EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis

Lecture 4: Classification of Signals

Credit: Some material in these slides is based on the references shown in the last slide.

Instructor: Dr. Abdulaziz A. Alorf

Department of Electrical Engineering

Qassim University

August 29th , 2024

EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis Lecture 4 August 29th , 2024 1 / 31

Continuous and Discrete Time Signals
Classification of Signals
Most of the signals we will talk about are functions of time.
There are many ways to classify signals:
There are many ways to classify signals. This class is organized
1. Continuous and discrete time signals:
according to whether the signals are continuous in time, or discrete.
• Most of the signals we will talk about are functions of time.
• A continuous-time signal has values for all points in time in some
A continuous-time signal has
(possibly infinite) interval. The values
value offor
theall points
signal at ain time in time
particular someis
(possibly
f (1.2). infinite) interval.
• A discrete time signal has values for only discrete points in time.
Samples of a discrete time signal f [n] = f (nT ), where n is an integer,
A discrete time signal has values for only discrete points in time.
and T is the sampling period.
f(t) f [n]

-4 -2 0 2 4
t n

• Signals can also be a function of space (images) or of space and time

(videos), and may be continuous or discrete in each dimension.
Signals can also be a function of space (images) or of space and time
(video), and may be continuous
EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis
or discrete in each
Lecture 4
dimension. 2 / 31
August 29th , 2024
Classification of Signals
2. Deterministic and nondeterministic (random) signals:
Deterministic signals: A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no
uncertainty with respect to its value at any instant of time. Signals that
can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are known as
deterministic signals.

Nondeterministic (random) signals: A signal is said to be

non-deterministic if there is uncertainty with respect to its value at some
instant of time. Non-deterministic signals are random in nature, hence
they are called random signals. Random signals cannot be described by a
mathematical equation, and are modeled in probabilistic terms.

EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis Lecture 4 August 29th , 2024 3 / 31

 x(t) = x(−t)
Classification of Signals
An odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin
3. Even and odd signals:
x(t) = −x(−t)
• An even signal is symmetric about the origin, i.e., x(t) = x(−t).
• An odd signal is antisymmetric about the origin, i.e., x(t) = −x(−t).
2 2
Even Odd
x(t) = x(−t) 1 x(t) = −x(−t) 1

-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2
t t

• Any signal can be decomposed into even and odd components such that
1 Signals and Systems
Cuff (Lecture 1) [x(t) + x(−t)], and
xe (t) =ELE 301: Fall 2011-12 31 /
2
1
xo (t) = [x(t) − x(−t)],
2
Any signal
therefore, can
xe (t) + xobe
(t) decomposed
= x(t). into even and odd components
1
EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis = 4 [x(t) + x(−t)]August 29th , 2024
x (t)Lecture 4 / 31
 Example
Classification of Signals
2 2
x(t) x(−t)
1 1

-1 0 1 t -1 0 1 t

2 2

1 1

-1 0 1 t -1 0 1 t
1 1
xe(t) = [x(t) + x(−t)] xo(t) = [x(t) − x(−t)]
2 2
• Same type of decomposition applies for discrete-time signals.
• The decomposition into even and odd components depends on the
location Same
of thetype of decomposition
origin. Shifting theapplies
signalforchanges
discrete-time signals.
the decomposition.
• Try to solve this
Cuff (Lecture 1) questionELEat301:home: Plot the even and
Signals and Systems odd 33 / 45
Fall 2011-12
1
components of the previous
The decomposition example,
into even and odd aftercomponentsshifting x(t) by
depends on 2theto the right
suchlocation
that of the origin. Shifting the signal changes the decomposition.
Plot the even and odd components
EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis
of the previous example,
Lecture 4
after shifting
August 29th , 2024 5 / 31
 Plot the even and odd components of the previous example, after shifting
Classification
x(t) by 1/2of Signals
to the right.

2 2
x(t) x(−t)
1 1

-1 0 1 t -1 0 1 t

2 2

1 1

-1 0 1 t -1 0 1 t

1 1
xe(t) = [x(t) + x(−t)] xo(t) = [x(t) − x(−t)]
2 2
4. Periodic andCuffaperiodic
(Lecture 1)
signals: ELE 301: Signals and Systems Fall 2011-12 34 / 45
• A continuous-time signal is periodic if and only if there exists a T > 0
such that
x (t + T ) = x(t) ∀t,
where T is the period of x(t) in time.

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Classification of Signals
• A discrete-time signal is periodic if and only if there exists an integer
N > 0 such that
x [n + N ] = x[n] ∀n,
where N is the period of x[n] in sample spacings.
• The smallest T and N are called the fundamental periods of a periodic
Example:
signal, and they are respectively denoted by T0 and N0 .
2
x(t)
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 t

2 x(t − 1)
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 t

- ShiftingShifting
x(t) by 1 time unit results in the same signal.
x(t) by 1 time unit results in the same signal.
EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis Lecture 4 August 29th , 2024 7 / 31
 Shifting x(t) by 1 time unit results in the same signal.
Classification of Signals
Common periodic signals are sines and cosines
Cuff (Lecture 1) ELE 301: Signals and Systems Fall 2011-12 37 / 45
x(t) = A cos(2πt/T0 − θ)
Periodic Extension
• Common periodic signalsx[n] are =sinesA cos(2πn/N
and cosines. 0 − θ)

Periodic
• Periodic signals
signals can generated
can be be generated bybyperiodic
periodic extension
extension byby
any
any segment
An aperiodic
segment signalone
of length is a signal Tthat(oris anot periodic.
of length one period T0 (orperiod
a multiple
0 ofmultiple of the period).
the period).
Seems like a simple concept, but there
2 are some interesting cases
I Is
One Period
x1(t)
1
x[n] = A cos(2πna − θ)
periodic for any a?
I -2
Is the sum of periodic -1 0 signals
discrete-time 1 periodic?
2 t
I Is the sum of periodic continuous-time
2 signals periodic?
Periodic Extension
x(t)
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 t

• We will often take a signal that is defined only over an interval T0 and
We willextension
use periodic often take to
a signal
makethat is definedsignal.
a periodic only over an interval T0
and use periodic extension to make a periodic signal.
Cuff (Lecture 1) ELE 301: Signals and Systems Fall 2011-12 38 / 45

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Classification of Signals
• Examples:
1. Obtain the fundamental period for the following signal:

x(t) = cos (ω0 t + θ) .

For x(t) to be periodic, there exists

x(t + T ) = x(t), ∀t and T > 0,

such that
cos (ω0 (t + T ) + θ) = cos (ω0 t + θ) , and
cos (ω0 t + θ + ω0 T ) = cos (ω0 t + θ) .

Since the fundamental period of cos(t) is 2π, then we can write

ω
0t +

θ + ω0 T = 
ω
0t +

θ + k2π, where k is a positive integer.

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Classification of Signals

If
2π
ω0 T = k2π or T = k ,
ω0
2π
then the fundamental period T0 of x(t) will be T0 = ω0
where k = 1.
Note that, we can directly obtain the fundamental period as follows:

2π
T0 = .
ω0

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Classification of Signals
2. Obtain the fundamental period for the following signal:

x[n] = cos n2 .

For x[n] to be periodic, there exists

x[n + N ] = x[n], ∀n and N > 0,

such that
cos (n + N )2 = cos n2 , and

cos n2 + 2nN + N 2 = cos n2 .

Since the fundamental period of cos(n) is 2π, then we can write

n2 + 2nN + N 2 = n2 + k2π, where k is a positive integer.

| {z }
It can not be a
multiple of 2π

Since n and N are both integers, then 2nN + N 2 can not be a

multiple of 2π. Therefore, x[n] is not periodic (i.e., aperiodic).
EE301 Signals and Systems Analysis Lecture 4 August 29th , 2024 11 / 31
Classification of Signals
3. Obtain the fundamental period for the following signal:
 2
πn
x[n] = cos , and.
8
For x[n] to be periodic, there exists
x[n + N ] = x[n], ∀n and N > 0,
such that
π(n + N )2
   2
πn
cos = cos , and
8 8
π π π  π 
cos n2 + 2nN + N 2 = cos n2 .
8 8 8 8
Since the fundamental period of cos(n) is 2π, then we can write
π 2 π π π
n + 2nN + N 2 = n2 + k2π, where k is a positive integer
8 8 8 8
π π 2 8
2nN + N =k2π, ×
8 8 π
2nN + N 2 =k16.
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Classification of Signals

For any value of n, it is clearly that the smallest number N for which
the left-hand side of the previous equation is a multiple of 16, is
N = 8 such that
2nN + N 2 =k16
2n8 + 82 =k16
16n + 16 × 4 =k16
(n + 4)16 =k16.

Therefore, the fundamental period N0 of x[n] is 16.

Note that, we can directly obtain the fundamental period as follows:
2π π
N0 = , where ω0 = .
ω0 8

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Classification of Signals

4. Find the fundamental angular frequency of the following discrete

complex exponential signal:

x[n] = ejωn .

For the signal x[n] to be periodic with a period N , it has to satisfy

x[n + N ] = x[n], ∀n and N > 0,

such that
ejω(n+N ) = ejωn =⇒ ejωn e|jωN jωn
{z } = e .
=1
jωN j2πk
We can write that e =1=e , where k is an integer. This
implies that ωN must be a multiplier of 2π such that

N 2π
ωN = 2πk =⇒ = .
k ω

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Classification of Signals

Since k is an integer, and also N is an integer (represents a number of

samples), then 2πω must be a rational number (a ratio of two integers)
in order for the signal to be periodic. In order for the period
2π
N =k ,
ω
to be the fundamental period N0 , k must be the smallest integer that
makes N an integer, and then the fundamental angular frequency ω0
will be
ω 2π
ω0 = = =⇒ ω = k ω0 .
k N0
As a result, the original signal can now be written as:
2π
x[n] = ejωn = ejkω0 n = ejk N0 n .

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Classification of Signals

5. Obtain the fundamental period for the following signal:

π
x(t) = ej [( 2 )t−1] .

Let’s rewrite x(t) as

π
x(t) = ej [( 2 )t−1] = e−j ej 2 t .
π

For x(t) to be periodic, there exists

x(t + T ) = x(t), ∀t and T > 0,

such that
π π
e−j ej 2 (t+T ) = e−j ej 2 t , and
π π π
e−j ej 2 t e|j{z
2 T = e−j ej 2 t .
}
=1

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Classification of Signals

This implies that

π
ej 2 T = 1 = ej2πk , where k is a positive integer.

Furthermore,
π
T = 2πk or T = k4.
2
As a result, the fundamental period T0 of x(t) will be T0 = 4 where
k = 1.
Note that, we can directly obtain the fundamental period as follows:
2π π
T0 = , where ω0 = .
ω0 2

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Classification of Signals

• Evaluating periodicity for continuous signals:

- When two periodic sinusoids having the same frequency are added
together, then the output signal is also going to be a sinusoidal signal
and also periodic.
- When two signals having different frequencies are added together,
then the output signal maybe periodic (i.e., can be aperiodic).
- Here is how to check the periodicity of two added signals x1 (t) and
x2 (t), and find the fundamental period of the added signals:
If the fundamental periods of x1 (t) and x2 (t) are respectively given by
T01 and T02 , then the output signal is said to be periodic if and only if

T01
= A rational number (integer by integer).
T02

This can be easily proved as follows:

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Classification of Signals
Since x1 (t) and x2 (t) are periodic signals, with the fundamental
periods T01 and T02 respectively, then we can write

x1 (t) =x1 (t + T1 ) = x1 (t + mT01 ) , where m is a positive integer, and

x2 (t) =x2 (t + T2 ) = x2 (t + kT02 ) , where k is a positive integer.

Let’s denote to the sum of the two periodic signals by x(t), where

x(t) = x1 (t + mT01 ) + x2 (t + kT02 ) ,

then in order for x(t) to be periodic with a period T , one needs

x(t + T ) = x1 (t + T ) + x2 (t + T ) = x1 (t + mT01 ) + x2 (t + kT02 ) .

Hence, we must have

mT01 = kT02 = T, (1)
or
T01 k
= = a rational number. [Proved]
T02 m
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Classification of Signals

Therefore, the sum of two periodic signals is periodic if and only if the
ratio of their respective periods can be expressed as a rational
number. Then the fundamental period T0 is the least common
T
multiple of T01 and T02 , and it is given by Equation 1. If the ratio T001
2
is an irrational number, then the signals x1 (t) and x2 (t) do not have a
common period and x(t) cannot be periodic.

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Classification of Signals

• Evaluating periodicity for discrete signals:

- If a discrete signal is periodic then the ratio 2π
ω must be a rational
number.
- When two discrete signals x1 [n] and x2 [n] are added together, then
the output signal is going to be periodic as long as x1 [n] and x2 [n] are
both periodic. This can be easily proved as follows:
Every non-empty set of natural numbers has a unique least element,
for example, the set of even natural numbers has 2 as its least
element. If a and b are non-negative integers, ab is a common multiple
of them. Thus the set of common multiples is non-empty and has a
unique least element, which by definition is LCM(a, b).
If x1 [n] and x2 [n] are periodic, then their fundamental periods are the
least possible integers. Since the period of the output signal is the
LCM of the fundamental periods of x1 [n] and x2 [n], then the LCM
will exist if and only if the fundamental periods of x1 [n] and x2 [n] are
both least positive integers, i.e., they are periodic.

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Classification of Signals

• Examples:
1. Express the following continuous signal in terms of its fundamental
angular frequency:
   
10π 5π
x(t) = cos t + sin t .
3 4

The fundamental frequencies and periods of the two terms are,

respectively,
10π 5 3
w01 = , f01 = , T01 = , and
3 3 5
5π 5 8
w02 = , f02 = , T02 = .
4 8 5

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Classification of Signals
T
The signal x(t) is periodic, because T001 = 35 × 58 = 83 , is a rational
2
number. Then the fundamental period T0 is the least common
multiple (LCM) of T01 and T02 such that
 
3 8 24
T0 = LCM , = .
5 5 5
2π 5π
Now, we get ω0 = 2πf0 = T0 = 12 , and then the signal can be written
as
   
10π 5π
x(t) = cos t + sin t
3 4
   
5π 5π
= cos 8 t + sin 3 t
12 12
= cos (8w0 t) + sin (3w0 t) ,

i.e., the two terms are the 3rd and 8th harmonics of the fundamental
angular frequency ω0 , respectively.
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Classification of Signals

2. Express the following discrete signal in terms of its fundamental

angular frequency:
π  π 
x[n] = sin n + cos n
2 4
Let’s consider that
π  π 
x1 [n] = sin n and x2 [n] = cos n ,
2 4
then the fundamental period of x1 [n] is given by
2π 2π
N0 1 = k =k = k 4, where k = 1,
ω01 π/2

and the fundamental period of x2 [n] is given by

2π 2π
N0 2 = k =k = k 8, where k = 1.
ω02 π/4

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Classification of Signals
The signal x[n] is periodic, because x1 [n] and x2 [n] are periodic. As a
result, the fundamental period N0 of the signal x[n] is given by

N0 = LCM(8, 4) = 8.

Therefore, the fundamental angular frequency ω0 of the signal x[n] is

given by
2π 2π π
ω0 = = = .
N0 8 4
To represent x[n] in terms of ω0 , we need to find k1 and k2 such that
π  π 
x[n] = sin n + cos n
2 4
= sin (k1 ω0 n) + cos (k2 ω0 n) ,
ω01 π 4 ω02 π 4
then k1 = ω0 = 2 × π = 2, and k2 = ω0 = 4 × π = 1. Finally,
 π  π 
x[n] = sin 2 n + cos n ,
4 4
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Classification of Signals

i.e., the two terms are respectively the 1st and 2nd harmonics of the
fundamental angular frequency ω0 = π4 .
3. Obtain the fundamental period for the following signal:
√ 
x(t) = cos (t) + sin 2t .
√

Let x1 (t) and x2 (t) are respectively equal to cos (t) and sin 2t .
Then for x1 (t) to be periodic, there exists

x1 (t + T1 ) = x1 (t), ∀t and T1 > 0,

such that

cos (t + T1 ) = cos (t) .

Since the fundamental period of cos(t) is 2π, then we can write

t + T1 = t + k2π, where k is a positive integer.

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Classification of Signals
If
T1 = k2π,
then the fundamental period T01 of x1 (t) will be T01 = 2π where
2π
k = 1. Similarly, the fundamental period T02 of x2 (t) will be T02 = √ 2
.
T01 2π√
√
Finally, the signal x(t) is not periodic, because T0 = 2π/ 2 = 2, is
2
an irrational number.
4. Express the following discrete signal in terms of its fundamental
angular frequency:

x[n] = ej(2π/3)n + ej(3π/4)n .

Let’s consider that

x1 [n] = ej(2π/3)n and x2 [n] = ej(3π/4)n ,

then the fundamental period of x1 [n] is given by

2π 2π
N01 = k =k = k 3, where k = 1,
ω 01 2π/3
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Classification of Signals
and the fundamental period of x2 [n] is given by
2π 2π 8
N0 2 = k =k = k , where k = 3.
ω02 3π/4 3

The signal x[n] is periodic, because x1 [n] and x2 [n] are periodic. As a
result, the fundamental period N0 of the signal x[n] is given by

N0 = LCM(8, 3) = 24.

Therefore, the fundamental angular frequency ω0 of the signal x[n] is

given by
2π 2π π
ω0 = = = .
N0 24 12
To represent x[n] in terms of ω0 , we need to find k1 and k2 such that

x[n] =ej(2π/3)n + ej(3π/4)n

=ejk1 ω0 n + ejk2 ω0 n ,

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Classification of Signals

ω01 2π 12 ω2 3π 12
then k1 = ω0 = 3 × π = 8, and k2 = ω0 = 4 × π = 9. Finally,
π π
x[n] = ej8 12 n + ej9 12 n ,

i.e., the two terms are respectively the 8th and 9th harmonics of the
π
fundamental angular frequency ω0 = 12 .

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The End

Any questions?

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References

B.P. Lathi. Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems, 3rd ed. Oxford
University Press, Oxford, 2009.
Sanjay Sharma. Signals and Systems, 6th ed. S.K. Kataria & Sons, Delhi, 2008.

Alan V. Oppenheim, Alan S. Willsky, and S. Hamid Nawab. Signals and

Systems, 2nd ed. Pearson, London, 1996.
Simon Haykin and Barry Van Veen. Signals and Systems, 2nd ed. Wiley,
Hoboken, 2002.
Michael D. Adams. Signals and Systems, 3rd ed. University of Victoria,
Victoria, 2020.

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