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Mathematics Class 11 Project

The document provides a comprehensive overview of matrices, including their definitions, types (such as symmetric and skew-symmetric), and basic operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication. It also discusses determinants, their properties, and the concepts of adjoint and inverse matrices. Additionally, the document traces the historical development of matrix theory and its applications in various fields.

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10 views15 pages

Mathematics Class 11 Project

The document provides a comprehensive overview of matrices, including their definitions, types (such as symmetric and skew-symmetric), and basic operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication. It also discusses determinants, their properties, and the concepts of adjoint and inverse matrices. Additionally, the document traces the historical development of matrix theory and its applications in various fields.

Uploaded by

yourgrave532
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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INTRODUCTION

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or


expressions arranged in rows and columns. It is a
fundamental concept in mathematics, widely used in
fields such as algebra, statistics, physics, computer
science, and engineering.
EXAMPLE OF MATRIX:

Here
A is the matrix name.
m is the number of rows.
n is the number of columns.
Each element is denoted as a ij, where i indicates the row
number and j indicates the column number.

Review of Matrix
Sizes of matrix
: The expression number of rows X number of columns is
called the order or sizes or dimension of a matrix.
Specific Matrices
1. Symmetric matrix: A square matrix A = (a ij) is called a
symmetric matrix if a ij= a ij for all i and j . For example
2. Skew-symmetric matrix : A matrix A = (a ij) is called
symmetrically placed about a ij = −a ij for all i and j.

By definition, the diagonal elements of a skew-


symmetric matrix are zero, i.e.
a 11=a 22 = a 33 =………=0,

since by any definition, for any i


a ii=a ii = 2a ii= 0 => a ii=0.

For Example,

Algebra of Matrices
In order to work with matrices, we need to define
equality of two matrices along the basic operations of
matrix algebra. The basic operations are given below:

 Addition of matrix
 Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar
 Subtraction of a matrix form a matrix
 Multiplication of matrices
Addition of Matrices
If matrices have the same order, we can add the matrices
by adding their corresponding elements as mentioned in
the above case. Thus,
Definition If two matrices have the same order, we can say
that the matrices are conformable for addition.

Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar


Let A be a matrix and K be a number, sometimes called
scalar, then matrix KA obtained by multiplying each
element A by K is called the product of matrix A by scalar
K.

Subtraction of Matrices.
Let A- (a ij )m∗n and B = (b ij )m∗n are two matrices of the same
order m*n . Then their difference denoted by A-B is
defined by

A-B = (a ij - b ij ¿ ¿m∗n for all i = 1,2,…..,m


And j = 1,2,…..,n
By definition B – A = (b ij - a ij ¿ ¿m∗n
Note that
A – B = A + (-1)B and B – A = B = (-1)A

Multiplication of Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be conformable for
product AB If the number of columns in the first matrix A
is equal to the number of rows in the second matrix B.

Definition Let A = (a ij ¿ ¿m∗n and B = (b ij ¿ ¿ p∗n be two matrices.


Product matrix AB is defined by
AB = (c ij ¿ ¿ m∗n
p
Where c ij =a i1 b 1 j + a i2 b 2 j + … + a ip b pj = ∑ aik b kj
k =1

Transpose of a Matrix
A new matrix is formed by changing all rows
into columns (or columns into rows) of a given matrix A is
called the transpose of matrix A. It is denoted by A’ or AT or
tran (A)
Example 1
DETERMINANTS
The determinant of a square matrix is a scalar value that
can be computed from the elements of the matrix. It
provides important properties of the matrix, such as:
 Whether the matrix is invertible (a matrix is
invertible if and only if its determinant is non-
zero).
 The scaling factor of the linear transformation
represented by the matrix.
 The volume scaling factor in geometric
transformations.
Methods of evaluating a determinant
Value of a Determinant of Order 1
Definition: The value of the determinant of a matrix A =
(a)1 x1 of an element (i.e. only one row and one column) is
defined by |A| = |a| = a
For example, if A = (3), then |A| = |3| =3
Definition The value of the determinant of a matrix A =

( aa aa ) having two rows and two columns is defined by


12

21
12

22

21
|
a
22
a
|
|A| = a11 a12 = a 11 a22- a 21 a12

Example 2
Example 3

Properties of Determinants

1. If all rows are changed into columns (or all columns


are changed into rows), the value of the determinant
remains unchanged, i.e |A| = | AT |

Example.6
Property 2 If each element in any row (or each
element in any column) of a determinant is zero, then
the value of the determinant is equal to zero

If each element in any row (or each element in any


column) of a determinant is zero, then expanding
about that ow (or column), we obtain each term in the
expansion to be zero. Hence the value of the
determinant is equal to Zero.
Example 7

Property 3: If any two rows (or columns) of a


determinant are interchanged, the resulting
determinant is the negative of the original
determinant.

Example 8
Property 4 If all the elements of any row (or column)
are multiplied by a constant, then the value of the
resulting determinant is the product of the value of
the determinant constant.

This property can also be restated are as follows:

A common factor of all elements of a row (or column)


if a determinant can be factored out of the
determinant.

Property 5 If each element in a row (or column) of a


determinant is written as the sum of two or more
terms, then the determinant can be written as the
sum of two or more determinants.

Property 6 If any value rows (or columns) of a


determinant are identical then the value of the
determinant is zero.

Property 7 If each of a row (or column) of a


determinant is equal to some number times the
corresponding element of another row (or column),
the value of the determinant is zero.

This property is obtained first by applying Property 4


and the Property 6. For example :
Property 8 If two each element of a row (or column)
of a determinant we add (or subtract) the
corresponding element of another row (or column)
multiplied by the same number, the determinant
remains unchanged.

This property is obtained by applying Property 5,


Property 4 and then Property 6.

Example 9

Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix

Adjoint of a Matrix
Let A = (a ij) be a square matrix. If Aij the
cofactor of an element a ij then we can form a
new matrix ( Aij), known as the matrix of the
cofactors of the element of A.

Definition Let A= (a ij) be a matrix and Aij the


cofactor of an element a ij. The adjoint of matrix
A is denoted by adj A and is defined by adj A =
( Adj) .
T
Inverse of a
Matrix
The operation of dividing one matrix directly by
another does not exist in matrix theory, However the
equivalent of unit matrix by a square matrix can be
accomplished by a process known as “Inversion of a
matrix”. In case of real numbers if ab = 1, then b is
the inverse or reciprocal of a and we write b = a−1 .
This motivates the following definition.

Definition A matrix B is called the inverse matrix of a


matrix A if AB = BA = I,
Where I is an identity matrix and A and B are square
matrices. In this case, we write
B= A−1
Thus, by definition,

A A−1 = A−1 A=I .

History of Matrices……..
The term matrix was introduced by the 19th-century
English mathematician James Sylvester, but it was his
friend the mathematician Arthur Cayley who
developed the algebraic aspect of matrices in two
papers in the 1850s.

Chinese and Japanese Contributions: The earliest


known use of matrices comes from ancient Chinese
and Japanese mathematics. The "Nine Chapters on
the Mathematical Art" (circa 1st century AD) provides
methods that resemble matrix operations,
particularly solving systems of linear equations.

Determinants in Ancient Mathematics: The use of


determinants in solving systems of equations can be
traced to ancient Indian and Greek mathematicians,
though it was not yet formalized as part of matrix
theory.

Development in the 19th Century

 Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855): While


Gauss is famous for his work on matrices in
the context of solving systems of linear
equations, he did not formalize matrices as
a concept.
 Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789–1857): He
introduced the term "determinant" and
worked on its properties, which is crucial
for modern matrix theory.
 Arthur Cayley (1821–1895): Often regarded
as the father of matrix theory. In the mid-
1800s, he introduced the formal definition
of matrices and matrix multiplication, as
well as the concept of the inverse matrix.
 James Joseph Sylvester (1814–1897):
Worked closely with Cayley and
contributed to the development of matrix
theory. He coined the term "matrix" (from
the Latin word for "womb" or "source") to
describe the array of numbers.
Advancement in the 20th Century

Matrix Algebra: The 20th century saw the formalization


and standardization of matrix operations, such as
addition, multiplication, transposition, and inversion. This
was essential for various fields like linear algebra and
computer science.
Determinants and Eigenvalues: Key concepts like
eigenvalues, eigenvectors, and the diagonalization of
matrices became important areas of study, particularly in
fields like quantum mechanics, computer graphics, and
optimization.

IMAGE REFRENCES

Carl Fedrich
Augustin-Louis Cauchy

Arthur Cayley

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