

P = VI = 1.5 * 0.03 = 0.045 W
c. For what values of V in the following diagram will each of the LEDs A, B,
and C be turned on? Assume they turn on for infinitesimally small positive
currents (You should have 3 ranges of V, 1 for each LED) [3]
Notice for V < 1.7 V there is no possibility of activating even the two lowest diodes.
At V = 1.7 V, the voltage across the bottom two diodes is large enough to turn them both
on. Thus, A and C turn on at V = 1.7 V.
Likewise, at V = 2.2 V, A and B may flow, turning B on. Thus, B turns on at V = 2.2 V
However, notice that at 2.2 V, the resistance through B is 0, so diode C turns off at 2.2 V.
The final answer is: A: V > 1.7V, B: V > 2.2 V, C: 1.7 V < V < 2.2 V
d. Graph the power emitted by the battery as a function of Voltage. [5]
From V = 0 to 1.7 V, the only circuit is through the bottom wire, so P = V2/R = V2/300.
Notice power goes from 0 to 9.63 mW
From V = 1.7 V to 2.2 V, the circuit goes through two 300 ohm wires in parallel, so R = 150.
Thus, P = V2/150
Notice power goes from 19.3 mW to 32.3 mW
For V > 2.2 V, the circuit now goes through one 200 ohm wire and one 300 ohm wire, so
R = 120. Thus, P = V2/120
Now power goes from 40.3 mW and continues to increase quadratically.
2 points are given for roughly correct numbers, 1 is given for the two jumps, 1 is given for
a general quadratic shape, and 1 is given for units and axes labels.
X axis = voltage = units V
Y axis = power = units W