WORDPROCESSING - MSWORD

WordProcessing is the art of text manipulation. MsWord is a Word processing program. It helps in creating
professional-looking documents that can be printed, e.g., letters, reports, memos, essays, projects, books,
etc,.

Microsoft Word is one of the components of Microsoft Office. Microsoft Office is an integrated software
with a number of interrelated programs, which include; Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel (a spreadsheet),
Microsoft Access (a database management system), Microsoft PowerPoint (a presentation package), etc.
Each program allows the user to solve a variety of common computer related tasks.

Microsoft Office allows the user to work with programs that have the same basic structure and interface. It
also allows the users to share information quickly and easily between different programs.

There are several versions of Microsoft Word, the most common being Word 97, Word 2000, Word XP, and
Word 2003. These versions of Microsoft Word are found in Microsoft Office 97, 2000, XP and 2003 suites
respectively.

Starting Microsoft Word.

There are a number of ways you can start Microsoft Word.

Method 1.
Click the Start button, point to Programs (or All Programs, if you are using Windows XP), then click
Microsoft Word from the programs menu.

Method 2.
Click on the Microsoft Word icon on the Microsoft Office Shortcut Bar, if it is displayed on the desktop.

Parts of the Microsoft Word Screen.

Once you start Microsoft Word, it provides you with a blank document window where you can create your
document.
1. Title bar - it displays the title of currently running application.
2. Menu bar – provides a drop down list of commands that one can use to perform a task e.g. File, Edit,
View.
3. Tool bar (Ribbon) – contains buttons and boxes that allow you to perform tasks more quickly than
using menu bar.
4. Rulers – used to set tab stops, index paragraphs, adjust column width and change page margins.
Click the View menu, and then choose Ruler on the drop down menu that appears. A checkmark or
tick will appear next to it showing that the ruler is displayed on the screen
5. Status bar – displays information about the program currently running.
6. Work area – this is the area where you can enter text or graphical objects.
7. Scroll bars – allows the user to “pan” the windows up and that doesn’t fit in the window.
8. Minimise button – reduces a window to become a button on the task bars.
9. Maximise button/Restore – it stretches the window to cover the entire screen or restore it to it’s
original size respectively.

CREATING A DOCUMENT WINDOW

This is the process of typing text in a clean page.
Click on start button
Scroll down to letter M ,find Microsoft office And click on the prompt to look for Microsoft word
 On the “File” menu.
 Click the “New” (New document task pane is displayed).
 Click the “Blank document”.
 Click the “OK” button.
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NB; shortcut key Ctrl + N

Creating a document based on a template

You may want create a professional or elegant document such as resume, fax, letters, memos or reports
based on existing Word templates.

 On the “File” menu.

 Click the “New” (New document task pane is displayed)
 In the “Templates” section, click the “On My Computer”. (Template dialog box is displayed).
 Select the tab that contain you want to use.
 Select a type of template document.
 Click the “OK” button. (Template document is displayed)
 Create this document.

SAVING A DOCUMENT
This is the process of making a document exist in your PC storage media, or on secondary storage.
NB; PC stands for Personal Computer.

Saving Commands
Save – this command saves the document without changing the file name or the location.
Save as – this command allows the user to save the document for the first time, change the file name or
save on a different location.
Saving with Password – a password is a string of characters used to prevent from unauthorised users. A
password is case sensitive always note the combinations of characters used.

Steps of ‘Save’ a document

On the “File” menu.
Click the “Save”.
NB; shortcut key Ctrl + S

Steps of ‘Save As’ a document

On the “File” menu.
Click the “Save as” (Save as dialog box is displayed.)
Select location from save in.
Type file name in the box.
Click the “Save” button.
NB; shortcut key F12

Steps of ‘Save with Password’ a document

On the “File” menu
Click the “Save as”
Select the location
Type the file name.
Click the “Tools
Click the “Security options” (Security options dialog box is displayed).
Type the password when opening a document (you need retype password for confirm).
Type the password to protect against modification (you need retype password for confirm).
Click the “OK” button.
Click the “Save” button.

CLOSING A DOCUMENT
On the “File” menu.
Click “Close”
NB; shortcut key Ctrl + F4
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OPENING / RETRIEVING A DOCUMENT
This refers to opening a document which has already been created and saved.
On the “File” menu.
Click the “Open” (Open dialog box is displayed).
Select the location of the file from “Look in”.
Click the name of the document you want to open.
Click the “Open” button.
NB; shortcut key Ctrl + O

You can also open a file from a recently used file list on the “File” menu. Word keeps a list of recently used
files on the “File” drop down menu.

If recently documents isn’t displayed.

On the “Tool” menu.
Click the “Option” (Option dialog box is displayed).
Click the “General” tab.
Select the “Recently used file list check box.

EXITING MSWORD
This refers to quitting the MS-Word program completely
On the “File” menu.
Click the “Exit”.
NB; shortcut key Alt + F4

EDITING A DOCUMENT
Editing – refers to making necessary changes to an existing document.

Text Selection
Selecting text using the Keyboard
 To select one word, move the insertion pointer to the beginning or end of the word then press
“Shift+Ctrl+Right” or left arrow.
 To select one line, press “Shift+Up” or “Shift+Down” arrow key. Alternatively, move the insertion point
to the end or beginning of the line then press “Shift+Home” or “End” keys respectively.
 To select an entire page, press “Shift+Page Down” or “Shift+Page Up”.
 To select the entire document, press “Ctrl+A” or place the cursor at the beginning of the document, then
press “Shift+Ctrl+End”.

Selecting text using the Mouse

 To select a word, place the insertion pointer on the word then, double click it.
 To select the entire line, position the mouse pointer on the left margin until it changes to an arrow, then
click once.
 To select a paragraph, place the pointer at the beginning or end of the paragraph. Notice that the pointer
changes to I-beam. Now drag the I-beam over the text to be selected and release the mouse button at the
end of the text you work on.
 To select a paragraph, Triple-click anywhere inside the paragraph.
Cursor Movement
 1 character to the left.........................................................Left arrow
 1 character to the right.......................................................Right arrow
 Down 1 line.......................................................................Down arrow.
 Up 1 line............................................................................Up arrow.
 To the beginning of the current line..................................HOME.
 To the end of the current line............................................END.
 To the beginning of a document ......................................CTRL+Home
 To the end of a document .................................................CTRL+End
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 To the page above the one displayed on the screen .........Page Up.
 To the next page (page below the one displayed).............Page Down.

Scrolling through the document

Scrolling is the movement of text document on the screen up, down, left and right. Scrolling is done either
using the Up or Down arrow keys, Page Up or Page Down keys, or using the Mouse in Windows based
word processors.

Up 1 line ................................................................................ Up scroll arrow.

Down 1 line ........................................................................... Down scroll arrow.
Right....................................................................................... Right scroll arrow.
Left......................................................................................... Left scroll arrow.
Up 1 screen ........................................................................... Above the scroll box.
Down 1 screen ....................................................................... Below the scroll box.
To a specific page ................................................................. Drag the scroll box.
After scrolling, click where you want to start typing.
Tip. To scroll more slowly, use the Arrow keys, Page Up or Page Down on the Keyboard.

VIEWING DOCUMENTS.
Ms-Word provides different ways to view your work, depending on the task at hand.
Print Layout View: Displays how a document or other object will appear when printed. It shows how text,
graphics, headers, footnotes, columns, textboxes and other elements will be positioned on the printed
page. This view is useful for editing headers and footers, for adjusting margins, and for working with
columns and drawing objects. To switch to print layout view, click Print Layout on the View menu.
Web layout view: Shows how a document will appear in a Web browser. In Web layout view, the document
appears as one long page (without page breaks), while text and tables wrap to fit in the window. To
switch to Web layout view, click Web Layout on the View menu.
Full Screen mode: In this mode, Ms-Word removes distracting screen elements, such as toolbars and scroll
bars so that it displays as much of your document as possible on the screen. To switch to full-screen
mode, click Full Screen on the View menu.

DELETING TEXT.
Backspace Key: It has a backward arrow (←) marked on it. Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor.
When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate letter / number is erased.
 To delete a character from the right to the left, place the insertion point on the right of the word, then
press the Backspace key.
 To erase one word to the left of the cursor, press CTRL+ Backspace.

Delete Key.
Erases characters to the right of the cursor.
 To delete a character to the right of the cursor position, place the insertion point on the left of the word,
then press the Delete key.

To delete a block of text.

Highlight (select) the text to be deleted, then press the Delete key.

Restoring deleted text.

To restore text that has just been deleted, click Undo from the Edit menu (or on the Standard toolbar).

TYPING MODES.
There are 2 typing modes in a word processor that assist the user in typing or editing text documents.

Insert mode
This is the default typing mode in most word processors. In Insert mode, Ms-Word inserts characters as you
type, and any new text you enter in the middle of a line is inserted between existing texts, characters or
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words. The Insert mode pushes existing text away as new characters are inserted at the location of the
cursor without replacing it.

Overtype mode
To Overtype is to replace existing characters as you type. Therefore, if Overtype mode is turned on, tying
new text between existing words or characters automatically replaces the existing text by deleting it.
Overtype mode deletes the current text at the cursor position and replaces the existing characters with new
text.

Switching between Overtype & Insert mode.

 Double-click the OVR label on the Status bar to turn Overtype on or off.
 Press the INSERT (Ins) key on the Keyboard to switch between Insert & Overtype mode.
 On the Tools menu, click Options, then click the Edit tab. Select or clear the Overtype mode
checkbox.

COPYING AND PASTING TEXT AND OBJECTS.

Copying text means making a duplicate of the text or object.
1. Select the text or item you want to copy. To copy multiple items that aren't next to each other; select one
item, hold down CTRL, then click the other items.
2. Click Copy on the Home or press CTRL+C. Ms-Word places a copy of the selection in the Clipboard.
3. Click where you want the copy of the text to appear. To copy the item to another document, switch or
open the document.
4. Click Paste on the Home ribbon or press CTRL+V).

MOVING TEXT & GRAPHICS

Moving of text means relocating text from one place in a document to another (or changing the position of
text or an object in a document).

Drag-and-Drop editing.
1. Select the text you want to move.
2. Point to the selection, press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. While still holding down the left mouse button, move the mouse pointer to the required location. The
dimmed insertion point that moves in the document shows you the position to which the selected text
will be transferred when you release the left mouse button.
4. Then release the mouse button.

Note. Drag-and-drop editing is suitable when you are moving text over a short distance, e.g., within one
page. It is clumsy to use when moving text across several pages.

Cut and Paste.

To move text to a distant page, say from page 1 to page 50, use the Cut and Paste method.

1. Select the text you want to move.

2. Click Cut on the Standard toolbar or Edit menu (or press CTRL+X).

Ms-Word will place whatever you had selected into a temporary storage area within the computer called the
‘Clipboard’ from where it is available to any application in Windows.

3. Click where you want the cut text to be placed. To move the item to another document, open or switch
to the document.
4. Click Paste on the Standard toolbar or Edit menu (or press CTRL+V).
Ms-Word inserts the contents of the clipboard at the position of the cursor.

Note. In Moving, all the selected text is transferred to a new location, while in Copying, the original text is
left intact.
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FINDING & REPLACING TEXT
The Find and Replace features are used to search for a specific word or phrase that you want to review or
edit and automatically replace with other text. When you need to search for a word or phrase in a large
document, use the Find command. In case you wish to replace a word or phrase, use the Replace option.

Search (Find) text.

On the Home Ribbon, click Find (or press CTRL+F).
In the Find what box, type the text that you want to search for. Select any other search options that you
want.
Click on the Find Next or Find All button.
This will start the search and the first occurrence of the word will be highlighted.
Click OK when a message appears telling you that Ms-Word has finished searching the document.
Click Cancel to close the dialog box.

You can click the More button to display and specify search options.
 Match case: Identifies only text that has the same case with that typed in the Find What box, e.g., it will
not find the word DEEN if you typed deen and selected the Match Case option.
 Whole Word: Searches for a word or phrase that is whole. If it is part of another word, it will not be
found, e.g., the word ever will not be found in words like however, whenever, etc during the search.
 Use wildcards: Wildcards are special symbols such as * and ? that are used to represent a set of words
that have some similar characteristics. E.g., names like Jeff, Joe, Jane can be represented using a wildcard
as J*, which means all names starting with J.
 Like: Searches for words which are similar in pronunciation, e.g. Fare and Fair.

To Find and Replace text at the same time.

On the Home ribbon, click Replace (or press CTRL+H).
In the Find what box, enter the text that you want to search for or replace.
In the Replace with box, enter the replacement text. Select any other options that you want.
If you want to replace only some occurrences of the text, click on the Find Next button, then click
Replace. This changes the selected text in the Find What box, then finds the next occurrence.
However, if you want to replace all occurrences of the text in the Find What box at once, click the
Replace All button.

Using the Go To feature.

This feature is used when you want to quickly go to a specific item in a document, e.g., page, line, graphic,
footnote, table, etc.
Click the Go To tab in the Find and Replace dialog box.
Under the Go to what section, specify the item you want to locate, e.g. Page. Type the page number, or
section number in the Enter box.
Click the Go To button.
Close the dialog box.

INSERTING SYMBOLS & SPECIAL CHARACTERS.

You can display on the screen, and also print Symbols and special characters that are not on your Keyboard
eg, you can insert symbols such as fractions (¼) and ©, special characters such as an ellipsis (…),
international characters such as (Ç, ë), and international monetary symbols (£, ¥) depending on the available
fonts.

1. Click where you want to insert the symbol or the special character.
2. On the Insert Ribbon, click Symbol or Equation
3. Then select the required symbol or Equation

INSERTING DATE & TIME.

Insert the current date and time in a document.
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1. Click where you want to insert the date or time.
2. On the Insert Ribbon, click Date and Time.
3. In the Available formats box, click a date or time format.
 To insert the date and time as a field that will automatically be updated when you open or print the
document, select the Update automatically checkbox.

PROOFREADING.
Proofreading refers to checking whether the document has typographical or grammar errors.

Importance.
√ To remove mistakes and improve document wording selections.

Ms-Word provides the following tools for proofreading a prepared document; Spelling and grammar
checker, Thesaurus, AutoComplete and AutoCorrect.

CHECKING SPELLINGS & GRAMMAR IN A DOCUMENT.

Ms-Word has the ability to check spellings within your document as you type or edit the document.
The Spelling and grammar checker is an inbuilt tool that helps the user to correct spelling errors and
incorrect grammar structures. The words you type in are compared to those in its dictionary. However, the
checker can only recognize errors of those words whose correct spelling is in its dictionary. This implies
that, a correctly spelt word used wrongly cannot be detected.

For example; if you mistype a word but the result is not a misspelling (e.g., typing "from" instead of "form"
or "there" instead of "their"), the spelling checker will not mark the word. To identify those types of
problems, the document should be carefully proof-read just before and after printing.

Ms-Word uses wavy red underlines to indicate possible spelling mistakes & wavy green underlines to
indicate possible grammatical mistakes.

Check spelling & grammar automatically as you type.

1. Make sure automatic spelling and grammar checking are turned on.
2. Type in the document.
When the spelling checker encounters a word it doesn't recognize, it determines the words in its
dictionary that are similarly spelled and displays a list of those words with the most likely match
highlighted.
3. Right-click a word with a wavy red or green underline, to get a list of correct alternative words to
choose from.
4. From the list, click the correct command or the spelling alternative you want.

Check spelling & grammar all at once.

You can choose to check the spelling & grammatical errors at once, and then confirm each correction. This
option is useful if you want to proofread the whole document after you have finished typing or editing it.

Click Spelling and Grammar button on the Standard toolbar (or Press F7).
Choose a button in the Spelling and Grammar dialog box to make your changes.
(a). Change - accepts the current selection in the Suggestions box.
When the selected error is a repeated word, this button changes to Delete so you can easily remove
the second instance of the word.
(b). Change All – corrects all the occurrences of the misspelled word.
(c). If the intended word is not in the Suggestions box, you can correct spelling and grammar directly in
the document while the Spelling and Grammar dialog box is still displayed. Click in the
document & type your correction, and then click Resume to continue checking the spelling and
grammar.
(d). Ignore Once - Leaves the highlighted error unchanged (if the highlighted word is a valid word) &
finds the next spelling or grammar error.
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 This button changes to Resume if you click in the document to make a change in the document.
(e). Ignore All – retains all the occurrences of the same word or phrase in the document from another
language, e.g., a Kiswahili.
(f). Add - Adds the highlighted word in the Suggestions box to the Custom dictionary.
(g). Explain - gives a detailed explanation of a grammar flag.
(h). Ignore Rule –Leaves all instances of the highlighted error unchanged throughout the document and
continues to check the document.

When the Spelling and grammar check is complete, Ms-Word displays a message to that effect. To
return to your document when you finish checking on grammar, click OK.
Note. There are two types of dictionaries that are used by a spell checker program:
 Main (Standard) dictionary.
 Custom dictionary.

LOOKING UP FOR WORDS USING THESAURUS.

Thesaurus is an editing tool that provides the user with a list of synonyms (words that have similar
meaning) & sometimes antonyms (words that have opposite meaning) to the selected word. It also provides
lists of related words and different forms of the selected word.

1. Select or type the word you want to look up.

2. On the Review Ribbon, choose Thesaurus (or press SHIFT+F7).
3. The Thesaurus dialog box appears, and highlights the word that is closest to what you have typed.

4. To replace the word with a synonym, click the replacement word from the list.
To replace a word or phrase with an antonym, select the word or phrase enclosed in brackets.
5. Click the Replace button.
6. To look up alternatives for a particular word, click it in the Replace with synonyms box, then click the
Look Up button that will enable you search through a wide range of synonyms and related words until
you find exactly the word you want.

Note. It is not possible to replace all occurrences of a word using the Thesaurus. One would have to select
each word individually and choose a synonym for it.

AutoComplete feature.
The AutoComplete feature displays a complete word when the user types the first few characters of the
word.
This enables the user to type faster/quickly by completing a word that the user has already started typing
automatically.

AutoCorrect feature
The AutoCorrect feature can be used to automatically detect and correct wrongly spelled words, and
replace them with the correct ones as set by the user. e.g. if you type teh plus a space, AutoCorrect replaces
it with "the.", or if you type This is theh ouse plus a space, AutoCorrect replaces it with "This is the
house."

AutoCorrect can also be used to quickly insert symbols that are included in the inbuilt list of AutoCorrect
entries. E.g., type (c) to insert ©.

AutoCorrect can automatically detect and correct incorrect capitalization. It can also capitalize the first
word in a sentence, the names of days of the week, the first letter of text in a table cell, etc.

To automatically correct text as you type,

On the Application Control Checkbox, Select Word Options
On the Word Options dialog box, select proofing.
On the proofing dialog box, click on AutoCorrect tab.
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 On the Autocorrect dialog box, activate the required options
Click OK to close the dialog box.

Question: Distinguish between the AutoComplete and the AutoCorrect feature in word processing.
AutoComplete – helps a person to type quickly by completing a word that the user has already started to be
type automatically.
AutoCorrect – automatically replaces mistyped words with the correct ones as set by the user.

UNDO, REDO AND REPEAT ACTIONS.

√ Undo is used to reverse changes you make in a document, such as editing, formatting, checking spelling,
inserting breaks, footnotes and tables. This is useful when you make changes and then realize that these
changes were a mistake.

Undo mistakes.
To quickly undo/reverse recent actions one at a time, CTRL+Z

Redo (repeat) your last action.

Press CTRL+Y

Exercise.
1. (a). Explain the importance of proofreading a document.
(b). Give two methods of proofreading a prepared document.
2. Give two types of dictionaries that are used by the spell-checker program. Which one is likely to have
non-English words, and Why?
3. Name and explain the use of any FOUR buttons found in a Spell check dialog box.
4. Explain how to do Word Count.
5. Explain how you would look up for a word in your computer dictionary.
6. What is a Thesaurus?
7. Distinguish between the AutoComplete and the AutoCorrect feature in word processing.
8. Explain the use of Undo and Redo commands.
9. In Spelling and Grammar check, what do the following buttons do?
 Ignore All.
 Add.
 Change.

FORMATTING A DOCUMENT.
Formatting refers to applying various styles or features to enhance the appearance of a document. It can
also mean making a document attractive or enhancing the appearance of a document by bolding, italicizing,
bordering, coloring, etc.

√ To create professional documents by using different colours, and adding special effects like dropped
capitals, Superscripts and Subscripts.
√ To draw attention to important words or sentences by making them Bold, Italic or Underlined.
√ To draw attention to titles and headings by making them larger and changing their font type.
√ To draw attention to some important paragraphs and text by creating additional effects with the text in a
document.
√ To make the overall document appealing to the eye as you read through.

Note. Before you enhance a particular portion of a document, you must select the portion first.

Text Formatting.
Text formatting refers to features such as changing font types & font style, changing size of characters,
changing text color, underlining, bolding, italicizing, text alignment, etc.

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Bolding text: Bolding makes the selected text appear darker than the rest of the text.
Underline text: Underlining refers to placing a line at the base or bottom of a word or phrase.
Italicizing text: To italicize is to make the text slant forward.
Font (also called typeface): A graphic design applied to numerals, symbols, & alphabetic characters.
Changing the font color: Changing the color of the selected text from black to either blue, green, etc.

Using the Home ribbon icons.

1. Select the text you want to format.
2. On the Home ribbon,
 Click the Bold or Italic or Underline button to format selected text as bold, italics or underlined.
 To change the font type, click the arrow next to the Font box, then click a font name.
 To change the size of text, type (or click) a size in the Font Size box. E.g., type 10.5.
 To change the text color, click the Font Color button. This applies the color appearing on the Font
Color button.
To apply a different color, click the arrow next to the Font Color button, then select the color you want
from the Color palette.

Or
Using the Home ribbon.
1. Select the text whose format you want to change.
2. On the Home ribbon, click Font tab
 In the Font dialog box, click a font type.
 In the Font Style box, click Bold, Italic or Bold Italic.
 To change the size of text, click a point size in the Font Size box.
 To change the text color, click the arrow next to the Font Color box, then select a color.
 In the Underline style list, click the style you want. In the Underline color list, click the color you
want.
When you select a formatting option, Ms-Word displays a preview of what you have selected.
3. Click the OK button.

To ensure that any new document you open uses the font settings you have selected, click the Default
button, then choose Yes from the resulting prompt.

Apply Special text Effects such as embossed, engraved, outlined, or shadow formatting to text.
1. Open the Font dialog box.
2. Under Effects, select the checkbox for the options you want, then click the OK button.

Applying Superscript, Subscript and Small Caps.

Superscript: - any text that is slightly higher than other text on a line, such as a footnote reference mark.
Subscript: - any text that is slightly lower than other text on a line. Subscripts are often used in scientific
formulas.
Small caps formats any selected lowercase text as capital letters and reduces their size. Small caps do not
affect uppercase letters, numbers, punctuations, or non-alphabetic characters.

1. Select the text to be formatted.

2. On the Font dialog box, then click the Font tab.
3. Under Effects, select the checkbox for Superscript, Subscript or Small Caps.
4. Click the OK button.
Superscript raises the selected text above the baseline, while Subscripts lower the selected text below the
baseline.

PARAGRAPH FORMATTING.

Capitalization of Text.
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You can capitalize letters by changing their case, or by creating a large letter at the beginning of a
paragraph.

Changing the Case of Text.

When typing a text, the user can apply different cases in order to create contrast within the text.
Sentence Case: – makes the first letter of the first word in the selected sentences a capital.
Lowercase: - changes all selected text to small letters.
UPPERCASE: - changes all selected text to capital letters.
Title Case / Capitalize Each Word: - makes the first letter of each word in the selection a capital.
tOGGLE cASE: - changes all uppercase letters in the selection to lowercase and vice versa.
1. Select the text you want to change.
2. On the Home ribbon, click Change Case icon
3. On the Change Case drop down list, select the required character case
4. Click the OK button.

Drop Cap
Drop is fancy first character in a paragraph. A Drop cap is used to attract the reader’s attention by making
the first character in a sentence large, taking more space in the next line. It also emphasizes a particular
starting word in a paragraph.
1. If you are in a different view, switch to Print Layout view. This will allow you to view the dropped
capital letter, as it appears in the document.
2. Click in the paragraph you want to begin with a dropped capital letter. The paragraph must contain text.
3. On the Insert ribbon, click Drop Cap icon. This opens the Drop Cap dialog box.
4. Choose Dropped or In Margin or Drop Cap Options to specify the number of dropped lines
Select the font you want to apply to the dropped capital letter and the amount of space you want to leave
between the dropped capital letter and the text in the paragraph.
The Dropped option positions the dropped capital letter in line (flush) with the left margin, inside the
main text area. The In Margin option positions the dropped capital letter in the left margin.
5. Click the OK button.

Removing the Dropped capital letter.

1. Click anywhere in the paragraph that contains the dropped capital letter.
2. On the Insert ribbon, click Drop Cap icon.
3. Choose None, then click the OK button.

ADDING BULLETS & NUMBERS TO TEXT.

Bullets and numbers are used to mark steps in a procedure or items in a list.
Bullet: - A dot or any other symbol placed before text, such as items in a list, in order to add emphasis.
√ Adding numbers or bullets to a list to make a document easier to read & understand.
You can add bullets or numbers to existing lines of text, or you can have Ms-Word automatically create lists
as you type.

Adding bullets or numbers

1. Select the list.
2. On the Home ribbon, Click on Bullets or Number icon.
3. Select a Bullet type or Number format you want to use.
To adjust spacing between a bulleted or numbered list and the text.
Click the Customize button.
To format a bulleted list, under Bullet position and Text position, select the options you want in the
Indent at boxes.
To format a numbered list, select the options you want under Number position and Text position.
4. Click the OK button.

To use a unique symbol or a picture bullet.

1. Open the Bullets and Numbering dialog box, then click the Bulleted tab.
@Ochieng’GK 2022 40 Computer Studies F2
2. Click the bullet style you want to modify, and then click the Customize button.
 To use a different symbol, click the Character button to change the symbol.
 To use a different picture, click the Picture button to select the picture you want.
3. Click the OK button.

TEXT ALIGNMENT
Text Alignment refers to how text is positioned (lined up) in a paragraph relative to the left, right, or centre
of the page.

Types of text alignment.

(a). Left alignment.
This is the default alignment. Lines of text are lined up evenly along the left margin, but unevenly at
the right margin eg in a left-aligned paragraph, the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left
margin.
(b). Right alignment.
Lines of text are lined up evenly along the right margin, but unevenly at the left margin.
(c). Center alignment.
The lines of text are centered unevenly between the left & right margins.
(d). Justification.
Lines of text are arranged evenly along the left & right margin. The Justify option expands the spaces
in each line so that the text is aligned evenly along both the left & right margins.

Aligning text to the left, right, center or justification of the text.

1. Select the text (or paragraph) you want to align.
2. On the Home ribbon, click the paragraph tab. This brings about Paragraph dialog box.
3. Within the paragraph dialog box, under general select the required alignment.
• Align Left button - to align the text on the left.
• Align Right button - to align the text on the right.
• Center button - to align the text on the center.
• Justify button – to align the text on both the right & the left margins.
4. Click OK when through

Or
Use the alignment icons from the Home Ribbon

Line spacing:
Line spacing refers to the vertical distance between two lines of text in a paragraph. The amount of space
from the bottom of one line of text to the bottom of the next line.

Line spacing determines the amount of vertical space between two lines of text in a paragraph. If a line
contains a large text character, graphic, or formula, Ms-Word increases the spacing for that line so that it can
be accommodated.

Types of line spacing.

(i). Single line spacing. Single line spacing accommodates the largest font in that line, leaving a small
amount of extra space between the lines, which varies depending on the font used.
(ii). 1.5 line spacing. It is 1½ times that of single line spacing.
(iii). Double line spacing. It is twice that of single line spacing.
(iv). At least. This is the minimum line spacing that is needed to fit the largest font or graphic on the line.
(v). Exactly.It is a fixed line spacing that Ms-Word does not adjust.
(vi). Multiple line spacing.It is a line spacing that is increased or decreased by a % that you specify, e.g.
setting line spacing to 1.2 will increase the space by 20%.

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Paragraph spacing determines the amount of space above or below a paragraph. When you press ENTER
to start a new paragraph, the spacing is carried over to the next paragraph. However, you can change the
settings for each paragraph.

Changing line or Paragraph spacing.

1. Select the paragraphs in which you want to change the spacing.
2. On the paragraph dialog box, click the arrow next to the Line Spacing button, and then select the
number that represents the line spacing you want from the list.
3. Then Click OK

Indentation
Indentation refers to moving the text away from the margin. Page margins determine the distance (or the
space) between the text & the edge of the page, while paragraph Indents and alignment determines the
distance of the paragraph from either the left or right margins.

Types of paragraph indents.

(i). Left indent.
(ii). Right indent.
(iii). First-line indent. This is a type of indent where only the first line of the paragraph is indented.
(iv). Hanging indent. This is a type of indent where the first line of the paragraph extends to the left of the
paragraph, but the other lines of a paragraph are indented more than the first line (i.e., they ‘hang’
below the first line).
(v). Negative indent (also known as an outdent): - pulls the paragraph out towards the left margin.

Changing the right indent of an entire paragraph.

1. Select the paragraph you want to change its right indent.
2. On the horizontal ruler, drag the Right Indent marker to the position where you want the text to end.
Note. To increase or decrease the left indent of an entire paragraph, click the Increase Indent or Decrease
Indent button on the Formatting toolbar.

Creating a First-line indent or a Hanging indent.

1. Select the paragraph you want to indent.
2. On the horizontal ruler, drag the First Line Indent marker to the position where you want the text to
start.
Or
1. Select the paragraph you want to indent.
2. On the Home ribbon, click Paragraph, then click the Indents and Spacing tab.
3. Click the arrow in the Special list box, then click First line.
To set a Hanging indent, select Hanging from the drop-down list.
4. In the By textbox, specify how far the paragraph is to be indented from the margin.
5. Click the OK button.

Create a Negative indent.

1. Select the paragraph you want to extend into the left margin.
2. On the horizontal ruler, drag the Left Indent marker to the position where you want the paragraph to
start.

Set an indent by using the TAB key.

1. To indent the first line of a paragraph, click in front of the line.
To indent an entire paragraph, click in front of any line but not the first line.
2. Press the TAB key.

Note. To remove the indent, press Backspace before moving the insertion point (or click Undo on the Edit
menu).

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Tab Stops
Tabs are used to indent the first line of a paragraph or to create columnar data. Tab spacing: - is a short
distance moved by the text cursor when the Tab key on the Keyboard is pressed. It is used to align text on
the page. Tab stop: - is a location on the horizontal ruler that indicates how far a certain text is indented or
where to begin a column of text.

By default, the tab stop is set at 0.5 of an inch.

Importance.
√ Tab stops enable the user to line up text to the left, move the text to the right, or center it.
√ Tabs also allow easy entry of tabulated data.
√ The user can also automatically insert specific characters, such as periods or dashes, called Tab leaders,
before the tabs.

Tab leaders – are characters usually dots or hyphens, that fill the space between words separated by tabs.
They are intended to draw the reader’s eye across a line, as in Tables of Contents.

There are 3 types of Tab leaders:

 Solid leader lines (_______).
 Dotted leader lines (.........…).
 Dashed Leader lines (--------).

1. Select the paragraph in which you want to set a tab stop.

2. On the Paragraph dialog box, click of Tabs tab. ( This opens the Tabs dialog box.)
3. In Tab stop position box, type the measurement for the tab stop.
4. Under Alignment, select where the text typed at the tab stop will be aligned; Left, Center or Right.
5. To change the spacing between default tab stops, enter the amount of spacing you want in the Default
tab stops box.
6. If need be, specify the Tab leader option.
7. Click the Set button, then choose OK.

Once you no longer need the Tab stops, open the Tabs dialog box, then click the Clear All button.

Setting tabs using the Horizontal Ruler.

The easiest way to set tabs is by using the ruler. On the left corner of the horizontal ruler (at the point of
intersection between the horizontal & vertical rulers) is a tab alignment button that lets the user select the
type of tab.

The table below shows various tab alignment buttons.

Button Name Purpose (explanation for each button)
∟ Left tab Text is left aligned
┴ Centre Text is centered
tab
l Bar tab Inserts a vertical line at tab stop and align text to the right of the line
┘ Right tab Text is right aligned

To set the tab using the ruler;

1. Select the paragraph in which you want to set a tab stop.
2. Click the tab button at the far left of the horizontal ruler until it changes to the required type of tab: Left,
Center or Right.
3. Set the tab stop by clicking where you want it to be on the ruler.
4. Drag the tab stop.
Hyphenation
If a certain word is too long to fit on the end of a line, Ms-Word moves the word to the beginning of the next
line. However, you can use the hyphenation feature to insert hyphens in order to:
@Ochieng’GK 2022 43 Computer Studies F2
√ Give your documents a polished and professional look.
√ You can also hyphenate text to eliminate gaps in justified text or to maintain even line lengths especially
when you have a document with narrow columns.

1. On the Page Layout ribbon, select Hyphenation

2. Select the hyphenation option required.
3. Click the OK button.

INSERTING PAGE BREAKS.

A Page break identifies the end of one page and the beginning of the next page. When typing, the text
cursor inserts a new page automatically when the current a page is full with text or graphics during typing.
Such a page break is referred to an "Automatic" (or Soft) page break.

However, if the user wants a page to begin at a particular spot (even before the end of the page), he/she can
insert a page break manually. Such a page break is referred to as a "Manual" (or Hard) page break.
When a manual page break is inserted, Ms-Word automatically adjusts the automatic page breaks that
follow. In Normal view, a page break is indicated by a dashed line across the page from left to right.

Insert a Manual Page Break.

1. Click to position the Insertion point where you want to start a new page.
2. Press CTRL+ENTER.
-OR-
On the Insert ribbon, click Page Break.

CREATING NEWSLETTER - STYLE COLUMNS.

You can quickly format text into multiple columns. To create columns on existing text;
1. Place the cursor where the column should start.
2. On the Print Layout ribbon, click on the Columns button.
3. Drag to the right to select the no. of columns you want, then release the mouse button.

PAGE SETUP
Page setup has options that allow the user to specify the size of the margins, paper size, and
layout/appearance of a printed page.

Setting Page margins

Page margins are the visible blank spaces outside the printing area of a page. They mark the distance that
the text starts on a page away from the edge of the page.

Normally, text & graphics are inserted in the printable area inside the margins. However, items such as
headers, footers, and page numbers can be positioned in the margins.

Importance of setting page margins.

 Adjusting Page margins provides additional space for binding, punching or stapling.
 Setting the margins helps when printing a document on pre-printed stationery such as a Letterhead. It
ensures that, your text does not overwrite the pre-printed parts of the stationery.

E.g., to print on a Letterhead, change the top margin so that it is slightly larger than the pre-printed part of
the letterhead.

To set margins for a page;

On Print Layout ribbon, click the Margins button.
Type or select the values for the Top, Bottom, Left & Right margins in the respective boxes.
Click the OK button.

Gutter margins
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They are used to add extra space to the left or top margin of a document you want to bind. It ensures that
the printed text is not hidden by the binding.

Setting page Orientation.

Page orientation refers to how the text will be positioned on the printed page. It specifies how the
document on the screen will be printed on a page.

There are 2 types of page orientations:

1. Portrait: - Text & graphics are printed with the longest side of the page vertically upright.
2. Landscape: - Text & graphical objects are printed with the longest side of the page placed horizontally
and the lines of text printed parallel.

To set the orientation;

On Print Layout ribbon, click the Orientation button.
Type or select either Portrait or landscape option.

Note. You cannot print in portrait and landscape orientation on the same page.

Selecting the correct paper size

On Print Layout ribbon, click the Size button.
Select the values required of the paper size or access the Page Setup dialog box and type the required
paper size.
Click the OK button.

Note. Top usually aligns the text starting from the top margin downwards.

CREATING HEADERS & FOOTERS

Headers & footers contain standard text or information such as Page numbers, Chapter titles, or a Company
logo. They may also contain graphics. A Header appears above the top margin of every page or in a
section; Footer appears below the bottom margin of every page in a document.

Note. Headers and footers appear only in Print layout view, and in printed documents.

Create the same header or footer for each page

1. On the Insert ribbon, then choose Header and Footer.
2. To create a header, enter the text or graphics in the Header area. To create footer, click the Switch
Between Header and Footer button on the Header and Footer toolbar to move to the Footer area, and
then type your text.
3. If necessary, format the text using the buttons on the Formatting toolbar. eg you can change the Font,
Font size, Font style, alignment, or colour of the text.
4. Click the Close button on the Header and Footer toolbar.

ADDING PAGE NUMBERS

Page numbers appear in the header or footer (i.e. at the top or bottom of the page). Page numbers make it
easy to locate information especially in a document that contains many pages.

1. On the Insert ribbon, then choose Page Numbers.

2. In the Position box, specify whether to insert the number in the Header (top of the page) or in the Footer
(bottom of the page).
3. In the Alignment box, specify whether to position the Page number to the Left, Center, or Right relative
to the left & right margins.
4. Click the Format button, then choose the format you want in the Number format box.
5. In the Start at box, enter the starting page number (e.g., 1), then click the OK button.

APPLYING BORDERS & SHADINGS TO A DOCUMENT

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√ To make the document more appealing to the eye.
√ To draw attention to important data in the document.

Adding a border to a page

On the Page Layout ribbon, choose Page Borders, then click the Borders tab.
Select the Border style you want
To change the line style for the border, click a style in the Style list. If need be, specify the colour of the
lines from the Color drop-down list.
Under Apply to, click an option to indicate the placement of the border, then click the OK button.

To remove the border, under Settings, click None, then click the OK button.

ADDING BACKGROUNDS COLOURS & WATERMARKS

Backgrounds are used in Web layout view to create a more interesting background for online viewing.
Backgrounds are not designed for printing.
On the Page Layout ribbon, select Watermark or page Colour
Add as required

Note. To remove a background color, click Format, point to Background, then click No Fill.

INSERTING FOOTNOTES & ENDNOTES

Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide references for text
in a document.
Footnotes Endnotes
1. Footnotes appear either at the bottom of 1. Endnotes appear either at the end of a
each page in a document or directly below document or at the end of each section.
the text.
2. Footnotes can be used for detailed 2. Endnotes can be used to quote or mention
comments. sources.

On the Page Layout ribbon, choose either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote
Type the text
Then double click the main text

A Footnote or Endnote consists of 2 linked parts:

(i). The note reference mark,
(ii). The corresponding note text.

Deleting a Footnote or an Endnote.

In the document, select the reference mark of the footnote or endnote you want to delete, then press
DELETE key.

CREATING MS-WORD TABLES.

A Table is a feature in Ms-Word made up of rows & columns which intersect to form cells that the user can
enter text and graphics.
 A Cell is a box formed by the intersection of a row & column in a worksheet or a table, in which the user
can enter information.
 A Row is a horizontal arrangement of cells; a Column is a vertical arrangement of cells.

Importance of creating tables.

√ Tables are used to organize and enhance the display of information such as timetables.
√ Tables make it easier to read & understand information that would otherwise have to be written in a
repetitive and lengthy fashion.

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Using the Insert - Table command on the Insert Ribbon.
On the Insert Ribbon, click Table.
Click on the Insert Table from the drop down dialog box
In the Insert Table dialog box, specify the number of Columns & Rows.
Under AutoFit behavior, choose an option to adjust the table size.
To use an in-built table format, click the AutoFormat button, then select a table style.
Click the OK button.

Using the Draw Table tool for creating more complex tables.
On the Insert Ribbon, click Table.
Click on the Draw Table from the drop down dialog box. The Tables and Borders toolbar appears, and
the Mouse pointer changes to a Pencil.
Drag the pointer to draw the outline of the table. eg, to define the outer boundaries for the table, draw a
rectangle.
Draw the column and row lines inside the rectangle.

After creating the table, click in a cell and start typing text.
 To move the text cursor from one cell to the next in the same row, press the TAB key.
 To move text cursor one column to the left in the same row (to move to the previous cell), press SHIFT
+ TAB.

Selecting parts of a Table.

 A cell - point to the left edge of the cell, and then click.
 A row - click to the left of the row.
 A column - click the column's top border.
 Multiple cells, rows, or columns - drag across the cell, row, or column.
 The entire table - click the table move handle.
 Text in the next cell - press TAB key.
 Text in the previous cell - press SHIFT+TAB keys.

Note. To select a cell, row, column or the entire table;

1. Click in the cell, row, column or table.
2. Click on Table, point to Select, then click Table, Column, Row or Cell.

Changing the width of a Column in a Table.

Change the width of a column enhances the appearance of the table, e.g., if the cells are wider than the text
they contain.
1. Point on the boundary of the column whose width you want to change until the pointer becomes a
double-headed arrow.
2. Drag the boundary to the right or left until the column is the width you want.

Making the columns in a table automatically fit the contents.

1. Click in the table.
2. Click on Table, point to AutoFit, then click AutoFit to Contents.

Changing the Height of a Row in a table.

In Ms-Word documents, the height of each row in a table depends on the contents of the cells in that row
and the paragraph spacing before or after text.
In addition, pressing the ENTER key when the text cursor is in a cell will increase the height of the row.

1. Point on the boundary of the row whose height you want to change until the pointer becomes a double-
headed arrow, and then drag the boundary.

Making multiple columns or rows the same size.

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1. Select the columns or rows you want to make the same size.
2. On the Layout ribbon, click Distribute Columns Evenly or Distribute Rows Evenly.

Changing the column width or row height to a specific measurement.

1. Click a cell in the column or row.
2. Click on Layout ribbon, then click the Height or Width textbox.
3. In the Size section, select the preferred column or height.

Adding Rows and Columns to a table.

You can add more rows and/or columns to an existing table.
To insert Rows;
1. Select the same number of rows as the number you want to insert, e.g., to insert 3 new rows, select 3
existing rows.
2. On Layout ribbon, then click Rows Above or Rows Below.

Tip. To quickly add a row at the end of a table, click in the last cell of the last row, then press the TAB
key.

To insert Columns;
1. Select the same number of columns as the number you want to insert.
2. On Layout ribbon, then click Columns to the Right or Columns to the Left.

Adding a column to the right of the last column in a table;

1. Click in the last column.
2. On the Layout ribbon, Click on Insert, then select Columns to the Right.

Clearing the contents of a table.

Clearing cells removes the cell contents (formulas and data), or number formats leaving the cells on the
table blank.

1. Select the cells, rows or columns whose contents you want to clear, then press DELETE key.

Deleting cells, rows, or columns from a table.

You can delete any no. of adjacent cells, rows, or columns from a table if you do not need the information in
them.
Deleting removes the cells, rows and columns from the document and shifts the surrounding cells to fill the
space.

1. Select the cells, rows, or columns you want to delete.

2. Click on Table, point to Delete, then click Columns, Rows, or Cells.
If you are deleting cells, the Delete Cells dialog box appears.
Select: To:
Shift cells left Move cells from the right of the selected cells to replace the cells
being deleted.
Shift cells up Move cells from below the selected cells to replace the cells being
deleted.
Delete entire row Delete the row(s).
Delete entire column Delete the column(s).

Deleting a table and its contents.

Deleting removes the cell contents together with the cells themselves.
1. Click inside the table.
2. On the Layout ribbon, Click Delete icon

Displaying or hiding table Gridlines.

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Gridlines are the thin lines that indicate the cell boundaries in a table. Gridlines do not print when you print
a document.

1. On the Layout ribbon, click Show Gridlines or Hide Gridlines.

Adding Borders & Shading to table cells.

You can apply your own borders and shading to a table. This is because Ms-Word does not print the
gridlines that divide the table cells on your screen.

1. Select the table cells you want to apply borders around.

2. On the Home ribbon, then click on the Borders icon
3. In the resulting Border and Shading dialog box, click the Borders tab or the Shading tab, and then
select the options you want.
4. In the Apply to: box, select Table or Cell.
5. Click the OK button.

Merging of cells in a table.

Merging of cells refers to combining 2 or more cells in the same row or column to form a single cell.
Importance.

√ You can merge several cells horizontally to create a table heading that spans several columns.
√ To create larger cells in a table without increasing the height or width of existing cells.

1. Select the cells you want to merge. This can be adjacent rows or adjacent columns.
2. Click on Table, then choose Merge Cells.

Note. When you merge several cells in a column to create a vertically oriented table heading that spans
several rows, you can change the orientation of the heading text.

1. Select the heading text that you want to span several rows.
2. On the View menu, point to Toolbars, then click Tables and Borders.
3. Click the Change Text Direction button.

Splitting a cell into multiple cells in a table.

This refers to subdividing one or more cells into parts.
1. Click in a cell, or select multiple cells that you want to split.
2. On the Layout ribbon, then choose Split Cells.
3. In the resulting dialog box, specify the no. of Rows and/or Columns that the selected cells will be split
into.
4. Click the OK button.

Numbering the cells in a table.

1. Select the cells you want to number.
To number the beginning of each row, select only the first column in the table by clicking the column's
top border.
2. On the Home ribbon, choose Bullets and Numbering.
3. Click the Numbered tab, then select a number format from the list.

Aligning a table on a page.

You can change the horizontal placement of a table within a page, e.g., center a table between the left &
right page margins.
1. Select the table.
2. On the Layout ribbon, choose Table Properties, then click the Table tab.
3. Under Alignment, select Left, Center or Right.
4. Click the OK button.
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Splitting a table into parts.
When a long table falls within a page break, Ms-Word allows the page break to divide the row between the
two pages.

You can adjust the table to make sure that the information appears as you want it to when the table spans
multiple pages. To split a table into 2 parts;

1. Click the row that you want to be the first row of the second table.
2. On the Layout ribbon, choose Split Table.

Converting a Table into lines of Text.

1. Select the entire table, or the rows and columns you want to convert to text.
2. On the Layout ribbon, Select Convert to text, then click Table to Text.
A dialog box is displayed that requires you to specify how the text will be separated after conversion.
3. In the Separate text with: box, select the character to be used as a separator, i.e., Paragraph marks,
Tabs, or Commas.
4. Click the OK button.

Converting lines of Text into a Table.

1. Select the text you want to convert to a table.
2. On the Insert ribbon, click on Insert table

PERFORMING ARITHMETIC CALCULATIONS IN A MS-WORD TABLE.

It is possible to perform mathematical calculations such as Sum, Product, and Count, if a table has numerical
figures.
1. Click in the cell in which you want the result to be placed.
2. On the Layout, choose Formula. A formula dialog box is displayed.
3. If Ms-Word proposes a formula that you do not want to use, delete it from the Formula box, making
sure that you don’t delete the equal sign.
4. In the Paste function box, click a function. A Function is a mathematical formula that accomplishes
calculations in a table.
e.g., to add numbers, click SUM.
5. To refer to the contents of a cell in the formula, type the cell references in the parentheses. Use a
Comma to separate references to individual cells, or a Colon to separate the first & the last cells in a
selected range.
Examples;
 To add the numbers in cells A1, A3 & C2, type: =SUM(A1, A3,C2)
 To find the average of values in cells A1, A2, B1, B2, C1 & C2, type: =Average(a1:c2)
6. In the Number format box, enter a format for the numbers, e.g., to display the numbers as a decimal
percentage, click 0.00%.
7. Click the OK button.

Sorting in tables.
Sorting refers to arranging of text, numbers or data in a list or table according to some predetermined
sequence.
1. Click on any cell in the table you want to sort.
2. On the Layout ribbon, choose Sort icon.
3. Select the type of data to be used when sorting, i.e., Text, Number or Date.
4. Under Sort By, select the column number corresponding to the column you want to use as the basis for
sorting.
5. Select the Ascending or Descending option button.
Ascending will sort in increasing order (lowest to highest or A–Z); Descending will sort in decreasing
order (highest to lowest or Z–A).
6. If you want to use additional columns for sorting, enter the column in the Then by boxes.
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7. Click the OK button.

Review questions
1. Define a Cell, Row and Column while working with tables?
2. Identify two importance of creating tables in Microsoft Word.
3. Differentiate between:
a). Drawing and inserting a table in a document.
b). Deleting a table and Clearing a table.
4. What would happen to the cursor in a table when the following actions are done:
(a).Pressing the TAB key.
(b).Pressing the SHIFT+TAB key.
(c). Pressing the ENTER key.
5. (a). Define the term “Merging of cells” as used in tables.
(b). Give a reason why it may be necessary to merge cells in a table.
6. Describe how would you do the following:
(a). Insert a blank row in your table.
(b). Insert borders around your table.
(c). Delete two rows from your table.
7. Explain how you can convert some typed text into a table using Microsoft Word.
8. What is a Function when working with calculations in word processing?
9. Define the term sorting text.

MAIL MERGING
Mail merging is the process of generating personalized letters or documents by combining a standard
document, e.g., a letter, with a list of addresses, and producing several copies of the standard document, but
addressed to different recipients.

The standard document (letter) is referred to as the ‘Main Document’ and the list of addresses is referred to
as the ‘Data Source’.

Importance of mail merging.

√ Mail merge enables the user to send out the same document to several recipients at once.
√ Combining of letters saves time when printing.
√ The mailing list used in a Mail merge can be re-used on another document (unlike Copy & Pasting).

The Mail merge process.

The Mail merge process consists of 4 main steps:

1. Create the Main document or Open an existing Main document.
Main document is the common document or letter that is to be sent to all the people on the mailing list.
It is sometimes known as the Form letter.

The Main document contains the text & graphics that are the same for each version of the merged
document, e.g., the return address or salutation.

2. Create the Data source or Open an existing Data source, with individual recipient information.
Data source (or Addresses file) is a file of data records of the people that will receive the form letter.
The Data source contains the information or data that varies in each copy of a merged document. E.g.,
the list of names & addresses you want to use in a mail merge.

3. Be in the Main Document.

4. Open the Mailings ribbon and select Start Mail Merge.
5. Select Letters from the Start Mail Merge list box
6. On the Mailings ribbon select Select Recipients
7. Open the Data Source (Address) file.
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8. Open the Main document
9. Add Merge fields in the main document.
Merge field is a placeholder that you insert in the main document. It helps Ms-Word insert the name or
information that is stored in a particular data field.
10. Merge or combine data from the Data source with the Main document to create a new, merged
document.

Therefore, in a mail merge, there are three files created:

1. The primary file (Main document).
2. The secondary file (Data source).
3. Merged file.

Review questions.
1. Describe the procedure of creating an envelope heading. Show how you can make it bold & size 12.
2. (a). What is the meaning of the word Mail merging?
(b). Give two advantages of Mail merging.
3. Define each of the following:
(i). Main document / Form letter.
(ii). A Data source.
4. Explain the THREE basic steps required to Mail merge a document.
5. List four ways of merging a document with its data source.

GRAPHICS & DIAGRAMS IN MICROSOFT WORD

The term Graphics refers to non-text images or objects generated by a computer. They include;
photographs, pictures, drawings, and graphs.

Importance.
√ Information presented graphically is easy to understand, e.g., if you have a lot of information,
representing it graphically is more effective than using text only.
√ Graphics & drawings can be used to enhance Ms-Word documents, e.g., one can use arrows to draw
attention to certain data.
√ A well-placed picture can help illustrate a point clearly, and can transform a plain looking document into
an interesting document.

Types of Graphics.
There are 3 basic types of graphics that you can use to enhance your Ms-Word documents:
1. Drawing objects
2. Pictures
3. Charts

Drawing objects.
A Drawing object is any graphic that is drawn or inserted into a document, and can be changed or
improved.
Drawing objects include AutoShapes and WordArt.

AutoShapes is a group of ready-made graphic images or shapes. AutoShapes usually have predefined
shapes, and the user can draw by selecting it, then dragging its size on the screen. Examples of AutoShapes
are; rectangles, circles, Lines, Connectors, Block arrows, Flowchart symbols, Stars, etc.

Pictures.

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A Picture is a graphic that was created from another file. They include Photographs, Scanned pictures,
Bitmaps, and ClipArt.
A Bitmap is a picture made from a series of small dots. When stored as files, bitmaps usually have the
extension “.bmp”.

Chart.
A Chart is a graphical presentation of data in a table. Charts are used to summarize data in a document in a
pictorial way.

Sources of graphics that can be used in Ms-Word.

There are 4 sources of graphics that can be used in Ms-Word. You can insert a graphical object;
1. From the Microsoft Clip gallery.
2. From a Scanner.
3. By using the Drawing tools available in Ms-Word.
4. Import from file.

DRAWING OF OBJECTS (AUTOSHAPES) IN MS-WORD

Ms-Word provides the user with basic drawing tools under Insert ribbon such as Polygons, Arrows, Lines,
circles, Stars and Banners, Callouts, etc, which can be found on the Drawing toolbar.

Drawing a line, an arrow, a rectangle, or a circle;

1. Click on the appropriate shape button in the Insert ribbon. The pointer changes to a plus sign.
2. Place the pointer where you want to draw the shape, and drag to the required size.
 To create a perfect square or a circle, hold down SHIFT as you drag the AutoShape.
 Holding down the SHIFT as you draw a line will lock it into an angle of 450, 600, 900, etc.

Drawing an object using the AutoShapes;

1. In the Insert ribbon, click the arrow next to AutoShapes.
2. From the menu displayed, point to the category of shapes you want to insert, e.g. Lines, Connectors,
Basic shapes, Block Arrows, Flowcharts, Stars and Banners, etc, then select the object you wish to draw.
3. Place the pointer where you want to draw the shape, and then drag the mouse.

Inserting text in an AutoShape.

1. Click to select the AutoShape.
2. Right-click the shape, choose Add Text from the shortcut menu displayed, then type the text.

Inserting a Text Box.

A Text Box is a container used for text or graphics that can be moved and resized.
1. Click on Insert, then choose Text Box from the Shapes icon
2. Using the cross-shaped cursor, drag out a shape. The Insertion point is placed inside the textbox.
3. Type in your text inside the Text Box.
4. Format the text as you want, e.g., change the size of text, font style, alignment, etc.
5. Drag and position the Text Box to the part of the document in which you want it to be.

Changing the Weight, Color and Style of a Line.

1. Select the object whose line weight, color or style you want to change.
2. Click on Format, select AutoShape, then click the Colors and Lines tab.
3. Select a line from the Style box. To use a dashed line, then select it under Dashed.
4. Use the Up & Down arrows in the Weight box to adjust the line weight.
5. To apply a different color to the line, select it from the Color drop-down list.
6. Click OK.

Callouts
These are special AutoShapes into which you can add text. They can be used to draw attention to an
important point or to highlight information that you want to emphasize.
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I wonder what I can do to

increase sales next
Adding WordArt to a document.
WordArt is a text object that can be created with ready-made effects, and to which additional formatting
options can be applied.

1. Click on Insert, then click WordArt.

2. In the WordArt Gallery list box, click the WordArt effect you want, then click OK.
3. In the Edit WordArt Text dialog box, type the text you want.
4. To change the font type, select a font in the Font list. To change the font size, select a size in the Size
list. To make text bold or italic, click the Bold or Italic button.
5. Click OK.

Changing the text in WordArt.

1. Double-click the WordArt object you want to change.
2. In the Edit WordArt Text dialog box, type the new text, then click OK.

PRINTING A DOCUMENT
Previewing a document (Display each page as it will look when printed).
Before you print a document, it is important to make sure that it will be printed the way you want it.
Previewing a document enables you to see exactly the way the pages will appear when printed, and where
necessary, make any changes to the document.

Advantages of previewing a document before printing.

 To confirm that no details are outside the printable area, and that the page layout is okay.
 To go through the document before printing.
 To save printing papers & printer toner because; errors on printouts that may require reprints will be
minimal.

1. Click on Application’s control checkbox, then choose Print.

2. In the in the Print’s dialog box, specify the number of copies required, page range to print, type of printer
to use.
3. Press Enter or Click Ok.
SPREADSHEETS PROCESSING

A Spreadsheet is a ledger sheet that lets the user enter, edit, and manipulate numerical data. A Spreadsheet
usually consists of a series of rows & columns in which data entries can be made.

Types of Spreadsheets:
There are 2 types of spreadsheets:

1). Manual spreadsheet:

A Manual spreadsheet is ledger book with many sheets of papers divided into rows and columns for
entering/writing data. The data is entered manually using a pen or pencil.

2). Electronic Spreadsheet:

A computer program that looks like the manual ledger sheet with rows & columns for entering data that
can be manipulated mathematically using of formulae.

Advantages of Electronic Spreadsheets over Manual Worksheets.

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1. Has a large worksheet for data entry & manipulation as compared to manual worksheet.
2. Has inbuilt formulae called Functions that are non-existent in manual worksheets. These functions
enable the user to quickly manipulate mathematical data.
3. Uses the power of the computer to quickly carry out operations.
4. Has better formatting & editing qualities than the manual worksheet.
5. Utilizes the large storage space available on computer storage devices to save & retrieve documents.
6. Can easily be modified in its form, while a manual spreadsheet involves a lot of manual calculations &
are very difficult to amend.
7. The user can very quickly & efficiently perform complicated computations using the information stored
in an electronic spreadsheet.
8. It is accurate in its calculations & allows automatic recalculation on formulae.
i.e., when one value/figure is changed, the result of the formula is automatically adjusted by the
computer so as to correspond with the different input. For a manual spreadsheet, changing one value
means rubbing the result & writing the correct one again.
9. It offers graphical representation of data leading to comprehensive decisions.
10. Replaces the pencil & paper approach of the manual operations of the worksheet.
i.e., it enables the user to produce neat work because; all the work is edited on the screen and a final
copy is printed. With a manual spreadsheet, neatness & legibility of the work depends on the writer’s
hand-writing skills.
11. It improves on the capabilities & speed of the Calculator.

Examples of the commonly used Spreadsheet packages

 VisiCalc – this was the 1st type of spreadsheet to be developed for PCs.
 Lotus 123 – this is an integrated software with spreadsheet module, graphs, and database.
 Microsoft Excel.
 Corel Quattro-Pro
 Microsoft Works Excel
 Super calculators.
 Multiplan.
 Vp-Planner.

Review Questions.

1. Define a Spreadsheet.
2. Differentiate between the traditional analysis ledger sheet and an electronic spreadsheet.
3. Name three commonly spreadsheet packages.

COMPONENTS OF A SPREADSHEET
A spreadsheet has 3 main components, namely;
(a). Workbook.
(b). Database.
(c). Graphs / Charts.

Workbook:
When working in any spreadsheet program, you use workbook files to hold your information. A Workbook
is a file in a spreadsheet package that contains one or more worksheets. The worksheets are made up of
rows & columns in which you work and store your data. A Workbook allows the user to organize various
kinds of related information in a single file.

Database:
Spreadsheet programs such as Excel have special features, which can be used to manage data values entered
in the cells of the spreadsheet. These features, which are found on the Data menu, were incorporated in
Excel but they belong to Database Management System software.
Examples of such features include: Filtering of records, use of Forms, calculating of Subtotals, data
validation, Pivot tables and Pivot chart reports.
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Example:
If related data values are entered on the same row, they form a Record. Hence, a worksheet can be
manipulated as a database that has data records entered in it.

Graphs/Charts:
A Chart is a graphical/pictorial representation of data in a worksheet. Charts are used to summarize data in
a worksheet in a pictorial form. They enable the users to present complex data elements from a worksheet in
a simple format that they can understand.
Charts make it easy for users to see comparisons, patterns, and trends in data, e.g., instead of having to
analyse several columns of a worksheet, one can see at a glance whether sales are falling or rising.

Examples of charts are: Pie charts, Line graphs, Bar charts, Histograms, Column charts, etc.

Review Questions.
1. Name and describe the three components of a spreadsheet.
2. Explain the following terms as used in spreadsheets.
i) Workbook.
ii) Chart.

Application areas of spreadsheets (Areas where Spreadsheets are used)

1. Accounting.
Spreadsheets provide an easy & streamlined means of financial management. They are mostly used by
Accountants to record their daily transactions & also keep financial records.
For example; a spreadsheet can be used to do the following:
 Record sales & purchases.
 Calculate profits.
 Produce Invoices, and also compile financial statements.
 Prepare budgets.
 Assist the management of an organization to monitor the current state of payments from customers
in relation to goods delivered.
 Detect aged debtors (i.e., those people who have owed you money for more than the period allowed
in your terms of business.
 Track the value of assets over time (i.e., Appreciation and Depreciation).

Note. Most spreadsheet programs come with inbuilt functions such as SUM, AVERAGE, PRODUCT,
etc, which enable the Accountant to carry out his/her daily accounting tasks easily.

2. Data management.
A spreadsheet enables information to be produced easily and kept up-to-date.
For example;
 It enables the user to create, edit, save, retrieve and print worksheet data & records.
 It enables data to be arranged neatly in tabular structure.
 Related data can be typed on the same worksheet. If the data is on different worksheets, the
worksheets can be linked so that the data can be accessed easily.
Some of the data management functions include:
 Sorting (i.e., arranging worksheet records in a particular order so as to easily access the data items).
 Filtering (i.e., displaying only the records that meet a given condition).
 Use of Forms to enter & view records.
 Use of Total/Subtotal function.

3. Scientific Applications.
Spreadsheet programs can be used by Scientists & Researchers to compile & analyse their results.

4. Statistical analysis / Mathematical operations.

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 Spreadsheets provide a set of data analysis tools that can be used to develop complex statistical
analyses. In addition, some of the tools generate charts.
Examples of statistical functions include:
 AVERAGE – used to calculate the mean of a set of values.
 MEDIAN – used to give the value in the middle of a set of values.
Such mathematical operations can be used by:
- Teachers to compile their students’ marks and produce results.
- Clerks & Secretaries to enable them easily create tables of figures and manipulate them quickly as
required.

5. Forecasting (What if analysis).

The automatic recalculation feature makes it possible to use the “What if” analysis technique. What if
analysis is a feature in a spreadsheet that is used to find out the effect of changing certain values in a
worksheet on other cells.
It involves changing the value of one of the arguments in a formula in order to see the difference the
change would make on the result of the calculation.
This method can be used for financial forecasting, budgeting, cost analysis, etc.

Review Questions.
1. Explain five application areas where spreadsheet software can be used.
2. Explain the concept of “What if” analysis.

Common features of Electronic spreadsheets.

The following are the typical facilities provided by electronic spreadsheets:
1. Have the ability to create, edit, save & retrieve worksheets.
2. Have inbuilt functions & formulae which can be used to perform calculations.
3. Allows Automatic recalculation, i.e., when you change one value, the rest of the values in the
spreadsheet are automatically recalculated by the computer to correspond with the different input. This
enables you to play “what if” games with your system.
4. Have the ability to Sort and filter data (i.e., arrange data in a predefined order).
5. Have a Data validation facility, which ensures that the correct data is entered into the Spreadsheet.
6. Have a Chart facility that can be used to draw line graphs, Bar charts, histograms, etc.
7. Have the ability to format data (both text & numeric data) using predefined formats.
8. Have the ability to adjust Column widths & Row heights automatically.
9. Have the ability to hide and unhide rows & columns, and also freeze panes.
10. They enable printing of worksheets within the shortest time possible.
11. They have pre-designed Templates for automating tasks.
A Template is a document that acts as a blueprint or outline for other documents of the same type. It
contains the standard text, graphics & formatting that will be used in all documents of this type.
This means that, all formulas and formatting for similar workbooks such as Invoices can be saved as
templates and then be used to automate the task without having to create the workbook again.
12. Have the ability to summarize data using Consolidation and Pivot tables.
Consolidation allows the merging of several worksheets into a summary sheet, while still keeping the
original worksheets intact. Consolidation adds together cells with the same co-ordinates in the various
worksheets.
Pivot tables can be used to cross-tabulate large amounts of data.

Differences between an Electronic Spreadsheet and a Calculator

An electronic spreadsheet: -
1. Has more memory than calculator.
2. Is able to perform complex logical operations, but a calculator cannot.
3. Uses the large storage capacity of the computer that a calculator does not have.
4. Has a large working area that a calculator does not have.

Review Questions.
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1. Describe any five features of a spreadsheet program.
2. State five features of spreadsheets that are useful in financial modelling.
3. How does a spreadsheet differ from a Calculator?

MICROSOFT EXCEL
This is a Spreadsheet program that enables users to create electronic worksheets that can be used to perform
simple & complex calculations using a computer.

Ms-Excel has inbuilt functions that are used as shortcuts for performing mathematical, financial and
statistical calculations.

Starting Microsoft Excel.

1. Click Start, point to Programs, then click Microsoft Excel.

-OR-
Click the Microsoft Excel icon, if it is displayed on the desktop.

WORKSHEET LAYOUT (Features/ Parts/ Elements of the Ms-Excel Screen).

(a). At the top of the window,
 Title bar. It has the System /Control menu button on the left & the Resizing buttons on the
right.
 Menu bar.
 Toolbars, e.g., Standard & Formatting toolbars. They contain the Toolbar buttons.
 Name box – displays the active cell, e.g., A1.
 Formula bar: A bar at the top of the Ms-Excel window that is used to enter or edit values or
formulas in cells or charts. It also displays the constant value or formula stored in the active cell.
To display or hide the formula bar, click Formula bar on the View menu.

(b). Column Identifiers (or Column headers) – Letters that identify the columns.
(c). Row Identifiers (or Row headers) – numbers that identify the rows.
A Worksheet has a total of 256 columns & 65,536 rows.
(d). Active (Current) cell – the cell in which the selection box (Cell pointer) is placed.
(e). Cell Pointer.
(f). Gridlines - the thin lines that indicate the cell boundaries in a worksheet.
(g). At the bottom of the window,
 Status bar - displays different indicators about the current working environment.
To display or hide the Status bar, click Status bar on the View menu.
 Sheet tabs – these are names of the sheets that appear at the bottom of the workbook window.
 Tab scrolling buttons - They enable the user to select and use a different sheet.
 Scroll bar, scroll box & the scroll arrows.

Scroll bars are the shaded bars along the right side and bottom of a window. To scroll to another part
of the file, click the arrows in the scroll bar or drag the scroll box.

THE WORKSHEET:
This is the primary document in a Spreadsheet program that is used to store & work with data. A Worksheet
is a tool that is used for maintaining numeric data in a tabular form, simplifying numerous calculations and
presenting numerical data graphically.

A worksheet is basically a page stored in a workbook, and acts as the working area.

A Worksheet consists of cells that are organized into columns & rows in which data entries are made.
Columns: – These are fields that make up the worksheet of a Spreadsheet. A Column is a vertical
arrangement of cells.
Rows: – These are records that form a worksheet. A Row is usually a horizontal arrangement of cells.
@Ochieng’GK 2022 58 Computer Studies F2
Cell: A box formed when a row & a column intersect in a worksheet or a table, where the data is entered.
A cell is referred to or identified by use of the column letter heading & the row number heading (e.g.,
A1 refers to the first cell).

A Worksheet can be used in:

(a).A Company Sales Report to show the sales for each item over the year.
(b).An Employees’ Payroll to calculate the employee’s salaries for each month.
(c). A Students Progress record to store information on student’s marks and monitor their progress.
(d).Personal Expenses to maintain a budget of your monthly expenses.
(e). Mortgage Repayment Calculations to calculate the monthly repayment amount on a mortgage loan.

To Rename a worksheet (Giving meaningful names to sheets).

1. Right-Click the tab for the sheet you want to rename.
2. Select Rename.
The current name for that sheet will be selected.
3. Press Backspace or Delete, type a new name, then press ENTER.

To Delete worksheets.
1. Select the worksheet(s) you want to delete.
2. Right Click on the sheet to be deleted, then click Delete Sheet.

To Hide a worksheet.
1. Select the sheet(s) you want to hide.
2. On the View ribbon, click Hide.

To Display a hidden worksheet.

1. On the View menu, then click Unhide.

2. In the Unhide sheet box, double-click the name of the hidden sheet you want to display.

TYPES OF DATA IN SPREADSHHETS.

(1).Labels (Text).
Labels are texts consisting of alphanumeric characters that can be entered into a cell. e.g., Item
codes such as Salary, Names such as John.
Labels are made up of alphanumeric character strings. In Excel, Text is any combination of
numbers, spaces, & nonnumeric characters. e.g., 10A19, 27AXY, 12-976, 208 4675.

(2).Values (Numbers).
Values consist of numerals & mathematical formulas entered into a cell.
In Excel, a number can contain only the following characters: digits 0 to 9 + - ( ) / $ %.
(3).Formulas.
A Formula is a sequence of values, cell references, functions & arithmetic operators whose
calculation results to a numeric value.
It is an equation that performs operations on worksheet data.
Formulas can perform mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, division and multiplication.
A Formula is used to tell Ms-Excel how you want a particular value to be computed.

(4).Functions.
It is a special command, which you can type into your formula to perform arithmetic operations.
It is an inbuilt equation that is used for calculations.
A Function is a short predefined (inbuilt) formula used to perform a given specific task.
Functions can be used to perform both simple and complex calculations.

EDITING CELL CONTENTS.

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1. Double-click on the cell that contains the data you want to edit
-Or-
Click in the cell, then press F2.
2. Edit (make changes to) the cell contents. e.g., if you had left out a character, use the Left or Right
Arrow key to move the insertion point to the position of the correction, then type the character. If you
had typed wrong characters, use the Backspace or Delete to erase them.
3. To enter your changes to the active cell, press ENTER, then use the Arrow keys to move to another cell.

SAVING WORKBOOKS.
√ In order to use the worksheet at a later time.
√ If the saving is done periodically, say every 1 minute, it helps prevent data loss in case of power failure.
When you save a workbook for the first time, you assign a file name and indicate where you want to store
the file on your computer’s hard disk or in another location. Each time you subsequently save the
workbook, Ms-Excel updates the workbook file with your latest changes.

To save a new, unnamed workbook.

1. On the Application Control checkbox, choose Save (or press CTRL+S) to display the Save As dialog
box.
2. In the File name box, enter a name for the worksheet.
3. In the Save in list, select the drive and/or folder where you want the worksheet to be saved.
4. Click the Save button.

To save a copy of a workbook (or save a workbook with a new name).

1. Open the workbook you want to make a copy of.
2. On the File menu, click Save As….
3. On the Application Control checkbox, enter a new name for the file.
To save the copy in a different folder or drive, click a different location in the Save in list.
4. Click the Save button.

To save workbooks automatically as you work.

1. On the Tools menu, click Options, click the Save tab, then select the Save AutoRecover info every
checkbox.
2. In the minutes box, enter the interval for how often you want to save files.

OPENING A SAVED WORKSHEET.

You can open a saved worksheet (i.e., a worksheet stored on the hard disk of the computer or on a floppy
disk) in order to:
√ Continue working on it, if it was saved before completion.
√ View the data it contains.
√ Update it, if the data it contains represents information that changes periodically. For example, A Weekly
report.

1. Choose Open on the Application Control Checkbox, or press CTRL+O to display the Open dialog box.
2. In the Look in drop down list, click the drive or folder that contains the file you want to open.
3. In the folder list, locate and open the folder that contains the file.
4. Double-click the file you want to open (or click the file, and then click the Open button).

Note. To open a recently opened file, select it from the bottom of the File menu.

Exiting / Quitting Ms-Excel.

√ You exit from Ms-Excel when you have finished working with it.
On the Application Control checkbox, click Exit. OR Press ALT+F4 -OR- Click the Close button on the
top right hand corner of the Title bar of the Ms-Excel window.

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If the workbook was not saved before or the changes made to the open workbook are not saved, Ms-Excel
will give you an option to save those changes by displaying the Save As dialog box. Choose Yes to save the
changes, or No to discard the changes.

SELECTING DATA IN CELLS, ROWS OR COLUMNS.

To select Do this:
A single cell Click the cell, or press the Arrow keys to move to the cell.
Text in a cell Double-click in the cell (or click in the cell, press F2 to display the
Insertion point), then select the text in the cell.
A range of cells 1. Click the first cell of the range, hold down the left mouse
button, then drag to the last cell in the range.
-OR-
Click the first cell in the range, hold down SHIFT key, then click the
last cell in the range.
-OR-
Click the first cell in the range, hold down SHIFT key, then use the
Arrow keys to extend the selection.
All cells on a worksheet Press CTRL+A (or on the Edit menu, click Select All).
Nonadjacent cells or cell ranges Select the first cell or range of cells, hold down CTRL & select the
other cells or ranges.
An entire row or column Click the row or column heading.
Adjacent rows or columns Drag across the row or column headings.
-OR-
Select the first row or column, hold down SHIFT key, then select the
last row or column.
Nonadjacent rows or columns Select the first row or column, hold down CTRL & select the other
rows or columns.

Note. To cancel a selection of cells, click any cell on the worksheet.

A Range is any group of cells in a worksheet. The cells in a range can be adjacent or nonadjacent.

Inserting blank cells, rows, or columns.

√ You can insert a row or column, to make room for additional information in the worksheet. This may be
necessary when some extra information, which was not expected earlier, needs to be included.

To Insert new blank cells.

1. Select a range of existing cells where you want to insert the new blank cells. Select the same number of
cells as you want to insert.
2. On the Home menu, click Insert
3. In the Insert dialog box, click Shift cells right, Shift cells down, Entire row, or Entire column.

To Insert Rows.
1. To insert a single row, select a row (or click a cell in the row) immediately below where you want the
new row to appear.
For example, to insert a new row above row 5, click a cell in row 5. To insert multiple rows, select the
same no. of rows as you want to insert.
2. On the Home menu, click Rows.

To Insert Columns.
1. To insert a single column, select a column (or click a cell in the column) immediately to the right of
where you want the new column to appear.
For example, to insert a new column to the left of column B, click a cell in column B. To insert multiple
columns, select the same no. of columns as you want to insert.
2. On the Home menu, click Insert.

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Exercise (a).

1. How many columns are there in an Excel worksheet?

2. Identify and explain the FOUR types of data in Spreadsheets.
3. Explain how you would do the following operations on a Worksheet in Microsoft Excel.
(i). Rename a worksheet.
(ii). Delete a worksheet.
(iii). Insert a single new worksheet.
(iv). Move from one worksheet to another.
(v). Select a cell.
(vi). Select a range of cells.
(vii). Select nonadjacent cells or cell ranges.
(viii). Select everything in a worksheet.
4. Define the following terms as used in Spreadsheets: (6 marks)
(i). Cell.
(ii). Formula.
(iii). Labels.
5. What is the difference between Clearing cells and Deleting cells?

Exercise (b).
1. What is the meaning of each of the following concepts?
(i). Labels.
(ii). Values.
(iii). Formula.
(iv). Function.
2. Distinguish between Labels and Formulae with respect to Spreadsheets.

Exercise (c).
1. List FOUR types of information that can be entered into a cell. (4 marks).
2. Explain THREE cell data types in spreadsheet. (6 marks).
POSITIONING (ALIGNING) DATA IN A CELL.
√ Adjusting the alignment of the cell contents, helps to distinguish different types of information in cells.
Usually when you enter text data into a worksheet, it is normally aligned to the left in a cell, while
numbers, dates & times are aligned to the right.

To center the data, or align data to the left or right in a cell.

1. Select the cells with the data you want to reposition.
2. On the Home menu, click the appropriate alignment button.
 Click the Align Left button - to align text to the left of the cell.
 Click the Center button - to center text in the cell.
 Click the Align Right button - to align text to the right.

Merging cells across columns.

You can easily merge headings across the top of a range of cells. When you merge cells, the selected cells
are combined into one cell. This spreads the content of one cell over many cells.
1. Copy the data you want into the upper-leftmost cell within the range.
2. Select the cells you want to merge.
Warning. Excel places only the data in the upper-leftmost cell of the selected range into the resulting
merged cell. If there is data in other cells, the data is deleted when you merge the cells.
3. To merge cells in a row or column and center the cell contents, click the Merge and Center button on
the Home menu,

APPLYING BORDERS, SHADINGS & PATTERNS TO A WORKSHEET.

You can apply borders to cells, shade cells with a background color, or shade cells with a color pattern in
order:
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√ To distinguish between different types of information in a worksheet.
√ To make the worksheet more appealing to the eye.
√ To draw attention to important data in the worksheet.

To Apply a Border to cells.

1. Select the range of cells that you want to put a border around.
2. On the Home menu, select the required border under Font tab

To Apply or Remove cell Shadings.

1. Select the cells you want to apply shading to or remove shading from.
2. On the Home menu, click Shading icon.

The borders, shades and patterns that you have specified all apply to the range you had selected.

FORMATTING NUMBERS IN A WORKSHEET.

Formatting of numbers in a worksheet can make your worksheet much more presentable.
√ Long numbers without commas are difficult to read.
√ Too many uneven decimal places in a worksheet make it difficult to compare figures.
√ A worksheet that has some figures with six decimal places, others with commas and others with no
decimal places has an untidy appearance.

To Add or Remove the Thousands separator in a number.

1. Select the range of cells containing the numbers whose format you want to change.
2. Click the Comma Style (,) button on the Home menu.
Or
1. On the Home menu, click General, then click the Number tab.
2. In the Category list, click Number.
3. Select or clear the Use 1000 separator (,) checkbox.
All numbers in the selected range will be displayed with commas separating the thousands and with two
decimal points, e.g., 7,375.00

To Add or Remove a Currency symbol.

1. Select the range of cells you want to format as currency.
2. Click the Currency Style ($) button on the Home menu.

Exercise.

1. Explain step-by-step how you would perform the following operations on a worksheet in Microsoft
Excel.
(i). Enter data into a worksheet cell.
(ii). Edit cell contents.
(iii). Make text in a cell Bold, Italic and double-underlined.
(iv). Adjust a column width to accommodate the longest cell entry in a range of cells.
2. Explain what are Label prefixes in spreadsheets. (10 Mk)
3. A worksheet table has columns A through N. The Chief Accountant doesn’t require the information
contained in columns E, F and G. Give a step-by-step procedure on how to make sure that only the
columns with the required information are printed.
4. You have the number 435273.7865 in a cell. How will it look if you format the cell as commas and 2
decimal places?

FINDING RECORDS.
√ Suppose you wanted to view records that meet given conditions, you would have to sort the table
according to the conditions so as to find out where those records appear in the list. Such conditions are
referred to as ‘Criteria’.

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 However, this method will require you to sort the table whenever you want to find something different.
Ms-Excel offers an easier solution to this through the Filter command on the Data menu.

1. Click on any cell in the table that contains the records you want to search for.
2. On the Data menu, choose Filter, then select AutoFilter from the submenu.
A downward arrow appears on the right of each field name.
3. Click the down arrow on a column to display the conditions that can be set. Select a condition (Criteria)
from that list.

Note. If the criteria you want is not in the list or if you want to enter two conditions, then perform the
following steps:
(i). Select the column / field to search by clicking on the down arrow to the right of the field name.
The Custom AutoFilter dialog box appears.
(ii). In the Show rows where: box, select the conditions to use by clicking on the down arrow. The list
includes ‘is greater than’; ‘is less than’, etc.
(iii). Enter the Value to compare the contents of the field width. You could type or select it from a drop
down list of values available in the database.
4. Click the OK button to complete the task.

Note. To redisplay the records, click on the down arrow to the right of the field name that you had selected,
and select the option All.

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Example:
A B C D
1 Date Person Item Amount
2 26-Jan-97 Morris Bar 95
3 28-Mar- Albert Take Away 136
97
4 28-Jan-97 Anne Lunch 53
5 09-Mar- Susan Breakfast 112
97
6 12-Jun-97 Jane Snacks 56
7 12-Apr-97 Richard Snacks 118
8 15-Mar- Peter Bar 114
97
9 25-Mar- Mike Take Away 80
97
10 01-Mar- James Bar 167
97
11 09-Jun-97 Morris Take Away 71
12 16-Jun-97 Susan Lunch 80

Suppose you want to view all the sales that exceed 100 Shillings but are below 150 shillings from a week’s
list of sales records.
 The field to use for the search would be Amount. So, click on the down arrow on the right of the
Amount field.
 The Operator would be is greater than, and the value would be 100.
 Enter the second criteria, as Amount is less than 150, then click the OK button.
 All the records whose amount is between 100 and 150 will be displayed (Only the records matching the
criteria are displayed).
A B C D
1 Date Person Item Amount
3 28-Mar- Albert Take Away 136
97
5 09-Mar- Susan Breakfast 112
97
7 12-Apr-97 Richard Snacks 118
8 15-Mar- Peter Bar 114
97
10 01-Mar- James Bar 167
97

PIVOT TABLES.
√ A Pivot table helps us to summarize and analyze large amounts of existing data, from a list or table,
using the format and calculation methods of your choice.
Suppose we wanted the daily totals for each of the sales persons along with the total sale for each day: A
PivotTable can help us get that kind of information much more easily.

1. Select any cell in the list or table you want to summarize.

2. On the Insert menu, select PivotTable or PivotChart …
3. This will activate Step 1 of the PivotTable Wizard. In this step, select the source of data Ms-Excel will
use to create the Pivot Table. From the choices given, select Microsoft Excel list or Database.
Click on the Next button.
4. Step 2 of the Wizard shows you the range containing the list of data detected around the position of your
cell pointer of Step 1. If necessary, change the range.
Click on the Next button.
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5. Click the Layout… button to specify how you want the PivotTable to appear.
6. On the right hand side of the PivotTable and PivotChart Wizard – Layout dialog box, the Pivot
Wizard shows the column titles (field names) found in your list.
 Drag the field name whose contents you want to summarize downward to the area marked ROW.
 Drag the field name whose contents you want to summarize across the PivotTable to the area marked
COLUMN.
 Drag the field name that contains the data to be summarized into the area marked DATA.
7. Step 3 of 3 will be displayed again allowing you to specify a convenient location for the PivotTable.
The PivotTable may be positioned either as a new worksheet or on the existing worksheet.
If you select Existing worksheet in this dialog box, then you must specify the cell where the top left
corner of the PivotTable will be positioned.
8. To specify a name for the PivotTable, click on the Options button.
9. Click on the Finish button. Ms-Excel places the Pivot Table in the location you specified.

Refreshing Records in the PivotTable.

1. Select a cell in the PivotTable.
2. On the PivotTable dialog box, click on the Refresh Data button.

Note. To refresh the PivotTable whenever you open the workbook, click Options on the PivotTable menu
of the PivotTable toolbar. Under Data source options, select the Refresh on open checkbox.

CELL REFERENCES (Cell Addresses).

A Cell reference is the identity of a cell in a worksheet. A Reference identifies a cell or a range of cells on
a worksheet and tells Ms-Excel where to look for the values or data you want to use in a formula.

Examples of Cell references.

(i). Single cell reference.
(ii). Mixed cell reference.
(iii). Label cell reference.
(iv). Relative cell reference.
(v). Absolute cell reference.

REFERENCING OF CELLS.
A cell is identified by use of the Column letter heading & the Row number heading. To refer to a cell, enter
the column letter followed by the row number. For example, B2 refers to the cell at the intersection of
column B & row 2.

Examples of cell references.

To refer to Type
The cell in column A & row 10 A10
The range of cells in column A & rows 10 to 20 A10:A20
The range of cells in row 15 & columns B to E B15:E15
All cells in row 5 5:5
All cells in rows 5 to 10 5:10
All cells in column H H:H
All cells in columns H to J H:J
The range of cells in columns A to E & rows 10 to 20 A10:E20

PERFORMING CALCULATIONS IN MS-EXCEL.

A Function is a special command, which you can type into a formula to perform arithmetic operations. A
Worksheet function is a special inbuilt formula that performs an operation on the values that you provide.
It is an inbuilt equation that is used for calculation.

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A function performs operations or calculations using specific values, called arguments. The arguments can
be either cell references or values or both.

Categories of Functions in Ms-Excel.

Functions are grouped into broad categories by some common features particular to the function.
1. Financial functions.
Analyze investments and securities; determine depreciation, calculate cash flows and loans, e.g. the
PMT function.

2. Date & Time functions.

Calculate values that represent dates and times. e.g., the TODAY function is used to return the current
date according to the computer’s internal clock.

3. Math & Trigonometry functions.

Can be used to perform simple mathematical operations, such as calculating Square roots (SQRT),
rounding a number (ROUND), calculating the total value for a range of cells (SUM), etc. They are also
used to replace complex trigonometric calculations like Sine (SIN), Cosine (COS), etc. e.g., ABS –
gives the Absolute value of a number. The Absolute value of a number is the number without its sign.
Syntax: ABS(number)

4. Statistical functions.
Perform calculations (statistical analysis) on ranges of data. e.g., AVERAGE - calculates the average
(arithmetic mean) of a set of values in a range.
STDEV – Estimates Standard Deviation based on a sample. Standard Deviation is a measure of
how widely values are dispersed from the Average value (Mean).
Syntax: STDEV(number1,number2,….)

5. Logical functions.
Calculate the results of logical formulas. e.g., the IF Function.

6. Look up & Reference functions.

Finds or refers to the contents of a cell. For example, the VLOOKUP function.

7. Database functions.
Perform statistical calculations and queries on database tables. For instance, DSUM will find the total of
values in a particular field (column).

8. Information functions.
Return information about cells, ranges, the operating system, and some Ms-Excel tools, or to mark
places where information is missing or incorrect. eg., CELL - returns information about the formatting,
location or contents of a cell.

CREATING MS-EXCEL FORMULAS.

When you need to perform a calculation in Ms-Excel, you use a formula. You can create simple formulas
that can be used; lets say, to add the values in two cells, or you can create complex formulas that can
calculate the Standard deviation of certain values.

For example, the formula ‘=SUM(D1:D7)’ uses a function to add the values in the range D1:D7. It
gives the same result as the formula ‘=D1+D2+D3+D4+D5+D6+D7’.

Before you write your formula in Ms-Excel, it is advisable to do the following;

(i). Decide what you want to be calculated, e.g., the Total Cost of items.
(ii). Note down the values in the worksheet required for the calculation and use them to write down the
formula, e.g. Quantity * Price.
(iii). Substitute the values with their cell references, e.g. B3*D3.
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Calculation operators in formulas.

Operator - A sign or a symbol that specifies the type of calculation to perform on the elements of a formula.
Excel includes 4 different types of calculation operators:
(i). Arithmetic (Mathematical) operators.
(ii). Logical (Comparison) Logical operators.
(iii). Reference operators.
(iv). Text concatenation operators.

Arithmetic (Mathematical) operators.

Performs basic mathematical operations such as Addition, Subtraction, Division or Multiplication.

Arithmetic operator Meaning Example.

+ (Plus sign) Addition 3+3
- (Minus sign) Subtraction 3–1
* (Asterisk) Multiplication 3*3
/ (Forward slash) Division 3/3
% (Percent sign) Percent 20%

Logical (Comparison) operators.

Compares two values and produces a logical value, either TRUE or FALSE.
Comparison Meaning Example.
= (equal sign) Equal to A1=B1
> (greater than sign) Greater than A1>B1
< (less than sign) Less than A1<B1
>= (greater than or equal to sign) Greater than or equal to A1>=B1
<= (less than or equal to sign) Less than or equal to A1<=B1
<> (not equal to sign) Not equal to A1<>B1

Reference operators.
Combine ranges of cells for calculations.
Reference operator Meaning Example.
: (colon) Range operator; produces one B5:B9
reference to all the cells between
two references, including the two
references.

, (comma) Union operator; combines multiple SUM(B5:B9,D5:D9)

references into one reference.

Text concatenation operators.

Use the ampersand (&) to join one or more strings to produce a single piece of text.
Text operator Meaning Example.
& (ampersand) Connects two values to produce “North” & “wind” produces
one continuous text value “Northwind”

Creating a simple formula.

A Formula in Ms-Excel always begins with an equal (=) sign. Ms-Excel uses this sign to differentiate
between a Label (text) and a Formula. The equal sign tells Ms-Excel that the characters that follow
constitute a formula.

Following the equal sign are the elements to be calculated called Operands or Arguments. The Arguments
are separated by calculation operators, and enclosed by an opening & closing parentheses (brackets).
1. Click on the cell in which you want to enter the formula.
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2. Type the = (equal sign) to activate the Formula bar. The equal sign (=) tells Ms-Excel that you are
entering a formula in the cell.
3. Type the formula directly into the Formula box.
To tell Ms-Excel where to find the data that will be used in the calculation, type a cell reference.
4. Press the ENTER key. Ms-Excel immediately calculates & shows the result in the cell, while the
formula is displayed in the Formula bar.

Notes.
 A Formula can refer to other cells on the same worksheet.
 Ms-Excel calculates a formula from left to right, according to a specific order for each operator in the
formula.
You can change the order of operations by using parenthesis. E.g., to calculate B4+25, then divide the
result by the sum of the values in cells D5, E5 and F5, the formula would be: =(B4+25)/SUM(D5:F5)

In this example, the parentheses around the first part of the formula forces Ms-Excel to calculate B4+25
first, then divide the result by the sum of the values in cells D5, E5, and F5.

Creating a formula that contains a function.

1. Click the cell where the result of the formula will be displayed.
2. On the Insert menu, click Function, (or click the Paste Function button on the toolbar).
3. Click a function from the Function Category list. When you select a function, a description of the
function appears in the dialog box.
Click the OK button.
4. Type in the arguments to compute in the parentheses in the formula. To enter a range, use a Colon to
separate the first & the last cells in the range, or use a Comma to separate reference to individual cells.
5. After you complete the formula, click the OK button or press the ENTER key.

Note. The structure of a function begins with an Equal sign (=), followed by the Function name, & the
Arguments for the function. The Arguments are separated by commas or a colon, and enclosed in an
opening & closing parenthesis.

USING FUNCTIONS

A B C D E F G H
Honoraria
Ag Basic House Commuter (% of Basic Honorari Gross
1 Name e Salary Allowance Allowance Salary) a Amount Salary
2 John Okello 45 34,450 10%
3 Samwel Otieno 16 28,290 9%
3 Justus Omwami 29 27,700 8%
4 Jane Kisia 25 32,000 9.5%
5 Judith Amondi 23 28,000 9%
6 Uhuru Kipngeno 37 34,200 10%
8 Total
9 Average
10 Maximum
11 Minimum
12 Median
Functions Table Data

The SUM Function

The Sum Function lets one get the summation of a range of cells of values
Syntax: =SUM (value1, value2,….)

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 =SUM(Range)

Example 1: Find the summation of 50, 60, 75, 18

Solution: =SUM(50+60+75+18) or = SUM(50,60,75,18)

Example 2: Using the Sum function find the sum of Basic Salary in the Functions Table data above
Solution: C7=SUM(C2:C6)

The AVERAGE Function

The Average Function lets one get the average of a range of cells of values
Syntax: =AVERAGE(Range)
=AVERAGE(value1, value2,….)

Example 1: Find the average of: 50, 60, 75, 18

Solution: =AVERAGE(50,60,75,18)

Example 2: Using the Average function find the average of Basic Salary in the Functions Table data
above
Solution: C8=AVERAGE(C2:C6)

The PRODUCT Function

The Product Function lets one get the product of a range of cells of values
Syntax: =PRODUCT(value1,value2,….)
= (value1*value2*….)

Example 1: Find the product of: 50, 60, 75, 18

Solution: =(50*60*75*18)

Example 2: Using the Product function find the product of Basic Salary in the Functions Table data
above
Solution: G2=PRODUCT(C2,F2)

The MAXIMUM Function

The Maximum Function lets one get the biggest / largest value in a range of cells of values
Syntax: =MAX(value1,value2,….)

Example 1: Find the product of: 50, 60, 75, 18

Solution: =MAX(50,60,75,18)

Example 2: Using the Maximum function find the maximum value of Basic Salary in the Functions
Table data above
Solution: C9=MAX(C2,C6)

The MINIMUM Function

The Minimum Function lets one get the smallest / least value in a range of cells of values
Syntax: =MIN(value1,value2,….)

Example 1: Find the product of: 50, 60, 75, 18

Solution: =MIN(50,60,75,18)

Example 2: Using the Maximum function find the maximum value of Basic Salary in the Functions
Table data above
Solution: C10=MIN(C2,C6)

The COUNT Function

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The Count Function counts the number of cells that contain numbers within the list of arguments.

Syntax: COUNT(value1,value2,...)

Value1, value2, ... are the arguments that can contain or refer to a variety of different types of data, but only
numbers are counted.

Note. Empty cells, logical values, text, or error values in the reference are ignored.

Example 1: Using the Count function count the cells in the Functions Table data above
=COUNT(A2:H6)
This counts all the cells within the specified range that have value entries.

Note: - COUNTA – Counts the number of cells that are not empty.

The IF function.
IF is used to conduct conditional tests on values and formulas. It evaluates a condition and returns one of
two values, depending on the result of the evaluation. If the condition is TRUE, IF returns one value. If the
condition is FALSE, IF returns the other value.

Syntax: =IF(Condition, Action-to-be-taken when condition is true, Action-to-be-taken when condition

is false)
=IF(Logical Test, Value if True, Value if False)

Note. The condition is usually a logical formula. e.g., A5=100 is a logical expression; if the value in cell
A5 is equal to 100, the expression evaluates to TRUE. Otherwise, the expression evaluates to
FALSE.

Example 1.
Cell A2 contains the value 50.
On a budget sheet, cell A5 contains a formula to calculate the current budget.
=IF(A2<=100,"Within budget","Over budget")

If the result of the formula in A5 is less than or equal to 100, then the function displays “Within budget”.
Otherwise, the function displays “Over budget”.

Example 2. In this example, if the value in cell A2 is 100, then the condition is TRUE, and the total value
for the range B5:B15 is calculated. Otherwise, condition is FALSE, an empty text ("") is
returned that leaves the cell that contains the IF function blank.
=IF(A2=100,SUM(B5:B15),"")

Example 3: Using the IF Function Display a remark in Column I of “Retire” or “Continue” in Column I if
the age is above 35 years in the Functions Table data above
=IF(B1>35,COUNT(A2:H6)

Example 4: Suppose an expense worksheet contains in A2:A4 the data for “Actual Expenses” for January,
February, and March: 1,500, 500 and 500. Cells B2:B4 contains the data for “Predicted Expenses” for the
same periods: 900, 900, and 925.

A B C
1 Actual Expenses Predicted Expenses
2 1500 900
3 500 900
4 500 925

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You can write a formula in cell C2:C4 to check whether you are over budget for a particular month,
generating text for a message:

Formula Description Result

=IF(A2>B2,"Over Budget","OK") Checks whether the 1st row is over budget Over Budget
=IF(A3>B3,"Over Budget","OK") Checks whether the 2nd row is over budget OK

To check if a number is greater than or less than another number.

Cell A2, A3 & A4 contain the values 15,000; 9,000 and 8,000.

Formula Description Result

=A2>A3 Is A2 greater than no. in A3? TRUE
=IF(A3<=A4, "OK","Not OK") Is A3 less than or equal to the no. in A4? Not OK

Nesting Functions Within Functions.

You can use a function as one of the arguments of another function.

Note. When a function is used as an argument, it must return the same type of value that the argument uses.
For example, if the argument returns a TRUE or FALSE value, then the nested function must return a TRUE
or FALSE. If it doesn’t, Ms-Excel displays a #VALUE error value.

Example 5.
=IF(SUM(K10:K19)>=5000,10%,5%)
In this example, the SUM function is being nested. Assume that the result of the SUM function is 935.
Since the sum of the range K10:K19 is not greater than or equal to 5000, the result is 5%.

Example 6. Cells A2, A3 and A4 contain the values 45, 90, 78.

Example 6: Suppose you want to assign letter grades to numbers referenced by the name AverageScore.
See the table below.

If AverageScore is Then return

Greater than 89 A
From 80 to 89 B
From 70 to 79 C
From 60 to 69 D
Less than 60 F

Formula Description Result

=IF(A2>89,"A",IF(A2>79,"B", Assigns a letter grade to the first score F
IF(A2>69,"C",IF(A2>59,"D","F"))))

=IF(A3>89,"A",IF(A3>79,"B", Assigns a letter grade to the second score A

IF(A3>69,"C",IF(A3>59,"D","F"))))

=IF(A4>89,"A",IF(A4>79,"B", Assigns a letter grade to the third score C

IF(A4>69,"C",IF(A4>59,"D","F"))))

In the above formula, the second IF statement is also the value_if_false argument to the first IF statement.
Similarly, the third IF statement is the value_if_false argument to the second IF statement.
For example, if the first logical_test / condition (AverageScore>89) is TRUE, "A" is returned. If the first
logical_test is FALSE, the second IF statement is evaluated, and so on.

The ROUND Function

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The ROUND function rounds a given number to a specified no. of digits.
Syntax: ROUND(number,num_digits)

Number –is the no. you want to round.

num_digits – specifies the no. of digits to which you want to round the no.

Notes.
 If num_digits is greater than 0 (zero), then number is rounded to the specified no. of decimal places.
 If num_digits is 0 (zero), the number is rounded to the nearest Integer (whole no.).
 If num_digits is less than 0 (zero), then number is rounded to the left of the decimal point.

Example 1:
Formula Description Result
=ROUND(2.15,1) 2.2
=ROUND(2.149,1) 2.1
=ROUND(21.5,-1) num_digits is less than 0 (zero), 20

Example 2: Cells A2:A4 contain values 20.3, 5.9 and -5.9.

Formula Description Result
=ROUND(A2,0) Rounds 20.3 down, because the fractional part is less than .5 20

=ROUND(A3,0) Rounds 5.9 up, because the fractional part is greater than .5 6

=ROUND(A4,0) Rounds -5.9 down, because the fractional part is less than -.5 -6
=ROUND(-1.475,2) -1.48

To Round a number to a near fraction.

For Example, cells A2 & A3 contain values 1.25 and 30.452.

Formula Description Result

=ROUND(A2,1) Rounds the no. to the nearest 1 decimal place.
Because the portion to be rounded is 0.05 or greater,
the no. is rounded up 1.3
=ROUND(A3,2) Rounds the no. to the nearest 2 decimal places.
Because the portion to be rounded, 0.002, is less than 0.005,
the no. is rounded down 30.45

Example 3: Using the ROUND function find the Round Off the Basic Salary in the Functions Table
data above to 2 decimal places
C11=MEDIAN(C2-C6)

The MEDIAN Function

Median is the value at the center of an ordered range of numbers. Use the MEDIAN function. MEDIAN
gives the number in the middle of a set of numbers.

Syntax: MEDIAN(number1,number2,...)

Number1, number2, ... are numbers for which you want the median.
Notes.
 Cells with the value zero are included.
 If there is an even number of nos. in the set, then MEDIAN calculates the average of the two numbers in
the middle.

Example1: Cells A2:A7 contain values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

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Description Formula
Median of the first 5 nos. in the list =MEDIAN(A2:A6)
Median of all the nos. given, or the average of 3 and 4 =MEDIAN(A2:A7)

Example 2: Using the Median function find the median value of Basic Salary in the Functions Table
data above
C11=MEDIAN(C2-C6)

The MODE Function

The Mode Function gives the most frequently occurring, or repetitive, value in a range of data.

Syntax: MODE(number1,number2,...)

Number1, number2, ... are the arguments for which you want to calculate the mode.

Note.
 Cells with the value zero are included.
 If the data set contains no duplicate data points, MODE returns the #N/A error value.

Example: Cells A2:A7 contain the values 5.6, 4, 4, 3, 2, and 4.

Description Formula
Mode, or most frequently occurring no. in the list =MODE(A2:A7)

Tip. In a set of values, the Mode is the most frequently occurring value; the Median is the middle value;
and the Mean is the average value.
The PMT Function
PMT calculates the payment on a loan (principal) at a given interest rate for a specified no. of payment
periods (term).

Syntax: =PMT(Principal - Amount,Interest-Rate,Term)

Principal and Terms are values. Interest is a decimal or percentage value greater than -1.

Example;
A businessman took out a Ksh. 800,000 loan for 4 years at an annual Interest Rate of 26%, compounded
monthly. If the monthly installments are paid on the last day of each month, determine the installment to be
paid.

=PMT(800000,0.26/12,48)

The Monthly installment is 26,973.85

Note. The Interest is divided by 12 in order to get the monthly rate, and term (in years) is multiplied by 12
to convert it into months.

The SQUARE ROOT Function

Use the SQRT function. SQRT gives a positive square root of a specific number.
Syntax: SQRT(number)

Number - is the number for which you want the square root. If number is negative, SQRT returns the
#NUM! error value.

Example 1: Cell B2 contains the number 215; to get the square root, type:

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=SQRT(215) -OR- =SQRT(B2)

Formula Description Result

= SQRT(16) 4
=SQRT(-16) #NUM!

The POWER Function

Use the POWER function. POWER gives the result of a no. raised to a power.

Syntax: POWER(number,power)

Number - is the base no. It can be any real number.

Power - is the exponent to which the base no. is raised.

Note. The up carat (^) operator can be used instead of POWER to indicate to what power the base no. is to
be raised.

Description Formula Result

5 squared =5^2 -OR- =POWER(5,2) 25
5 cubed =5^3 -OR- =POWER(5,3) 125
4 raised to the power of 5/4 =4^05/4 -OR- =POWER(4,5/4) 5.656854
98.6 raised to the power of 3.2 =98.6^3.2 -OR- =POWER(98.6,3.2) 2401077

The FV Function
FV calculates the future value of a fixed investment earning a fixed interest over a specified period.
E.g., let’s say, you want to plan for your retirement in 20 years and decide to invest Ksh. 20,000 each year.
If the investment pays 20% interest compounded annually, the formula would be:

=FV(20%,20,-20000)
You would collect Ksh. 3,733,760 after 20 years.

The LOG Function

LOG - Gives the logarithm of a number to the base you specify.

Syntax: LOG(number,base)

Number -is the positive real no. for which you want the logarithm.

Base -is the base of the logarithm. If base is omitted, it is assumed to be 10.
Formula Result
=LOG(10) 1
=LOG(8, 2) 3
=LOG(86, 2.7182818) 4.454347

The LOG10 Function

The Log10 Function gives the base-10 logarithm of a number.

Syntax: LOG10(number)

Number -is the positive real number for which you want the base-10 logarithm.
Formula Description Result
=LOG10(86) Base-10 logarithm of 86 1.934498451
=LOG10(10) Base-10 logarithm of 10 1
=LOG10(10^5) Base-10 logarithm of 10 power 5 5
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The MOD Function
The MOD function gives the remainder after a number is divided by a divisor. Usually, the result has the
same sign as the divisor.

Syntax: MOD(number,divisor)

Number -is the number for which you want to find the remainder.

If divisor is 0, MOD returns the #DIV/0! error value.

Description Formula Result

Remainder of 3/2 =MOD(3, 2) 1
Remainder of -3/2 =MOD(-3, 2) 1
Remainder of 3/-2 =MOD(3, -2) -1
Remainder of -3/-2 =MOD(-3, -2) -1

The COS Function

The COS gives the cosine of the given angle.

Syntax: COS(number)

Number - is the angle in radians for which you want the cosine. If the angle is in degrees, multiply it by
PI()/180 to convert it to radians.

Description Formula Result in radians.

Cosine of 1.047 radians =COS(1.047) 0.500171
Cosine of 60 degrees =COS(60*PI()/180) 0.5

The SIN Function

The SIN gives the sin of the given angle.

Syntax: SIN(number)

Number -is the angle in radians for which you want the sine. If your argument is in degrees, multiply it by
PI()/180 to convert it to radians.

Description Formula Result in radians.

Sine of pi/2 radians =SIN(PI()/2) 1

Sine of 30 degrees =SIN(30*PI()/180) 0.5

The TAN Function

The TAN gives the tangent of the given angle.

Syntax: TAN(number)

Number- is the angle in radians for which you want the tangent.

Description Formula Result in radians.

Tangent of 0.785 radians =TAN(0.785) 0.99920

Tangent of 45 degrees =TAN(45*PI()/180) 1

The TRANCATE Function

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The Truncate Function shortens a number to an Integer by removing the fractional part of the number.

Syntax: TRUNC(number,num_digits)

Number -is the number you want to truncate.

Num_digits -is a number specifying the precision of the truncation.

Description Formula Result

Integer part of 8.9 =TRUNC(8.9) 8
Integer part of -8.9 =TRUNC(-8.9) -8

The NOT Function

The NOT function reverses the value of its argument. Use NOT when you want to make sure a value is not
equal to one particular value. If logical is FALSE, NOT returns TRUE; if logical is TRUE, NOT returns
FALSE.

Syntax: NOT(logical)

Logical - is a value or expression that can be evaluated to TRUE or FALSE.

Formula Description Result

=NOT(FALSE) Reverses FALSE TRUE
=NOT(1+1=2) Reverses an equation that evaluates to TRUE FALSE

The AND Function

The AND Function returns TRUE if all its arguments are TRUE; returns FALSE if one or more argument is
FALSE.

Syntax: AND(logical1,logical2, ...)

Logical1, logical2, .. are the conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE or FALSE.

Note. The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or the arguments must be
references that contain logical values. If the specified range contains no logical values, AND returns
the #VALUE! error value.

Example 1.
Formula Description Result
=AND(TRUE, TRUE) All arguments are TRUE TRUE
=AND(TRUE, FALSE) One argument is FALSE FALSE
=AND(2+2=4, 2+3=5) All arguments evaluate to TRUE TRUE

Example 2. Cells A2:A3 contain values 50 and 104.

If A2 contains a number between 1 and 100, then:

Formula Result
=AND(1<A2,A2<100) TRUE

Suppose you want to display A3 if it contains a number strictly between 1 and 100, and you want to display
a message if it is not. If A3 contains 104, then:

Formula Result
=IF(AND(1<A3,A3<100), A3,"The value is out of range.") “The value is out of range”.
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If A3 contains 50, then:

Formula Description Result

=IF(AND(1<A2, A2<100), A2, "The value is out of range.") 50, because A3 it between 1 &
100.
The OR Function
The OR Function returns TRUE if any argument is TRUE; returns FALSE if all arguments are FALSE.

Syntax: OR(logical1,logical2,...)

Logical1,logical2,... are conditions you want to test that can be either TRUE or FALSE.
Notes.
 The arguments must evaluate to logical values such as TRUE or FALSE, or references that contain
logical values. If the specified range contains no logical values, OR returns the #VALUE! error value.
 If a reference argument contains text or empty cells, those values are ignored.

Formula Description Result

=OR(TRUE) One argument is TRUE TRUE
=OR(1+1=1,2+2=5) All arguments evaluate to FALSE FALSE
=OR(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE) At least one argument is TRUE TRUE
Example:

Cells A2, A3 & A4 contain the values 15, 9, and 8.

Formula Description Result
=AND(A2>A3, A2<A4) Is 15 greater than 9 and less than 8? FALSE
=OR(A2>A3, A2<A4) Is 15 greater than 9 or less than 8? TRUE
=NOT(A2+A3=24) Is 15 plus 9 not equal to 24? FALSE

ERROR VALUES.
If a formula cannot properly evaluate a result, Ms-Excel will display an error value. For example, error
values can be as a result of using text where a formula expects a numeric value, deleting a cell that is
referenced by a formula, or using a cell that is not wide enough to display the result.

1. #####
Causes.
- This error value occurs when the cell contains a number, date or time that is wider than the cell.
-OR-
- It occurs when the cell contains a date or a time formula that produces a negative result.

Suggested action.
a) Increase the width of the column by dragging the boundary between the column headings.
b) Apply a different number format in the cell to make the number fit within the existing cell
width. E.g., decrease the no. of decimal places after the decimal point.
c) Ensure that the data and time formulas are correct. When you subtract dates and times, make
sure you build the formula correctly.

If a formula has a result of a negative value, you can display the value by formatting the cell with a
format that is not a date or time format.
Click Cells on the Format menu, click the Number tab, then select a format that is not a date or
time format.

2. #N/A
The #N/A error value occurs when a value is not available to a function or formula.

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 Possible cause & Suggested action
a) Omitting 1 or more arguments in a function
Enter all arguments in the function.
b) Using a custom worksheet function that is not available
Make sure the function is working properly

3. #DIV/0!
This error value occurs when you enter a formula that contains a division by zero (0).
E.g., =5/0. It may also occur when you divide a cell by another cell that is blank.

Suggested action.
Change the divisor to a number other than zero.

4. #NULL!
The #NULL! error value occurs when you specify an intersection of two areas that do not intersect. i.e.,
using an incorrect range operator or using an incorrect cell reference.

Suggested action.

(i). Use the correct range operator. For instance, to refer to two areas that don’t intersect, use the
Comma.
E.g. if the formula sums two ranges, separate the two ranges with a comma.

=SUM(A1:A9,C1:C6).

(ii). Check for typing errors in the reference to the ranges.

5. #NAME?
The #NAME? error value occurs when Ms-Excel doesn’t recognize text in a formula.

Possible cause & Suggested action

(i). Deleting a name used in the formula, or using a name that does not exist
Make sure the name exists
(ii). Misspelling the name of a function
Correct the spelling.
(iii). Omitting a colon (:) in a range reference
Make sure all range references in the formula use a colon Eg =SUM(A1:A5)
(iv). Entering text in a formula without enclosing the text in double quotation marks (“). Ms-Excel tries
to interpret your entry as a name even though you intended it to be used as text.
Enclose text in the formula in double quotation marks e.g. the following formula joins a piece of
text “The total amount is” with the value in cell B5: =”The total amount is” & B5

6. #NUM!
This occurs when a problem occurs with a number in a formula or function. E.g., Entering a formula
that produces a number to a number that is too large or too small to be represented in Ms-Excel.

Suggested action
(i). Change the formula so that its result is between – 1*10307 and 1*10307.

7. #VALUE!
The #VALUE error value occurs when the wrong type of argument or operand is used.

8. #REF!
The #REF error value occurs when a cell reference is not valid. For instance, deleting cells referred to
by other formulas, or pasting moved cells over cells referred to by other formulas.
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 Suggested action
(i). Change the formulas, or restore the cells on the worksheet by clicking Undo immediately after you
delete or paste the cells.

Exercise.
1. You have entered a formula to add the contents of B5 and C4 in cell F5. What will it become when you
copy it to cell H8?
Explain the reason for your answer.
2. What causes the following error messages in Microsoft Excel. Show how we can solve them.
(i). #####
(ii). #VALUE!
(iii). #DIV/0!
(iv). #NAME?
3. The first column in the table below contains formulas as entered into the cell D46. In the second
column, enter the formulas as they would appear when copied to B56.
Formula in D46 Formula when copied to B56
=D1
=F5*C10
=H$46+J40
=$E12-
D$14*$F$2

DATA SORTING.
Sorting is the process of arranging data within a range in a particular order.

Purpose.
√ Sorting helps in arranging data in some order of priority, i.e., from lowest to highest or from highest to
lowest.
√ It also helps to quickly locate the highest or lowest value in a list.

When you sort, Ms-Excel rearranges rows, columns, or individual cells by using the sort order that you
specify. You can sort a list in Ascending (1-9, A-Z) or Descending order (9-1, Z-A). You can perform a
sort based on the contents of one or more columns.

Note. The data is sorted in reference to columns.

To sort rows in ascending or descending order based on the contents of one column.
1. Click a cell in the column by which you want to sort. The column on which the list is arranged is known
as the Key.
2. To arrange the data from lowest to highest, click on the Sort Ascending button on the toolbar. To
arrange the data from highest to lowest, click on the Sort Descending button on the toolbar.
-Or-
On the Data menu, click Sort. In the Sort by box, click the column you want to sort and then choose
the sort order.

To sort rows based on the contents of two or more columns.

1. Click a cell in the list you want to sort.
2. On the Data menu, click Sort to display the Sort dialog box.
3. Under Sort By, specify the first column by which you want to sort, then choose the sort order by
clicking on the Ascending or Descending box.
4. You can add up to two keys in the Then By boxes according to your need.
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 Assume that you need to sort by more than 3 columns, i.e., your list contains employee information and
you need to organize it by Department, Title, Last Name, and First Name, sort the list twice. Click First
Name in the first Sort by box and then sort the list. Click Department in the second Sort by box, click
Title in the first Then by box, and click Last Name in the second Then by box, and then sort the list.
5. Select any other sort options you want, then click OK to perform the sort.

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Sort columns based on the contents of rows.
1. Click a cell in the list you want to sort.
2. On the Data menu, click Sort.
3. Click the Options button.
4. Under Orientation, click Sort left to right, then click OK.
5. In the Sort by and Then by, click the rows you want to sort.

Examples:
(i). A teacher may arrange pupil’s records according to the marks scored in a test, starting with the highest
to the lowest in order to assign class positions.
(ii). An Accountant may arrange a list of financial records according to the date of the transaction and
customer name in order for him to be able to quickly locate any record using the transaction date and
name of customer.
(iii). Arranging a telephone list according to alphabetical order of last name in order to easily locate a name
and phone number. If there are several people with similar last names, you can specify two keys such
that the records are arranged in order of first name as well.

LINKING WORKSHEETS.
Purpose.
√ Sheets are normally independent. If a change in a value in one sheet is intended to affect other values in
different sheets, it is advisable to link the sheets so that Ms-Excel will automatically update the affected
values if you make any changes.

Alternatively, you can calculate the new values and manually make the changes to all the other sheets. This
would be unreliable & cumbersome especially if this is to be done for many values in many large
worksheets.

When typing in a formula that refers to a cell in another sheet, include the name of the sheet before that
particular cell reference separated by a colon.

Example 1:
The formula =G6*Sheet1!B6 (instead of =G6*B6) will refer to B6 in Sheet 1 rather than in the current
sheet.

Example 2:
Typing the formula =Salesinfo!A10 in cell A10 of Sheet2 will cause the contents of cell A10 in the Sheet
named Salesinfo to be also the contents of A10 in Sheet2.

CREATING CHARTS.
Charts are used to present data effectively. They make relationships among numbers easy for users to see
because they turn numbers into shapes that can be compared to one another.

For instance, rather than having to analyze several columns on worksheet numbers, you can see at a glance
whether sales are falling or rising over quarterly periods, or how the actual sales compare to the projected
sales.

Different Types of Charts and their uses.

(i). Line Chart: A Line graph is used to show trends.
(ii). Bar Chart: - It can be used to show comparison of Sales and Target.
(iii). A Stacked Bar Chart: - It can be used to show the distribution of sales by month and compare the
performance of salesmen.
(iv). A Pie Chart: shows the distribution of sales.
(v). Scatter Charts.
(vi). Column Charts.

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Steps required when creating a simple chart.
1. Enter the data you want to be represented in the chart on the worksheet.
2. Select the cells or range that contains the data you want to be represented in chart.

If the cells you want to select for your chart are not in a continuous range,

 Select the first group of cells that contain the data you want to include.
 Hold down the CTRL, then select any additional cell groups you want to include. The nonadjacent
selections must form a rectangle.

3. On the Insert menu, click Chart (or click the Chart Wizard button on the Standard toolbar). Then
use the Chart Wizard to help you through the process of choosing the chart type and the various chart
options.

4. Select Chart type.

 In the Chart type dialog box, click the Standard Types tab or the Custom Types tab.
 Under Chart Type, click the chart category you want to use, then select the type of chart under
Chart subtypes on the right.
A brief description of the chart selected appears below the sub-types. This helps you decide whether the
type suits the data you have selected. You may also view a sample of the chart that will be produced.
 Click on the Next button.

5. Specify the range of cells to include in the chart.

This gives you a chance to select your range again if necessary.
In the Chart Source data dialog box,
 Click the Data range tab, then confirm the selected range or enter a new range.
 Under Series in, click an option to change the way in which the data should be plotted; across Rows
or down Columns. To help you decide the right option, the sample chart changes according to the
selection you have made.
 If you are sure about the range you have selected and the sample chart is what is desired, click on the
Next button.

6. Select the Chart options.

In this step, there are several chart options as indicated by the various categories at the top of the Chart
Options dialog box.
 Click the Titles tab. Click in the Chart Title area and type in the title for your chart. Type in the
titles for axes in their respective places.
 Click the Legend tab, and then select the Show Legend box. Under Placement, click an option to
show where the legend will be placed.
 Click on the Next button.
Legend - A box that identifies the patterns or colors that are assigned to the data series or categories in a
chart. A legend indicates which color (pattern) represents what data item.

Axis - A line that borders one side of the plot area, providing a frame of reference for measurement or
comparison in a chart. For most charts, data values are plotted along the value axis, which is usually
vertical (Y-axis), and categories are plotted along the category axis, which is usually horizontal (X-axis).

Note. Ms-Excel creates the axis values from the worksheet data.

7. Select the Location of Chart placement.

This step involves placing the chart you have created.
You can create a chart as an embedded object on the sheet you are working on or on its own sheet.
 Under Place chart, click an option either to insert the chart as a new sheet or as an object in the
current data sheet.

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8. Click on the Finish button.
To change the Chart type.
a) Click the chart to activate the Chart menu.
b) On the Chart menu, click Chart Type.
c) Click the Standard Types tab, click the inbuilt chart type you want to use, then click the OK button

Changing Chart Options.

Click the chart. On the Chart menu, click Chart Options to display the Chart Options dialog box.

To add or change the Chart Title.

1. Click the Titles tab.
2. Click in the Chart title box, and then type the text for the title.

To add a Legend to a chart.

1. Click the Legend tab.
2. Select the Show legend check box.
3. Under Placement, click the option you want.

Note. When you click one of the Placement options, the legend moves, and the Plot Area (area bounded
by the axes) automatically adjusts to accommodate it.

To change Data series names or the Legend text.

1. Click the chart. On the Chart menu, click Source Data.
2. On the Series tab, click the data series name you want to change.
3. In the Name box, specify the worksheet cell you want to use as the legend text or data series name. You
can also type the name you want to use.

To edit the Chart title and the Axes titles.

1. On the chart, click the title you want to change.
2. Type the new text you want.
3. Press the ENTER key.

How worksheet data is represented in a chart.

A chart is linked to the worksheet data it's created from and is updated automatically when you change the
worksheet data.

To change the Cell range used to create a chart.

1. Click the chart.
2. On the Chart menu, click Source Data, then click the Data Range tab.
3. Make sure the entire reference in the Data range box is selected.
4. On the worksheet, select the cells that contain the data you want to appear in the chart.
If you want the column and row labels to appear in the chart, include the cells that contain them in the
selection.

To include a new range into an existing chart.

This helps to add information not already in the chart.
1. Select the range you want to add in the chart.
2. Position the mouse pointer along the edge of the selected range until it changes into an arrow.
3. Drag the range into the chart.
Ms-Excel will automatically update the chart so that it includes the new range.

To change the Placement of a chart.

1. Click the chart. On the Chart menu, click Location.
2. To place the chart on a new chart sheet, click As new sheet, then type a name for the new chart sheet in
the As new sheet box.
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To place the chart as an embedded object on a worksheet, click As object in, click a sheet name in the As
object in box, and then click the OK button.

Drag the embedded chart where you want it on the worksheet.

To Move and resize chart items by using the Mouse.

1. Click the chart item you want to move or resize.

To move an item, point to the item, then drag it to another location of the sheet.

To resize a chart item, point to a Sizing handle. When the pointer changes to a double-headed arrow, drag
the sizing handle until the item is the size you want.

Delete data from a chart

To delete data from both the worksheet and the chart.
1. Delete the data from the worksheet. The chart will be updated automatically.
To delete data from the chart only.
1. Click the data series you want to delete.
2. Press the DELETE key.

To delete data labels, titles, or legends in a chart.

1. Click the chart item you want to delete.
2. Press the DELETE key.

To change the Font, font Size, font Colour of text in a chart or make the text Bold, Italic or
Underlined.
1. Click the chart text, or select the individual characters you want to format.
2. On the Formatting toolbar, click a button for the format you want.

Setting up a chart for printing.

You can adjust where the chart will print on the page by sizing and moving the chart with the mouse in Page
break view.
1. Click the worksheet outside of the chart area.
2. On the View menu, click Page Break Preview.
3. To set printing options for a chart sheet, click Page Setup on the File menu.
4. Click the Chart tab, and then select the options you want.

Tip. To print an embedded chart without its associated worksheet data, click the embedded chart to select
it, and then follow the above instructions for chart sheets.

Chart area - the entire chart and all its elements.

To zoom or size the display of a chart sheet.
1. Click the tab for the chart sheet.
2. Click Zoom on the View menu, then click the option you want.
To size the chart sheet so that it fills the entire workbook window, click Sized with Window on the View
menu. When a chart sheet is sized with the window, you cannot zoom in or out of it.

To view an embedded chart in a separate window.

1. Click the embedded chart you want to see in its own window.
2. On the View menu, click Chart Window.

Printing the chart.

√ To create a paper copy of the chart to present to other people.
√ To maintain a paper filing system alongside the computer filing system.
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1. To print both the worksheet and the chart, click on the Print button on the toolbar.
To print the chart only, select the chart by clicking on it, then select Print on the File menu.
2. Under Print what in the resulting dialog box, click on Selected Chart, and then choose OK.

PRINTING A WORKSHEET.
√ Whenever you need a paper copy of the worksheet to present to other people.
√ If you maintain a paper filing system alongside the computer filing system.

PAGE SETUP.
You can control the appearance or layout of printed worksheets by changing options in the Page Setup
dialog box.

Purpose.
√ To define where one page ends and another page starts.
√ To print a large worksheet to fit on a single page.
√ To add descriptive information to be printed with your worksheet.
√ To define rows and columns you want to print on each page of the output.
√ To change the order in which various worksheets should print.

Setting the Page Margins.

1. Select the worksheet you want to print.
2. On the Page Layout menu, click select Print Area, then click the Margins tab.
3. In the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right boxes, enter the margin size you want.

You can also tell Ms-Excel to automatically position your worksheet at the center of the page, both
horizontally (across) and vertically (downwards) by clicking the options under Center on Page.

To set Header or Footer margins.

 To change the distance from the top edge to the header, enter a new margin size in the Header box.
 To change the distance from the bottom edge to the footer, enter a new margin size in the Footer box.
These settings should be smaller than your top and bottom margin settings.

Tip. To see how the margins will affect the printed document, click Print Preview before the document
is printed.

Print preview displays the printed page so you can adjust columns and margins. The way pages appear in
the preview window depends on the available fonts, the resolution of the printer, and the available colors.

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 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM – MS-ACCESS

A database is a collection of data stored in a computer system in some organised manner to make the
retrieval of the data easy.

Traditionally filling methods

This is the old way of organising files. This method is where data is stored within a single paper file or table.

Disadvantages
 Unnecessary duplication of data.
 Boredom and time wasting while searching for a record.
 Misleading reports due to poor data entry.
 Poor update of records.

Computerised database
This database use database management system software to manipulate data. Examples of DataBase
Management Software (DBMS) include: MS-Access, Oracle, Fox Pro, Dbase IV

Functions of a DBMS
Allow the user add or delete records.
Update or modify existing records.
Organise data for easy access, retrieval and manipulation.
Ensure security for data in the database.
Keeps statistic of data items in database.

Database Models
a) Flat files – this model of database holds only one set of data and is not any different from the manual
files e.g. the library catalogue.
b) Hierarchical model – in this model items are arranged in hierarchical (tree) form. To access level one
data items, you have to first access level one data items. A specific single path leads to each item at
lower levels.
c) Network model – in this model, lines are used to express the relationship between different data items,
forming a network of items. Access of one item can be through many paths and from any item.
d) Relational model – in this model, related data items are stored together in structures called relations or
tables. Relationship can be created between tables such that a record or records from one table relates to
another in another table.
e) Object oriented model – in this model, database is a complete program built to hold a collection of
objects, which have both properties and behaviour.

Components of a DBMS
a) Tables/file structure – this is database structure that is used to hold related records.
b) Queries – this is a tool used to search for or question a database on specific records.
c) Form/Screen input – this is a graphical interface that resembles the ordinary paper form used to collect
data. It enables the user to view and enter data into a table.
d) Report – database provides the user with a tool for generating reports from a table or query.
e) Modules – this tool is like the macro but it’s more precise in the sense that you have control over the
actions taken.
f) Macro – this tool enables the user to automate frequently performed procedures or tasks.

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Data Organization in a Database/Database Components
1. Field.
An element of a table that contains a specific item of information.
A single unit of information within a table.
The place where data is placed within a database.
A collection of related characters.
A group of characters that form a unit of information such as Age, Telephone number, or a Job
classification.

In a datasheet, each column represents a Field. One field holds one piece of data. E.g., in a Student
record, the possible fields are Name, Admission number, and Age. All the fields for one student
constitute a Record.
(a). Field Name:
This is the name that indicates each column (field).
It is the column title/ heading or a label for a field.
(b). Field Type:
It is the type of data stored in a field.

2. Record.
A group of logically related fields treated as a unit. It can be a collection of data about a person, a
place, an event, or some other item.
A set of all the fields for one row in a table.
Each record contains fields for storing your information. For example,
Name Age Origin Sex
John 23 Machakos Male
In a database table, each row represents a Record.

3. File – this is a collection of related records.

4. Database – A collection of related files or tables.

Ms-ACCESS Database
Ms-Access is a Window-based program used to manage information, which is in form of databases. It helps
in storing information about different subjects in separate tables. It also enables the user to add and edit
records, sort, query and also print records.

Note. Ms-Access can be installed as a stand-alone program, but it is mainly found within the Microsoft
Office suite. It is very useful for routine and simple database management tasks.

Starting Microsoft Access.

Click Start, point to Programs, then click Microsoft Access.
-OR-
Click on the Microsoft Access icon on the Microsoft Office Shortcut Bar, if it is displayed on the
desktop.
DESIGNING A DATABASE STRUCTURE.
Good database design makes the database easy to maintain. Data is stored in tables and each table contains
data about only one subject, e.g., Customers.

Before using Ms-Access to build tables, queries, forms, and other objects, it is advisable that you first sketch
out and rework the design on a paper.

The following are some of the basic steps in designing a database.

1. Determine the purpose of the database file and how it has to be used.
 Think about the questions that you would like the database to answer.
 Gather the forms used to record the data.
 Sketch out the reports you would like the database to produce.
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 This helps you to determine what facts (Fields) will be stored in the database and what table each fact
belongs to.

2. Determine the fields needed in the database.

Each field is a fact about a particular subject. E.g., if you are designing a database that will handle your
customers, you might need to store the following facts: Company name, Address, City, State, & Phone
no.
Create a separate field for each of these facts.

When determining the fields that are needed, ensure that the following design principles are observed:
 Include all of the information you will need.
 Store the information in the smallest logical parts. E.g., a name is usually split into 2 or 3 fields;
First Name, Middle Name & Last Name. This makes it easy to sort the data.
 The Fields should not be similar to each other.
e.g., in a Suppliers table, you should not create fields such as Product1, Product2, & Product3,
because it will be difficult to find all suppliers who provide a particular product. This will also force
you to change the design of your database if a supplier provides more than 3 products.

In the Products table, you need only one field for Products.

3. Determine the type of tables needed in the database.

Each table should contain information about one subject. The list of fields you have will enable you to
know what tables you need.

e.g., if you have a HireDate field, its subject is an employee, and so it belongs in the Employees table.

You might have a table for Customers, a table for Products, and a table for Orders.

4. Identify the field or fields with unique values in each record.

In order for Ms-Access to connect information stored in separate tables; for instance, to connect a
customer with all the customer's orders, each table in your database must include a Primary key (a field
or set of fields that uniquely identifies each individual record in the table).

5. Determine the relationships between tables.

After dividing your information into tables and identifying primary key fields, you need a way to tell
Ms-Access how to bring related information back together again in meaningful ways. This is done by
defining Relationships between the tables.

6. Refining the design.

After designing the tables, fields, and relationships you need, study the design and detect any mistakes
that might remain. If there is any, change your database design before entering the data.

7. Entering data and creating other database objects.

After making sure that the table structures meet your needs, add your data to the tables.

CREATING A MS-ACCESS DATABASE.

Database is a collection of data and objects, such as tables, queries, or forms, related to a particular topic or
purpose.

MS-ACCESS DATABASE FILES.

Using Ms-Access, you can manage all your information from a single database file.
Database File:
 A collection of logically related records.
 A collection of all tables and objects used to manage data.

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A Database file consists of rows and columns. Within the file, you can use database objects such as:
 Tables - to store your data.
 Queries - to find and retrieve any data you want.
 Forms - to view, add, and update data in tables.
 Reports - to analyze or print data in a specific layout.

Create a new Blank database file.

You can create a Blank database & then add the Tables, Forms, Reports & other objects later.

This requires the user to define each database element separately allowing him/her to create a self-defined
database.

1. Once you open MsAccess, it gives you a template.

2. In the templates window, click Blank Database.
3. In the File New Database dialog box, specify a name & location for the database file, then click on the
Create button to display the Database window.

Note. All Ms-Access databases are saved with an automatic extension of .mdb or accdb depending on the
version of MsOffice you are using.

4. Click on the tab that has the object you want to create, e.g., Tables, and follow the instructions provided
in the resultant dialog box.

Database window - The window that appears when you open an Ms-Access database. It displays tabs/
buttons for the database objects, such as Tables, Queries, Forms, Reports, Macros and Modules. These
shortcuts are used for creating new database objects and opening existing objects.

DATABASE TABLES.
A Table is a collection of data about a specific topic.

Defining the structure of a database Table.

Tables organize data into columns (called fields) & rows (called records). e.g., in a Products table, each
field contains the same type of information for every product, such as the Product's name. Each record in
that table contains all the information about one product, such as the Product's name, supplier ID number,
units in stock, and so on.

When defining a table structure, enter the following:

a) Field Name:
Each column in a database table is called a Field. Field name is the name that identifies each column
(i.e., it is the title of a field or column).
To enter names in the columns, for example, enter the First Name in its own column & Last Name in a
separate column.

b) Field Type:
This specifies the type of data to be used/ stored in the field.

c) Field Size:
Specifies the maximum no. of characters that can be typed in that column.
Field width – the no. of spaces required to hold the largest data item to be stored in the field.

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FIELD DATA TYPES.
A Data type is the characteristic of a field that determines what type of data it can store / hold.

Field Data types available in Ms-Access.

1. Text.
A Text field can store text or combination of text & numbers, such as names, addresses, or any numbers
that do not require calculations, such as Telephone nos., or Postal codes. A Text field stores up to 255
characters.

2. Memo.
A Memo field is used to store lengthy text & numbers that are more than 255 characters, such as notes or
descriptions. A Memo field can store up to 65,536 characters.

3. Number.
A Number field is used to store numeric data that would be included in mathematical calculations. Stores
1, 2, 4, or 8 characters.
Note. A Number field only stores Whole numbers (i.e., numbers without decimal values) from 0 to
255.

4. Currency.
A Currency field is used for currency values or to store any calculations that involve money or that
require a high degree of accuracy. This prevents rounding off during calculations. Stores 8 characters.

A Currency field is accurate to 15 digits to the left of the decimal point & 4 digits to the right.

5. Date/Time.
A Date or Time field is used to store dates and times depending on the formats chosen. It stores 8
characters.

6. Yes/No.
Used for data that can be only one of two possible values, such as Yes/No, True/False, On/Off. Stores
1 character.

7. AutoNumber.
AutoNumber is a field data type that automatically stores a unique number for each record as it is added
to a table.
It automatically numbers the records in the table. It is used for unique Sequential (incrementing by 1) or
Random numbers that are automatically inserted when a record is added.
It stores 4 characters.

8. OLE Object.
An OLE Object field allows one to bring data & files from another program into the current field.
Used for OLE objects (such as Ms -Word documents, Ms -Excel spreadsheets, Pictures, or Sounds) those
were created in other programs using the OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) protocol.

9. Hyperlink.
A Hyperlink field links the fields to another table within the same database or in a different database.

10. Lookup Wizard.

The Lookup Wizard is used to create a field that allows you to choose a value from another table or from
a list of values using a combo box.

Choosing data types and field sizes

The following considerations determine the kind of data type to use for a field:

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(i). The kind of values you want to allow in the field, e.g., you cannot store text in a field with a Number
data type.
(ii). The amount of storage space you want to use for values in the field.
(iii). The types of operations you want to perform on the values in the field, e.g., Ms-Access can sum values
in Number or Currency fields, but not values in Text or OLE Object fields.

Note. A field's data type defines what kind of values you can enter in a field. E.g., if you want a field to
store numerical values or data that you can use in calculations, set the field’s data type to Number or
Currency. A field whose data type is Text can store data consisting of either text or number
characters.

CREATING A DATABASE TABLE.

Ms-Access provides 3 ways of creating a blank (empty) table;
a) Use the Table Wizard. The Wizard enables the user to choose the fields for the table from a variety of
predefined tables such as Business contacts, Household inventory, or Medical records.
b) Create a table in Design view where you can add fields, define how each field appears or handles data,
and create a primary key.
c) Enter data directly into a blank datasheet. When you save the new datasheet, Ms-Access will analyze
your data and automatically assign the appropriate data type and format for each field.

CREATE A TABLE IN DESIGN VIEW.

Design view -A window that shows the design of the database objects: tables, queries, forms, reports, and
macros. In Design view, you can create new database objects and modify the design of existing ones.

1. Press F11 to switch to the Database window.

2. Under Objects, click Tables, then click New on the Database window toolbar.
3. Double-click Design View. Access takes you to the design view of your table.
4. Define each of the fields in your table.

How?
• Click in the Field Name column and type a unique name for the field.
• Click the arrow in the Data Type column, and select the data type you want.
• In the Description column, type a description of the information the field will contain. The
description is optional.
5. Define a primary key field before saving your table.

Primary key - One or more fields that can be used to identify each record in a table. A primary key is
used to refer to related records in other tables (it is used to relate a table to foreign keys in other tables).

Note. If you do not define a primary key, Ms-Access asks if you want Access to create one for you
when you save the table.

6. To save your table, click Save on the File menu or on the toolbar, then specify a name for the table.
7. Switch to Datasheet view, then start entering records.

Switch between views of a table.

1. On the View menu, click Design view or Datasheet view (or click the View button on the Standard
toolbar)

FIELD PROPERTIES.
The table’s Design view is divided into two parts. The lower part is used to display and assign field
properties to selected fields.

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Field properties - a set of characteristics that provide additional control over how the data in a field is
stored, entered, or displayed. Each data type has a different set of properties. The different field properties
include:
a) FieldSize: The FieldSize property defines/ controls the maximum no. of characters that can be
entered/ stored in a Text or Number field.

b) Format: The Format property specifies how (the way) data is displayed in a field & printed. Number
& Currency fields provide predefined display formats. They include Currency, Fixed, General,
Percent, Scientific, General data, Medium date, Medium time.

c) Decimal places: It is used to define the no. of decimal places in values. This option is used on fields
that already have the Fixed format such as in Number and Currency fields.

d) Default value: It allows you to define a value that will automatically be inserted into the field as you
add new records. It is used in Text and Memo fields. For example, to insert the current date in the
Admission date field use “Date ( )”. The default value affects only new records inserted.

e) Validation Rule.
It allows you to create an expression or a formula that will test data when being entered into the field.
It automatically rejects faulty/flawed entries, e.g., entering very large or very small figures in the Age
or Salary fields.

Validation Rule Description

Between 18 and 55 Limits an age field from 18 to 55.
<10000 Allows any value less than 10000
<=500 AND <=1000 Accepts any entry between 500 and 1000.
>Date( ) Allows entries whose dates are the current date or later.
<Date( ) Allows the current date and before.

Note. To test whether the Validation rule is applicable, choose Test Validation Rules on the Edit
menu.

f) Validation Text.
Defines an error message that will be displayed when the validation rule is violated/broken. It must be
typed in earlier. Enter a useful message that can be clearly understood by the input clerk.

g) Required.
It controls the entry of important fields.
When this option is set to YES, an entry must be made within that field, i.e., it ensures that the field is
not left blank.
A YES option is equivalent of typing IS NOT NULL as a field Validation rule.

h) Input Mask.
Lets you define a pre-formatted pattern for the entry of data into a Date or a Text field. The data in
that field must conform to a pattern.

Examples of data include:

0#/0#/0# - this forces a 2-digits entries for the year, month and date in a date field.
A - Allows letters or digits into a field, but an entry is required.
9 - Allows letters or digits in a field, but no entry is required.
000000 - Allows a 6-digit number (not more or less than that).
999999 - Allows 6 or less digits.
AAAAA - only 5 characters are to be entered.
> - converts the field entry to Uppercase.
< - converts the field entry to Lowercase.
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i) Allow Zero Length.
Applies to Text and Memo field data types. Setting the value in Allow Zero Length property to YES
and the Required property YES, the field must contain at least one character.

j) Caption.
This is an alternative name used (other than the fieldname) in order to appear in the fieldname header
button in Table datasheet view and as a label in Forms. They provide a neat and descriptive name
since the fieldname should be kept small for practical use.

k) Indexed.
[Yes (Duplicates OK)] – Gives sorted, indexed field and can allow data duplicates.
[Yes (No duplicates)] – Gives sorted, indexed field but cannot allow data duplicates.
Note. It is not available for Memo or OLE object data types.

l) New Values.
Applies only to AutoNumber fields.
Ms-Access can increment the AutoNumber field by 1 for each new record, or fill in the field with a
randomly generated no., depending on the New Values property setting that you choose.

Note. To check the Field properties set for the records in a table, click Properties on the Edit menu.

Rename a field in a table in Design view.

1. Double-click the field name you want to change.
2. Type the new field name.
3. Click Save on the toolbar or on the File menu to save your changes.

Primary Key
Primary key is a field that uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Examples of key fields include - Identification numbers, Registration numbers, User codes, etc.

Using a Primary key is a way of telling Ms-Access to:

 Make sure no two records have the same value within that field.
 Keep records sorted by the entries of the Primary key fields.

There are 3 kinds of primary keys that can be defined in Ms-Access:

1. AutoNumber primary keys.
An AutoNumber field can be set to automatically enter a sequential no. as each record is added to the
table.
Choosing an AutoNumber field as the primary key for a table is the simplest way to create a primary
key.

2. Single-field primary keys.

If you have a field that contains unique values such as ID numbers, you can select that field as the
primary key. You can specify a primary key for a field that already contains data as long as that field
does not contain duplicate values or Null values.

Null - A value you can enter in a field or use in expressions and queries to indicate missing or unknown
data. Some fields, such as primary key fields, cannot contain Null values.

3. Multiple-field primary keys.

In situations where you cannot guarantee the uniqueness of any single field, you can choose two or more
fields as the primary key.
This commonly arises in situations where a table is used to relate two other tables in a many-to-many
relationship.
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 1. Open a table in Design view.
2. Select the field or fields you want to define as the Primary key.
To select one field, click the row selector for the desired field.
To select multiple fields, hold down the CTRL key, then click the row selector for each field.
3. On the Edit menu, click Primary key. (Or click the Primary Key button on the toolbar).

Note. A Primary key field cannot be left empty when editing and entering records.

Once you assign a primary key for a table, Access will prevent any duplicate or Null values from being
entered in the primary key fields.

Add a field (column) to a table in Design view.

1. Click in the row below where you want to add the field.
To add the field to the end of the table, click in the first blank row.
2. Click Insert Rows button on the toolbar (or on the Insert menu, choose Rows).
Double-click in the new column, then type a unique name for the field.

Delete a field from a table in Design view.

This permanently removes a field plus all the data in it from the database.
1. Select the field(s) you want to delete.
To select one field, click the field's row selector. To select a group of fields, drag through the row
selectors of the fields.
2. On the Edit menu, click Delete Rows (or click Delete Row on the toolbar).

Change a field's data type in Design view.

1. Click the arrow in the Data Type column of the field you want to change, then select the new data type.
2. Click Save on the toolbar. Ms-Access converts the data type.

Caution. If the data type conversion would result in lost values, Access displays a message telling you that
errors occurred during conversion before it actually saves the changes. Click Cancel to cancel the
changes. Click OK to continue and save the changes.

Change the field size of a Text or Number field.

Field size controls the maximum no. of characters that can be entered into a text field and the kind of
numeric values that can be entered into a numeric field.
1. In Design view, click the field whose FieldSize property you want to set.
2. In the lower portion of the window on the General tab, click the FieldSize property box.
For a Text field, type the maximum no. of characters to allow in the field (up to 255).
For a Number field, click the arrow and select the desired field size.

Set the data display format for a field in a table.

1. In Design view, click the field you want to format.
2. In the lower portion of the window, click the arrow next to the Format property box, then click a format
from the list.

Set the no. of decimal places to display for a field in table Design view.
1. In Design view, click the field you want to define decimal places for.
2. In the lower portion of the window, click the arrow next to the DecimalPlaces property box, then click
the desired no. of decimal places.

Open a database table.

1. In the Database window, under Objects, click Tables.
2. Click the table you want to open.
To open the table in Datasheet view, click Open.
To open the table in Design view, click Design.
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Exercise (a).
1. (a). Define the following terms as used in Database Management systems:
(i). Table.
(ii). Field.
(iii). Field Name.
(iv). Field Type.
(v). Record.
(vi). Database File.
(b). Give five different field data types found in Microsoft Access and explain each.
2. What are the procedures you have to follow when designing a database?

Exercise (b).

1. Differentiate between:
(a). Table and Record.
(b). Field and Field name.
2. Create a simple record of a company, having the following fields; Company’s Name, Address, City,
State, and Phone number.
3. Create a Personal records database giving the following details; Father’s Name, Baptismal Name, Last
Name, Origin, Sex, Date of Birth, Age, Primary and Secondary schools attended, College, Career and
Hobbies.
Include the relevant field data types and formats.
4. Create a database giving the following details; Name of company, Address, Phone number, Years of
existence, Location, Number of employees, and what it does (operations).
5. Create a database of an employer who decides to keep a record of all his employees, under the following
lines; Name of employee, Sex, Age, Origin, Date he/she was employed, Salary, Department of work,
Working hours for each employee, Marital status, Education level, and ID card number.
6. A farmer decides to keep a record of his farm produce of a certain season. Create a database showing
the following; Name of grain, Produce in tonnes.

COPY OR MOVE AN ITEM.

1. Select the items you want to copy or move.
To copy the item, click Copy on the Edit menu or on the toolbar.
To move the item, click Cut on the Edit menu or on the toolbar.
2. Click the location where you want to place the item.
3. Click Paste on the Edit menu or on the toolbar.

Copying a Table.
Copying can be used to reproduce tables and/or data within tables.
1. Select the table in Datasheet view.
2. Click Copy on the Edit menu or on the toolbar.
3. Click the location where you want to place the item.
4. Click Paste on the Edit menu or on the toolbar.

Access will then ask you to enter a name for the new table. It will then ask whether you want to paste
the structure and data or just to append the database records.
Appending refers to adding records at the bottom of an existing table or file.

To append the records, choose Paste Append on the Edit menu.

SORTING OF RECORDS.
This allows you to arrange your records in a logical order in the database. It can either be in Ascending or
Descending order – in Alphabetical, Chronological, or Numeric.
In Datasheet view, click in the field to be sorted.
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 Method 1: Click Sort on the Home ribbon, then click on the order to apply; Ascending or Descending.

HIDING AND UNHIDING OF COLUMNS WHEN EDITING.

You may want to hide a column for 3reasons;
 Prevent anybody from accessing the information.
 Prevent the data in those columns from being printed.
 In case you want to suppress display of some columns in a database view, i.e. reduce the size of a
database table in order to view more columns at once.

To hide columns in Datasheet view.

1. Move to the column you want to hide.
2. On the Records Tab of Home ribbon, select More button, on the advanced drop down list box select
Unhide Column.

To Unhide columns.
a) On the Records Tab of Home ribbon, select Advanced button, on the advanced drop down list box
select Unhide Column
A list of hidden columns appears.
b) Click to select the checkboxes of all columns that you want displayed.

FREEZING AND UNFREEZING OF COLUMNS.

Freezing makes the selected column to remain fixed on the screen while scrolling. This enables the user to
see the data in a column especially in a database table with very many columns.

When a column is freezed, it stays at the left-most position while the rest of the columns continue to move
or scroll in and out of view.

Unfreeze is removing the Freeze command.

To Freeze column(s) in Datasheet view.

1. Click on the column you want to freeze.
2. On the Records Tab of Home ribbon, select More button, on the advanced drop down list box select
Freeze

To Unfreeze columns.
1. Select the column to unfreeze.
2. On the Records Tab of Home ribbon, select More button, on the advanced drop down list box select
Unfreeze.

FILTERING OF RECORDS.
Filtering refers to sieving/ examining out particular records from the database. The records you sieve/
select out can be printed, deleted, or edited.

There are 3 types of filters in Access.

(i). Filter by Selection.
This filter allows you to choose a criteria for sieving out records by selecting them directly from the
table in Datasheet view.

1. Open the table in Datasheet view.

2. Select the cell that contains the criteria that you need,
E.g. under First Name, select Philip.
3. On the Sort & Filter Tab of Home ribbon, click Filter by Selection.
Access displays all the records that meet the criteria, e.g., all people in the database whose first
names is Philip.

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 Note. If you want to sieve in all records except the ones selected, click Filter Excluding Selection.

(ii). Filter by Form.

This filter opens up a Form where you can give a more elaborate criterion.
1. Open the table in Datasheet view.
2. On the Sort & Filter Tab of Home ribbon, select Advanced button, on the advanced drop down
list box select Filer by Form.
3. Then Select Apply Filter.

(iii). Advanced Filter/Sort.

This filter allows one to sort and filter at the same time.

Note. You can sort and filter at the same time or you can perform each independently.

1. Open the table in Datasheet view.

2. On the Sort & Filter Tab of Home ribbon, select Advanced button, the select Filter/Sort.
Access will take you to QBE grid. From this grid, you have a field list in the top half and the grid
table.
The grid table allows you to choose fields for filtering or sorting. To insert a field(s), double-click
it from the field list (or click once in the grid, then select the field from the drop down list).

3. When you have specified your criteria, click Apply Filter/Sort on the Records menu, (or click
the Apply Filter button on the toolbar).

That filter stays in effect until you delete it from the QBE grid.

Advanced Filter/Sort window - A window in which you can create a filter from scratch. You enter
criteria expressions in the filter design grid to restrict the records in the open form or datasheet to a subset
of records that meet the criteria.

Note. To remove a filter and get back the original table, click Remove Filter/Sort on the Records
tab of Home menu.

CREATING RELATIONSHIPS IN A MS-ACCESS DATABASE FILE.

To store your data, create one table for each type of information that you track.
After setting up the different tables for each subject, you can define relationships between the tables.

Relationship - An association established between common fields (columns) in two tables. Defining
relationships is a way of telling Ms-Access how to bring information/ data from multiple tables back
together again in a query, form, or report.

After defining the relationship, you can create queries, forms, and reports to display information from
several tables at once.

Relating two tables.

In order to relate two tables, each table should include a field or set of fields that uniquely identifies each
record stored in the table. Such a field is called the Primary key of the table.

The Primary key field relates two tables so that Ms-Access can bring together the data from the two tables
for viewing, editing, or printing.

In one table, the field is a Primary key that you set in table Design view. That same field also exists in the
related table as a Foreign key.

Suppliers: Table Products: Table

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Suppliers ID Company Name Product Name Suppliers ID Units in Stock
1 Exotic Liquid Chai 1 39
2 New Orleans Chang 1 17
3 Grandma Kell Aniseed Syrup 1 13
4 Tokyo Trade Camarvon Tiger 2 53

A Product Key - A unique ID, such as a Customer ID, that distinguishes one record from another within a
table.

In the Suppliers table, enter a Supplier ID, Company name, and so on, for each supplier. The Suppliers ID
is the primary key.

In the Products table, you include the Suppliers ID field, so that when you enter a new product, you can
identify its supplier by entering that supplier's unique ID number. The Suppliers ID is the foreign key in the
Products table.

Define relationships between tables.

When you create a relationship between tables, the related fields may not have the same names, but must
have the same data type.

A relationship can be One-to-one, One-to-many, or Many-to-many.

Define a one-to-many or a one-to-one relationship.

1. Close any tables you have opened. You cannot create or modify relationships between open tables.
2. Press F11 to switch to the Database window.
3. Click Relationships on the Tools menu or on the Standard toolbar.
4. If you have not yet defined any relationships in your database, the Show Table dialog box is
automatically displayed.
5. Drag the field that you want to relate from one table to the related field in the other table. In most cases,
you drag the primary key field (which is displayed in bold text) from one table to a similar field (often
with the same name) called the foreign key in the other table. To drag multiple fields, press the CTRL
key, click each field, and then drag them.
6. The Edit Relationships dialog box is displayed. Check the field names displayed in the two columns to
ensure they are correct. You can change them if necessary.
7. Set the relationship options if necessary, then click the Create button to create the relationship.
8. Close the Relationships Window.

When you close the Relationships window, Access asks if you want to save the layout. Whether you save
the layout or not, the relationships you create are saved in the database.

Relationships window - A window in which you view, create, and modify relationships between tables and
queries.

Many-to-many relationship.
This is an association between two tables in which one record in either table can relate to many records in
the other table.

To establish a many-to-many relationship, create a third table and add the primary key fields from the other
two tables to this table.

For example, an Order Details table can relate the Orders and Products tables. Its primary key consists of
2 fields: OrderID and ProductID. The Order Details table can list many products and many orders, but
each product can only be listed once per order, e.g., 51 as shown below. So combining the OrderID and
ProductID fields produces an appropriate primary key.

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 Orders Details: Table
Order ID Product ID
10249 14
10249 51
10250 41
10250 51
10250 65

View existing relationships.

1. Press F11 to switch to the Database window.
2. Click Relationships on the toolbar (or on the Tools menu).
3. Do one of the following:
To view all the relationships defined in the database,
 Click Show All Relationships on the toolbar.
To view the relationships defined for a particular table,
 Click the table, and then click Show Direct Relationships on the toolbar.
4. Click Clear Layout on the toolbar to remove all tables from the Relationships window.
5. To add the table back, click Show Table on the toolbar, double-click the table, and then click Close.
6. Click Show Direct Relationships on the toolbar.

Remove a table from the Relationships window.

 Click the table you want to remove, then press the DELETE key.
This action affects only the display of the Relationships window. The table and relationships remain in
the database.

Delete a relationship.
1. Close any open tables.
2. Press F11 to switch to the Database window.
3. Click Relationships on the Tools menu or on the toolbar.
4. If the tables whose relationship you want to delete are not displayed, click Show Table on the toolbar
and double-click each table you want to add. Then click Close.
5. Click the relationship line for the relationship you want to delete (the line will turn bold when it is
selected), then press the DELETE key.

Exercise (a).

1. (a). What are Database management software?

(b). What are the advantages of storing data on the computer using a database tool such as
Microsoft Access as opposed to storing in paper files.
2. Distinguish between the following terms in relation to a database:
(i). DBMS and database.
(ii). Records and Fields. (4 marks).
3. Define the term Sorting. (2 marks).
4. (a). Differentiate between Primary key and Relationship.
(b). What is the importance of the Primary key.
5. What are Database management software?

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QUERIES.
A Query is a question about the data stored in your tables, or a request to perform an action on the data.
You use queries to view, change, and analyze data in different ways. A query can find & bring together data
that meets conditions that you specify from multiple tables. It can also serve as the source of data for a
Form, or a Report. A query can also update or delete multiple records at the same time, and perform
predefined or custom calculations on your data.

There are 4 major types of queries in Microsoft Access.

a) SELECT QUERIES.
A Select query is a query that asks a question about the data stored in your tables and returns a result set
in the form of a datasheet—without changing the data.

You use a select query to:

(i). Bring together data from one or more than one tables by using the criteria you specify and then
display the data in the order you want.
(ii). Update records in the datasheet of a select query (with some restrictions).
(iii). Group records and calculate Sums, Counts, Averages, and other types of totals.

A select query is the most common type of query.

Creating a Select query.

You can create a query with a wizard or from scratch in Query Design view.

In Design view, you specify the data you want to work with by adding the tables or queries that contain
the data, and then by filling in the Design grid.
• You add fields to the design grid by dragging them to the field lists.
• What you will see in the query's results will be determined by the fields, sort order, and criteria you
add to the design grid.
In the Database window, click Queries under Objects, then click New on the Database window
toolbar.
In the New Query dialog box, click Design View, then click OK.
In the Show Table dialog box, click the tab that lists the tables or queries whose data you want to
work with.
Double-click the name of each object you want to add to the query, and then click Close.
Add fields to the Field row in the Design grid, and if you want, specify criteria and a sort order.
To view the query's results, click View on the toolbar.

Design grid: The grid that you use to design a query or filter in query Design view or in the
Advanced Filter/Sort window.

b) PARAMETER QUERIES
A Parameter query is a query that when run displays its own dialog box prompting you for
information, such as criteria for retrieving records or a value you want to insert in a field.

You can design the query to prompt you for more than one piece of information; For example,
 You can design it to prompt you for two dates. Ms-Access can then retrieve all records that fall
between those two dates.
 You can create a monthly earnings report based on a parameter query. When you print the report,
Ms-Access displays a dialog box asking for the month that you want the report to cover. When you
enter a month, Ms-Access prints the appropriate report.

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c) ACTION QUERIES
An action query is a query that copies or makes changes to or moves many records in just one
operation.

There are 4 types of Action queries:

i) Delete Queries.
A Delete query deletes a group of records from one or more tables. For example, you could use a
delete query to remove products for which there are no orders.

Notes.
• With delete queries, you always delete entire records, not just selected fields within records.
• Once you delete records using a delete query, you cannot undo the operation. Therefore, you
should preview the data that the query selected for deletion before you run the query. To do
this, click View on the toolbar, and view the query in Datasheet view.

ii) Update Queries.

An Update query makes global changes to a group of records in one or more tables.

For example, you can raise prices by 10% for all dairy products, or you can raise salaries by 5% for
the people within a certain job category. With an update query, you can change data in existing
tables.

iii) Append Queries.

An Append query adds a group of records from one or more tables to the end of one or more tables.

For example, suppose that you acquire some new customers and a database containing a table of
information on those customers. To avoid typing all this information into your own database, you
can append it to your Customers table.

Append queries also helps in:

 Appending fields based on criteria. For example, you might want to append only the names
and addresses of customers with outstanding orders.
 Appending records when some of the fields in one table do not exist in the other table. For
example, the Customers table has 11 fields. Suppose that you want to append records from
another table that has fields that match 9 of the 11 fields in the Customers table. An append
query will append the data in the matching fields and ignore the others.

iv) Make-Table Queries.

A Make-table query creates a new table from all or part of the data in one or more tables. Make-
table queries also helps in creating a table to export to other Microsoft Access databases or a
history table that contains old records.

Run an action query.

Unlike select and crosstab queries, you can't view the results of an action query by opening it in
Datasheet view. However, in Datasheet view you can preview the data that will be affected when
you run the action query.

Caution It is a good idea to make a copy of the data you are changing or moving in an action
query, in case you need to restore the data to its original state after running the action query.

1. Open the action query in Design view.

2. To preview the records that will be affected in Datasheet view, click View on the toolbar and
check the records. For each action query, you will see the following:

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 For this query The datasheet displays
Update The fields to be updated.
Delete The records to be deleted.
Make-table The fields to be included in the new table.
Append The records to be added to another table.
3. To return to query Design view, click View on the toolbar again. Make any changes you want
in Design view.
4. Click Run on the toolbar to run the query.

d) CROSSTAB QUERIES.
A Crosstab query is a query that calculates a Sum, Average, Count, or other type of total on records,
and then groups the result by two types of information — one down the left side of the datasheet and
the other across the top. Use Crosstab queries to calculate and restructure your data for easy analysis.

Note. A Crosstab query displays the same information, but groups it both horizontally and
vertically making the datasheet more compact and easier to analyze.

Creating a Crosstab query

You create a crosstab query from scratch in query Design view.
In the Database window, click Queries, then click New.
In the New Query dialog box, click Design View, and then click OK.
In the Show Table dialog box, click the tab that lists the tables or queries whose data you want to
work with.
Double-click the name of each object you want to add to the query, and then click Close.
Add fields to the Field row in the Design grid and specify criteria.
On the toolbar, click Query Type, and then click Crosstab.
In the Design grid, you specify the field's values that will become column headings, the field's
values that will become row headings, and the field's values to sum, average, count, or calculate.
• For the field(s) whose values you want to appear as row headings, click the Crosstab row, then
click Row Heading.
• For the field whose values you want to appear as column headings, click the Crosstab row, and
then click Column Heading. You can choose Column Heading for one field only.

You must leave the default Group By in the Total row for these fields.

• For the field whose values you want to use in the cross-tabulation, click the Crosstab row, and
then click Value. Only one field can be set to Value.
In the Total row for this field, click the type of aggregate function you want for the cross-
tabulation (such as Sum, Avg, or Count).

Changing the Sort order of the Column headings in a Crosstab query.

Usually, the column headings are sorted in alphabetic or numeric order. You can set them to appear in a
different order, or if you can limit which column headings to display.

For example, in column headings containing the months of the year, you can display the months
chronologically rather than alphabetically. Or, you can limit the columns to just January through June.
1. Open the crosstab query in Design view.
2. Click the background of query Design view, outside the design grid and the field lists.
3. On the toolbar, click Properties to display the query's property sheet.
4. In the ColumnHeadings property box, enter the column headings you want to display, in the
order in which you want to display them. Between the column headings, type a comma.
5. To view the query's results, click View on the toolbar.

Run a Select or Crosstab query.

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When you open a select or crosstab query, Access runs (executes) the query for you and shows the results
in Datasheet view.
1. In the Database window, click Queries under Objects.
2. Click the query you want to open, then click Open.

Open a query (select or crosstab) that shows records.

1. In the Database window, click Queries under Objects.
2. Click the query you want to open.
To open the query in Datasheet view, click Open.
To open the query in Design view, click Design.

Note. When you open a select or crosstab query in Datasheet view, you are actually executing the query.

Add or Remove Tables, Queries, And Fields.

You can add a table or query if the data you need is not in the query, or remove a table or query if you
decide you do not need them. Once you add the tables or queries you need, you can then add the fields that
you want to work with to the design grid, or remove them if you decide you do not need them.

Notes.
 A join line between field lists tells Microsoft Access how the data in one table is related to the data in the
other.
 You drag a field from the field list to a column in the design grid to show the field in the query results.

Calculate amounts
You can add the values in a field or do other computations with the data by specifying the type of
calculation to perform.
• Use an aggregate function, such as Sum or Avg, to calculate one amount for all the records in each field
in the design grid.
Aggregate function - A function, such as Sum, Count, Avg, or Var, that you use to calculate totals.
• Use Group By to calculate separate amounts for groups of records in a field.

Limit results by using criteria

You can limit the records that you see in the query's results or the records that are included in a calculation
by specifying criteria.

For example;
(i). To limit the records in the query's results, enter criteria in one or more fields.
Between #6/1/01# And #6/15/01#
(ii). Use the Or row for alternative criteria in the same field.
Between #6/1/01# And #6/15/01#
Or Between #7/1/01# And #6/30/01#
(iii). Enter criteria for different fields. For example, for orders between 6/1/01 and 6/15/01 ...
Between #6/1/01# And #6/15/01#
(iv). Calculate total order amounts, but display only those that are more than $100,000.
>100000

Sort records.
You can sort the query's results by specifying a sort order in the design grid.
You can Sort by Ascending or Descending order, or remove a sort.

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Show only the high or low values in a query.
You can show in a query datasheet those records with the highest or lowest values in a field or the highest or
lowest percentage of values in the field.
For example, you may want to show the top 10 Salespeople with the highest total sales for a month, or the
bottom 20 percent of students in a class by grade average.
1. Create a query in Design view.
2. In the Design grid add the fields you want to display in the query's results, including the field you want
to display top values for.
3. In the Sort cell of the field you want to display top values for, click Descending to display the highest
values or Ascending to display the lowest values.
4. Click in the Top Values box on the toolbar.
5. Enter the percentage or the number of highest or lowest values you want the query results to display.
Note To display a percentage, enter a number followed by a percent sign (%).
6. To view the query's results, click View on the toolbar.

When can I update data from a query?

In some cases, you can edit data in query Datasheet view to change the data in the underlying table. In other
cases, you cannot.

You can update a query or query field in the following cases:

• A query based on one table
• A query based on tables with a one-to-one relationship.
• The query's results contain a Memo, or OLE Object.

Set the data display format for a field in a query.

1. Open a query in Design view.
2. In the query Design grid, place the insertion point in the column for the field you want to format (or
place the insertion point in any row for that field).
3. Click Properties on the Query Design toolbar to open the property sheet for that field.
4. On the General tab, click the arrow next to the Format property box, then click one of the predefined
formats.

Set the number of decimal places to display for a field in query Design view.
1. Open a query in Design view.
2. In the query design grid, place the insertion point in the column for the field you want to change.
3. Click Properties on the Query Design toolbar to
4. On the General tab, click the arrow next to the DecimalPlaces property box, then click the desired no.
of decimal places.

FORMS.
A Form is an Access database object on which you place controls for taking actions or for entering,
displaying, and editing data in fields.

A form is a type of a database object that is primarily used to enter or display data in a database.
To easily view, enter, and change data directly in a table, create a form. When you open a form, Microsoft
Access retrieves the data from one or more tables, and displays it on the screen with the layout you choose
in the Form Wizard, or with the layout that you created on your own in Design view.

Notes.
A form focuses on one record at a time, and it can display fields from more than one table. It can also
display pictures and other objects. A form can contain a button that prints, opens other objects, or otherwise
automates tasks.

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Most forms are bound to one or more tables and queries in the database. A form's record source refers to the
fields in the underlying tables and queries. A form need not contain all the fields from each of the tables or
queries that it is based on.

You create a link between a form and its record source by using graphical objects called controls. The most
common type of control used to display and enter data is a text box.
You can also open a form in PivotTable view or PivotChart view to analyze data. In these views, you can
dynamically change the layout of a form to present data in different ways. You can rearrange row headings,
column headings, and filter fields until you achieve the desired layout. Each time you change the layout, the
form immediately recalculates the data based on the new arrangement.
 In PivotTable view, you can view detail or summarized data by arranging fields in the filter, row,
column, and detail areas.
 In PivotChart view, you can display data visually by selecting a chart type and viewing data by
arranging fields in the filter, series, category, and data areas.

Creating a form
You can create a form quickly by using the AutoForm command or a wizard. AutoForm creates a form
that displays all fields and records in the underlying table or query. A wizard asks you questions and creates
a form based on your answers. You can then customize the form the way you want it in Design view.
Customizing a form
In Design view
You can customize a form in Design view in the following ways:
Record source. Change the tables and queries that a form is based on.
Controlling and assisting the user. You can set form properties to allow or prevent users from adding,
deleting, or editing records displayed in a form. You can also add custom Help to a form to assist your
users with using the form.
Form window. You can add or remove Maximize and Minimize buttons, short cut menus, and other Form
window elements.
Sections. You can add, remove, hide, or resize the header, footer, and details sections of a form. You can
also set section properties to control the appearance and printing of a form.
Controls. You can move, resize, or set the font properties of a control. You can also add controls to display
calculated values, totals, current date and time, and other useful information on a form.
In PivotTable or PivotChart view.
You can customize a form in PivotTable or PivotChart view in the following ways:
Add, move, or remove fields You can add fields to the filter, row, column, and detail areas in PivotTable
view, and to the filter, category, series, and data areas in PivotChart view. You can also move fields from
one area to another and remove fields from the view.
Filter records You can filter data displayed in the view by adding or moving a field to the filter area. You
can also filter a field in the row and column area.
Sort records You can sort items in row or column fields in ascending or descending order. You can also
sort items in custom order in PivotTable view.
Group records You can group items in row or column fields on intervals, or create custom groups.
Format elements and change captions. In PivotTable view, you can change the font settings, alignment,
background color, and number format of a field. You can also change the captions of fields and custom
groups. In PivotChart view, you can change the chart type, format data markers, and more.

Open a form or subform.

1. In the Database window, click Forms under Objects.
2. Click the form or subform you want to open.
To open the form in Form view, click Open.
To open the form in Design view, click Design.

Form view: A window that displays a form to either show or accept data. Form view is the primary means
of adding & modifying data in tables. You cannot change the design of a form in this view.

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Switch between views of a subform.
When a main form is open in Form view, you can switch between the views of its subforms.
1. Open the main form in Form view.
2. Click the subform whose view you want to change.
3. On the View menu, point to Subform, and click the view you want.

REPORTS.
A Report is an Access database object that prints information formatted and organized according to your
specifications. Examples of reports are sales summaries, phone lists, and mailing labels.).
To analyze your data or present it a certain way in print, create a report. For example, you might print one
report that groups data and calculates totals, and another report with different data formatted for printing
mailing labels.
 Use a report to create mailing labels.
 Use a report to show totals in a chart.
 Use a report to calculate totals.
A report is an effective way to present your data in a printed format. Because you have control over the size
and appearance of everything on a report, you can display the information the way you want to see it.

Most reports are bound to one or more table and query in the database. A report's record source refers to the
fields in the underlying tables and queries. A report need not contain all the fields from each of the tables or
queries that it is based on.
A bound report gets its data from its underlying record source. Other information on the form, such as the
title, date, and page number, is stored in the report's design.
You create the link between a report and its record source by using graphical objects called controls.
Controls can be text boxes that display names and numbers, labels that display titles, or decorative lines that
graphically organize the data and make the report more attractive.

Creating a report
You can create different types of reports quickly by using wizards. Use the Label Wizard to create mailing
labels, the Chart Wizard to create charts, or the Report Wizard to create a standard report. The wizard
asks you questions and creates a report based on your answers. You can then customize the report the way
you want it in Design view.

Customizing a report
You can customize a report in the following ways:
Record source Change the tables and queries that a report is based on.
Sorting and grouping data You can sort data in ascending or descending order. You can also group
records on one or more fields, and display subtotals and grand totals on a report.
Report window You can add or remove Maximize and Minimize buttons, change the title bar text, and
other Report window elements.
Sections You can add, remove, hide, or resize the header, footer, and details sections of a report. You can
also set section properties to control the appearance and printing of a report.
Controls You can move, resize, or set the font properties of a control. You can also add controls to display
calculated values, totals, current date and time, and other useful information on a report.

Open a report or subreport.

1. In the Database window, click Reports under Objects.
2. Click the report or subreport you want to open.
To open the report in Design view, click Design.
To open the report in Print Preview, click Preview.

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PRINTING.
Setting up the paper.
You can change the Page Setup for your table to affect the way it will print.
1. On the File menu, choose Page Setup.
2. From the Page Setup dialog box,
 Click the Margins tab, to change the margins of the printing page. To include the headings in the
printed document, select the Print Headings checkbox.
 Click the Page tab, then change the Orientation of the paper, and the Paper size.

Print preview -A view of a document as it will appear when you print it.

Actual Printing.
Before you sent the job for printing, make sure you have set the print options you want to apply to your print
job.

1. On the Home menu, choose Print (or press CRTL+’P’).

2. From the Print dialog box,
 Under Printer, click the arrow next to the Name box, then select the printer you are using.
 Under Print range, select the specific pages to print.
To print only certain records in the datasheet, select the records, then click Selected Record(s).
 In the Number of Copies box, select the desired copies to be printed per page.
 To change the Print Quality, Paper Type, Paper Size and Orientation, click Properties.
3. After setting the options, choose OK to send the print job to the printer.

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 DATA SECURITY AND CONTROL

Introduction
Data & Information must be protected against unauthorized access, disclosure, modification or damage.
This is because; it is a scarce & valuable resou
rce for any business organization or government. It is mostly used in transactions, it can be shared, and has
high value attached to it.

Data & Information security:

Data security is the protection of data & information from accidental or intentional disclosure to
unauthorized persons.

Data & Information privacy:

Private data or information is that which belongs to an individual & must not be accessed by or disclosed to
any other person, without direct permission from the owner.

Confidential data or information – this is data or information held by a government or organization about
people. This data/information may be seen by authorized persons without the knowledge of the owner.
However, it should not be used for commercial gain or any other unofficial purpose without the owner being
informed.

Review Questions
1. Differentiate between private and confidential data.
2. Why is information called a resource?
3. a) Explain the term ‘Information security’.
b) Recently, data and information security has become very important. Explain.

SECURITY THREATS TO DATA & INFORMATION

1). Computer Viruses
A computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself to other files when the files are opened for
use, and installs itself on the computer, without the knowledge of the user. It is a program designed
specifically to damage other programs or interfere with the proper functioning of the computer system.

A virus is a computer code usually designed to carry out 2 tasks:

(a) To copy itself from one computer system to another.
(b) To locate itself within a computer system enabling it to amend/destroy program & data files, by
interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.

Types of computer viruses.

1. Boot sector viruses – they destroy the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses – they attach themselves to files either erasing or modifying them.
3. Hoax viruses – they come as e-mails with an attractive subject & activate themselves when the e-
mail is opened.
4. Trojans – they appear to perform necessary functions, but perform other undesirable activities in the
background without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms – viruses that stick in the computer memory.
6. Backdoors – may be a Trojan or Worm that allows hidden access to a computer system.

Types of destructions/damages caused by a virus attack

 Delete or modify data, information & files on storage devices (disks) or memory during normal
program execution, e.g., may attack the format of a disk making any program or data on it impossible
to recover.
 Systematically destroy all the data in the computer memory.
 Might lock the keyboard.
 Can change keystroke values or data from other I/O devices, e.g., change the effect of SHIFT key.
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  Delete characters displayed on a visual display.
 Uses up computer memory/space, hence slowing down its performance or causing the system to crash.
 Changes colour of the display.
 Cause boot failure.

Sources of viruses.
a) Contact with contaminated systems:
If a diskette is used on a virus infected computer, it could become contaminated. If the same
diskette is used on another computer, then the virus will spread.
b) Use of pirated software:
Pirated software may be contaminated by a virus code or it may have been amended to perform
some destructive functions which may affect your computer.
c) Infected proprietary software:
A virus could be introduced when the software is being developed in laboratories, and then copied
onto diskettes containing the finished software product.
d) Fake games:
Some virus programs behave like games software. Since many people like playing games on
computers, the virus can spread very fast.
e) Freeware and Shareware:
Both freeware & shareware programs are commonly available in Bulletin board systems. Such
programs should first be used in controlled environment until it is clear that the program does not
contain either a virus or a destructive code.
f) Updates of software distributed via networks:
Viruses programs can be spread through software distributed via networks.

Symptoms of viruses in a computer system.

The following symptoms indicate the presence of a virus in your computer:
 Boot failure.
 Files & programs disappearing mysteriously.
 Unfamiliar graphics or messages appearing on the screen, e.g., the virus might flash a harmless
message such as “Merry Christmas” on the computer terminal.
 Slow booting.
 Gradual filing of the free space on the hard disk.
 Corruption of files and programs.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Disk access time seeming too long for simple tasks.
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
 Frequent read/write errors.
 Disk access lights turning on for non-referenced devices.
 Computer hags anytime when running a program.
 Less memory available than usual, e.g., Base memory may read less than 640KB.
 Size of executable files changing for no obvious reason.

Control measures against viruses.

i). Install up-to-date (or the latest) antivirus software on the computers.
ii). Restrict the movement of foreign storage media, e.g., diskettes in the computer room. If they have to
be used, they must be scanned for viruses.
iii). Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning them for viruses.
iv). Write-protect disks after using them.
v). Disable floppy disk drives, if there is no need to use disks in the course of normal operation.
vi). Backup all software & data files at regular intervals.
vii). Do not boot your computer from disks which you are not sure are free from viruses.
viii). Avoid pirated software. If possible, use the software from the major software houses.
ix). Programs downloaded from Bulletin Boards & those obtained from computer clubs should be
carefully evaluated & examined for any destructive code.
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2). Unauthorized Access
Data & information is always under constant threat from people who may want to access it without
permission. Such persons will usually have a bad intention, either to commit fraud, steal the information
& destroy or corrupt the data.

Unauthorized access may take the following forms:

a). Eavesdropping:
This is tapping into communication channels to get information, e.g., Hackers mainly use
eavesdropping to obtain credit card numbers.
b). Surveillance (monitoring):
This is where a person may monitor all computer activities done by another person or people. The
information gathered may be used for different purposes, e.g., for spreading propaganda or sabotage.
c). Industrial espionage:
Industrial espionage involves spying on a competitor so as to get or steal information that can be
used to finish the competitor or for commercial gain. The main aim of espionage is to get ideas on
how to counter by developing similar approach or sabotage.
d). An employee who is not supposed to see some sensitive data gets it, either by mistake or design.
e). Strangers who may stray into the computer room when nobody is using the computers.
f). Forced entry into the computer room through weak access points.
g). Network access in case the computers are networked & connected to the external world.

Control measures against unauthorized access.

i). Enforce data & information access control policies on all employees to control access to data.
ii). Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
iii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., doors & windows with metallic grills & burglar alarms.
iv). Use file passwords to prevent any person from getting access to the electronic files.
v). Enforce network security measures, e.g., use of firewalls.
vi). Encrypt the data & information during transmission.
vii). Perform frequent Audit trails to identify threats to data & information.

3). Computer Errors & Accidental Access

Errors and accidental access to data & information may be as a result of:
 Mistakes made by people, e.g., one may print sensitive reports & unsuspectingly give them to
unauthorized persons.
 People experimenting with features they are not familiar with. E.g., a person may innocently
download a file without knowing that it is self-installing or it may be dangerous to the system.

Control measures against computer errors & accidents.

i). Restrict file access to the end-users and technical staff in the organization, i.e., deny access of
certain files & computers to certain groups of end-users.
This is because; accidental access mistakes occur if the end-users have too much privilege that
allows them to access or change sensitive files on the computer.
ii). Set up a comprehensive error-recovery strategy in the organization.

4). Theft
The threat of theft of data & information, hardware & software is real. Some information is so valuable
such that business competitors or some governments can decide to pay somebody a fortune so as to steal
the information for them to use.

Control measures against theft of information, hardware, & software.

i). Create backups & store them in locations away from the main computing centre.

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 ii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., the windows, doors, & roofing with metallic grills and strong
padlocks.
iii). Put burglar proofs in the computer room.
iv). Employ guards to keep watch over data & information centres and backups.

Review Questions
1. Explain any three threats to data and information.
2. Give two control measures one would take to avoid unauthorized access to data and information.
3. Explain the meaning of ‘industrial espionage’.
4. a) Define a computer virus.
b) Give and explain two types of computer viruses.
c) List three types of risks that computer viruses pose.
d) List and explain five sources of computer viruses.
e) Outline four symptoms of computer viruses.
f) Explain the measures one would take to protect computers from virus attacks
5. How can one control the threat of user’s errors to data and information?

COMPUTER CRIMES
A computer crime is a deliberate theft or criminal destruction of computerized data. The use of computer
hardware, software, or data for illegal activities, e.g., stealing, forgery, defrauding, etc. Committing of illegal
acts using a computer or against a computer system.

Types of computer crimes.

The following are the major types of computer crimes:
1. Trespass.
2. Hacking.
3. Tapping.
4. Cracking.
5. Piracy.
6. Fraud (Theft of money)
7. Sabotage.
8. Alteration of data.
9. Theft of computer time / Theft of service.
10. Theft of data, information or programs.
11. Damage of software.

Trespass.
Trespass refers to the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware, software &
backed up data is kept. It can also refer to the act of accessing information illegally on a local or remote
computer over a network. Trespass is not allowed and should be discouraged.

Hacking.
Hacking is an attempt to invade the privacy of a system, either by tapping messages being transmitted along
a public telephone line, or through breaking security codes & passwords to gain unauthorized entry to the
system data and information files in a computer.

Reasons for hacking.

 To copy or corrupt the information.

 As a hobby to test their expertise. Some people like the challenge & they feel great after successful
hacking.
 Some do it for computer & software producing companies that want to secure their systems by reducing
weaknesses discovered after professional hacking.

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Hacking is done by skilled programmers referred to as Hackers. Hacker is a person who gains
unauthorised access to a computer network for profit, criminal mischief, or personal gain.

Such people are able to break through passwords or find weak access points in software. They are involved
in propagating computer viruses.

Tapping.
Tapping involves listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being transmitted. Tapping
may take place through the following ways:
a) A person may send an intelligent program to a host computer that sends him/her information from the
computer.
b) Spying on a networked computer using special programs that are able to intercept messages being sent
& received by the unsuspecting computer.

Cracking.
Cracking is the use of guesswork by a person trying to look for a weakness in the security codes of a
software in order to get access to data & information. These weak access points can only be sealed using
sealed using special corrective programs called Patches, which are prepared by the manufacturing company.
A program patch is a software update that when incorporated in the current software makes it better.

NB: Cracking is usually done by people who have some idea of passwords or user names of the authorized
staff.

Piracy.
Software, information & data are protected by copyright laws. Piracy means making illegal copies of
copyrighted software, data, or information either for personal use or for re-sale.

Ways of reducing piracy:

i) Enact & enforce copyright laws that protect the owners of data & information against piracy.
ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
iii) Use licenses and certificates of authenticity to identify originals.
iv) Set installation passwords that prevent illegal installation of software.

Fraud.
Fraud is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the intention of gaining
money or information. Fraud may take the following forms:

a). Input manipulation: Data input clerks can manipulate input transactions, e.g., they can create dummy
(ghost) employees on the Salary file or a ghost supplier on the Purchases file.
b). Production & use of fake documents: E.g., a person created an intelligent program in the Tax
department that could credit his account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very
rich before he was discovered.

Fraudsters can either be employees in the company or outsiders who are smart enough to defraud
unsuspecting people.

Reasons that may lead to computer fraud.

 For economic gain (i.e., to gain money or information).
 To gain respect (self-worth)

Security measures to prevent fraud:

i) Careful recruitment of staff.
ii) Set up a clear & firm management policy on crimes & frauds.
iii) Restrict access to computer room or terminal.
iv) Use transaction & fill logs to monitor access to sensitive areas of the system.
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v) Monitor & investigate error logs and reports on regular basis.
vi) Carry out risk analysis to examine the exposure of the organization to possible fraud.

Sabotage.
Sabotage is the illegal or malicious destruction of the system, data or information by employees or other
people with grudges with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss to an organization.
Sabotage is usually carried out by discontented employees or those sent by competitors to cause harm to the
organization.

The following are some acts of saboteurs which can result in great damage to the computer centres:
 Using Magnets to mix up (mess up) codes on tapes.
 Planting of bombs.
 Cutting of communication lines.

Alteration.
Alteration is the illegal changing of stored data & information without permission with the aim of gaining
or misinforming the authorized users. Alteration is usually done by those people who wish to hide the truth.
It makes the data irrelevant and unreliable.

Alteration may take place through the following ways:

a). Program alteration: This is done by people with excellent programming skills. They do this out of
malice or they may liaise with others for selfish gains.
b). Alteration of data in a database: This is normally done by authorized database users, e.g., one can
adjust prices on Invoices, increase prices on selling products, etc, and then pocket the surplus amounts.

Security measures to prevent alteration:

i) Do not give data editing capabilities to anybody without vetting.
ii) The person altering the data may be forced to sign in order for the system to accept altering the
information.

Theft of computer time.

Employees may use the computers of an organization to do their own work, e.g., they may produce
publications for selling using the computers of the company.

Theft of data (i.e., commercial espionage).

Employees steal sensitive information or copy packages and sell them to outsiders or competitors for profit.
This may lead to a leakage of important information, e.g., information on marketing strategies used by the
organization, research information, or medical reports.

Review Questions
1. a) Define the term ‘Computer crime’.
b) State and explain various types of computer crimes.
2. Differentiate between Hacking and Cracking with reference to computer crimes.
3. What is a program patch? Why are patches important?
4. Give two reasons that may lead to computer fraud.
5. How can piracy be prevented in regard to data and information.
6. What is data alteration? Explain its effects on data.
7. Explain the meaning of Tapping while dealing with computer crimes.

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DETECTION & PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES
The following measures can be taken to detect & prevent computer crimes, and also seal security loopholes.

Audit trails
This is a careful study of an information system by experts in order to establish (or, find out) all the
weaknesses in the system that could lead to security threats or act as weak access points for criminals.

An audit of the information system may seek to answer the following questions: -
1. Is the information system meeting all the design objectives as originally intended?
2. Have all the security measures been put in place to reduce the risk of computer crimes?
3. Are the computers secured in physically restricted areas?
4. Is there backup for data & information of the system that can ensure continuity of services even when
something serious happens to the current system?
5. What real risks face the system at present or in future?

Data encryption
Data being transmitted over a network faces the dangers of being tapped, listened to, or copied to
unauthorized destinations. To protect such data, it is mixed up into a form that only the sender & the
receiver can be able to understand by reconstructing the original message from the mix. This is called Data
encryption.

The flow diagram below shows how a message can be encrypted and decrypted to enhance security.

panther
Black
Black Cyphertext Black
panther kcalB panther
rehtnap
Plain text Plain text
Encryption key Decryption key
The message to be encrypted is called the Plain text document. After encryption using a particular order (or,
algorithm) called encryption key, it is sent as Cyphertext on the network. After the recipient receives the
message, he/she decrypts it using a reverse algorithm to the one used during encryption called decryption
key to get the original plain text document. This means that, without the decryption key, it is not possible to
reconstruct the original message.

Log files
These are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the computers and resources of
the information system. Each user is usually assigned a username & password or account. The information
system administrator can therefore easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the
system. This information can help monitor & track people who are likely to violate system security policies.

Firewalls
A Firewall is a device or software system that filters the data & information exchanged between different
networks by enforcing the access control policy of the host network.

A firewall monitors & controls access to or from protected networks. People (remote users) who do not
have permission cannot access the network, and those within cannot access sites outside the network
restricted by firewalls.

LAWS GOVERNING PROTECTION OF INFORMATION

Laws have been developed that govern the handling of data & information in order to ensure that there is
‘right of privacy’ for all people.

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The following rules must be observed in order to keep within the law when working with data and
information.
1. Data & information should be kept secure against loss or exposure.
2. Data & information should not be kept longer than necessary.
3. Data & information should be accurate and up-to-date.
4. Data & information should be collected, used & kept for specified lawful purposes (i.e., it should not be
used for unlawful gain).
5. The owner of the data has a right to know what data is held by the person or organization having it.
6. Data should not be transferred to other countries without the owner’s permission.
7. Do not collect irrelevant and overly too much information for a purpose.

Review Questions
1. What do the following control measures against computer crimes involve?
(i) Audit trail.
(ii) Data encryption.
(iii) Log files.
(iv) Firewalls.
2. Give four rules that must be observed to keep within the law when working with data and information.

COMPUTER SECURITY
What is Computer security?
 Safeguarding the computer & the related equipments from the risk of damage or fraud.
 Protection of data & information against accidental or deliberate threats which might cause unauthorised
modification, disclosure, or destruction.

A computer system can only be claimed to be secure if precautions are taken to safeguard it against damage
or threats such as accidents, errors & omissions.

The security measures to be undertaken by the organization should be able to protect:

i) Computer hardware against damage.
ii) Data, information & programs against accidental alteration or deletion.
iii) Data & information against hazards.
iv) The computer against unauthorised use.
v) Data, information & programs against piracy or unauthorised copying.
vi) Data & programs used by the computer system against illegal or unauthorised modification.
vii) Storage media, e.g., diskettes, tapes, etc against accidental destruction.
viii) Policies of the organization.
ix) Buildings.
x) Accidental interruption of power supply or communication lines.
xi) Disclosure of confidential data or information.
xii) Ensure that both hardware & software have longer life span.

Environmental threats to computers & Information systems.

1). Fire. Fire destroys data, information, software & hardware.
Security measures against fire:
 Use fire-proof cabinets & lockable metal boxes for floppy disks.
 Use of backups.
 Install fire fighting equipments, e.g., fire extinguishers.
 Have some detectors.
 Training of fire-fighting officers.
 Observe safety procedures, e.g., avoid smoking in the computer rooms.
 Have well placed exit signs.
 Contingency plans.

2). Water, floods & moisture. This causes rusting of the metallic components of the computer.
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 Security measures against water, floods & moisture:
 Set up computer rooms on higher grounds to avoid floods & humidity.
 Avoid installing computer components in the basement.
 There should be adequate drainage system.
 Use water-proof ceilings & floors.

3). Lightening, electricity & electrical storms. This causes power failure that can cause damage to data,
which has not been transferred to permanent storage devices.
Security measures:
 Install facilities to control power fluctuations, e.g., use of Uninterrupted power source (UPS)
 Use power stabilizers.
 Have standby power generators/sources.
 Have lightening arresters in the building.

4). Excessive Heat or Temperature. Excessive heat or temperature from the computer itself or from the
surrounding environment can destroy computer storage media or devices.
Security measures:
 There should be efficient ventilation system.
 Use a cooling system in the computer rooms, e.g., cooling fans & air conditioners.

5). Computer virus attack.: A virus is a rogue software program that spreads rampantly through computer
systems, destroying data or causing the system to break down.
Security measures against computer virus:
 Make backup copies of software, and store the copies off-site.
 Restrict access to programs & data on a ‘need-to-use’ basis.
 Check all programs regularly for change of size, as this could be a sign of virus infiltration.
 Be careful with ‘Shareware’ and ‘Freeware’ programs, as they are the major entry points for viruses.
 Make sure all purchased software is in its original sealed-disk containers.

6). Smoke and Dust. Dust and Smoke particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during
Read/write operation.
Security measures:
 Have dust mats or carpets to prevent entry of dust.
 Fit the computer room with special Curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
 Cover the devices with Dust covers when cleaning the room.
 Remove shoes before entering the room to prevent dust.

7). Terrorist attack. This includes activities such as:

 Political terrorists,
 Criminal type of activities,
 Individuals with grudges, or
 People intending to cause general destruction.

Security measures:
 Hiring of security guards to control physical access to the building housing the computer room.
 Activities that can cause terrorism should be avoided, e.g., exploitation of workers.
 Have double door & monitoring devices.
 Use of policies.
 System auditing / use of log files.
 Use of passwords.
 Punitive measures.
 Encryption of data.
 Use of firewalls.
 Consult & co-operate with the Police and Fire authorities on potential risks.

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8). People. People threats include:
 Carelessness.
 Clumsiness.
 Accidental deletion of data, information or programs.
 Vandalism, i.e., theft or destruction of data, information or programs & hardware.
 Piracy of copyrighted data & software.
Security measures against Carelessness & Clumsiness:
 Better selection of personnel.
 Have a good office layout.
 Improve employee training and education.
 Limit access to data and computers.
 Regular backups.
 Use of Undelete & Unformat utilities.
Security measures against Vandalism:
 Should have a sensitive attitude to office behaviour.
 Tighten security measures, e.g., install alarm systems, burglar-proof doors/windows, & roofs).
 Limit access to sensitive company information.
 Use Keyboard lock on terminals used by authorised users.
 Use of disk locks.
 Punitive measures.

9). Earthquakes.

Review Questions
1. a) What is Computer security?
b) Mention various threats to computer security.
2. Discuss the environmental problems affecting the operation of computers.

CAUSES OF DATA LOSS IN COMPUTERS

1. Power failure:
Momentary interruptions or fluctuations of electrical power may cause:
 Crashing of computers.
 Loss of data or information that had not been saved before the power disruption.
 Damage to computer’s secondary storage media. This may result to loss of data & Application
software stored on the media.

The main cause of power disruptions are:

 Amplitude fluctuations,
 Power line noise,
 Low voltage sages,
 High voltage surges,
 Voltage outages,
 Voltage spikes,
 Waveform distortions,
 Power frequency variations.

Precautions against data loss due to Power failure:

a) Regular saving of documents.
Frequent saving of documents ensures that minimum data is lost in case of any power failure. Some
application packages have an AutoSave feature, which should be activated to automatically save
work after a specified time interval.

b) Use of Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).

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 To eliminate any power quality defects or fluctuation, use power correction equipment such as a
Stabilizer or Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS). These equipments ensure a steady flow of input
power to the computer system.

2. Computer viruses:
A computer virus destroys all the data files & programs in the computer memory by interfering with the
normal processes of the operating system.

Precautions against computer viruses:

a) Anti-virus software.
Use Antivirus software to detect & remove known viruses from infected files. Some of the
commonly used Antivirus software are: Dr. Solomon’s Toolkit, Norton Antivirus, AVG Antivirus,
PC-Cillin, etc
NB: The best way to prevent virus is to have a memory-resident antivirus software, which will
detect the virus before it can affect the system. This can be achieved by installing a GUARD
program in the RAM every time the computer boots up. Once in the RAM, the antivirus
software will automatically check diskettes inserted in the drives & warn the user immediately if
a disk is found to have a virus.
 For an antivirus to be able to detect a virus, it must know its signature. Since virus writers keep
writing new viruses with new signatures all the time, it is recommended that you update your
antivirus product regularly so as to include the latest virus signatures in the industry.
 The Antivirus software installed in your computer should be enabled/activated at all times.
 You should also perform virus scans of your disks on a regular basis.
 Evaluate the security procedures to ensure that the risk of future virus attack is minimized.

Review Questions
1. Describe two ways of preventing data loss due to power outage.
2. a) What is a Computer virus?
b) What are Anti-viruses? Explain how they detect and remove viruses.

3. Accidental erasure:
Commands such as DELETE & FORMAT can be dangerous to the computer if used wrongly. Both
commands wipe out the information stored on the specified secondary storage media, e.g., formatting the
Hard disk (drive C:) will destroy all the software on that system.

Precautions against Accidental erasure:

a) Use of Undelete utilities. Use the Undelete facilities in case you accidentally delete your files.
There are three Undelete facilities depending on the operating system you are using.
 MS-DOS 6.0 Undelete facility:
To undelete at the DOS prompt, change to the drive & directory whose files were deleted, then
type, e.g.,
C:\>UNDELETE <directory that contain the deleted file>

A list of all deleted files will be displayed with the first letter missing. Type in the first letter and
the file will be recovered.

 Norton utilities & PC Tools:

Norton utilities & PC Tools also have an undelete facility, which is similar to the DOS Undelete
facility.

 Windows Recycle Bin:

The Recycle Bin temporarily stores all deleted files & can be used to recover your files.
1. Double-click the Recycle Bin on the desktop.
2. Click on the files you want to undelete.
3. Click on File, choose Restore.
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 The Recycle Bin will restore all selected files to their original folders and disks.

NB: If you delete a file accidentally, don’t copy any files or install any applications to the disk that
contains the deleted file. If you write anything to the disk, you might destroy parts of the deleted
file, making it unrecoverable.

b) Use of Unformat utilities.

MS-DOS 6.0 has an Unformat facility which can be used to recover information stored on disks that
have been accidentally formatted.

c) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up periodically either on diskettes, tapes or CDs so that in case of any
accidental loss, the backed up copy can be used to recover the data.
For small files, use the Copy command to make a copy of the data on a diskette. For larger amounts
of data, use the Backup command to copy the data to several diskettes or to a tape drive.

Review Questions
1. Name two commands that can erase the information from a disk.
2. Define ‘Data backup’ and state its importance.

4. Crashing of hard disks: When a hard disk crashes, the data or information on the disk cannot be
accessed. The effect is the same as formatting the hard disk. Crashing of a hard disk can occur due to
the following reasons:
i) Mishandling of the computer system, e.g.,
 Moving the system unit while the computer is on.
 Accumulation of dust.

ii) Computer virus attack.

iii) Physical damage to the System unit caused by dropping or banging when being moved.

Precautions against crashing of Hard disks:

a) Use of Backups.
All data must be backed up regularly. In addition, all application programs & operating system
software should also be kept safely so that in case of a complete system crash, everything can be re-
installed/restored.

b) Use of Recovery tools.

System tools such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools, QAPlus, etc can be used to revive a disk that has
crashed.

Review Questions
1. List two possible causes of a hard disk crash.

5. Unauthorised access:
Unauthorised access refers to access to data & information without permission.
Computer criminals can do the following harms:
 Steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them out of their
computer accounts illegally.
 Steal or destroy data & information from companies, bringing their operations to a standstill.
 Spread destruction from one computer to another using virus programs. This can cripple the entire
system of computer networks.
 Spread computer worm programs. Worm programs are less harmful in the beginning, but render the
computer almost useless in the long-run.

Precautions against Unauthorised access:

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 a) Restrict physical access.
Physical access to computer systems should be restricted to ensure that no unauthorised person gets
access to the system.
Some of the ways of restricting physical access include:
 Locking of doors.
 Use of personal identification cards.
 Use of fingerprint identification.
 Use of special voice-recorders. They analyse the voice of a trespasser & checks against the
database containing the voice patterns of valid users.

b) Password protection.
Install a password to restrict access to the computer system. A Password is a secret code that can be
used to prevent unauthorised access of data in a computer.

Passwords can be put in at various levels:

 At the point of switching on the computer – to restrict access to the computer.
 On folders/directories – to restrict access to entire folders/directories.
 On files – to restrict access to individual files within a directory.
 On database systems – to restrict access to individual data elements.
When a valid password is entered, the user gets access to the computer system. Usually, the user is
allowed three (3) attempts to get the password correct. If an invalid password is entered, access is
denied after the 3 attempts.

Some computer security systems may generate an alarm if someone tries to use a fake password.

NB: You should never use passwords that can easily be linked to you, e.g., your name, birth date, or
names of people close to you.

Review Questions
1. State and discuss four causes of data loss in a computer system.
2. a) Discuss two methods used to restrict unauthorised access to computer systems.
b) What is a Password? Give its main importance.

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 INTERNET

It’s a large network of networks that covers the whole world and enables millions of computers from
different organisations and people to communicate globally.

The term Internet refers to global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose of communication
and resource sharing. Figure left shows how computes and computer networks are interconnected to form
the Internet.

Logical view of Internet

Development of Internet
In 1969, a research body in USA (ARPA) Advance Research Project Agency set up a computer network that
connected for universities and was given the name ARPANET. ARAP’s goal was to allow multiple users to
send and receive information at the same time.

By 1973, e-mail was the most common service on the Internet. By 1981, many people had seen the
importance of computer networking and the Internet. ARAPnet formed the backbone on which many
organisations started connecting to, hence expanding it.

By 1987, the Internet boasted of 10,000 host computers. As the importance of Internet grew, businesses
spent billions of dollars to improve it in order to offer batter services to their clients. By 1994, 3 million
computers were connected to Internet. Today the Internet has grown and covered the whole world.

The importance of Internet can be seen through its contribution to;

 Research activities
 News and information dissemination
 Leisure
 Communication
 Business Transaction etc.

Internet Connectivity Requirements

 Telecommunication Facilities: Internet relies on telecommunication facilities like telephone lines,
telephone exchange station and satellite transmission in order to cover the whole world. Therefore a
computer is connected to the external world through a telephone line and has to dial a remote computer
on the net to establish connection for data transfer.
 Satellite transmission: Intercontinental transfer of data is achieved by having satellite base stations
transmitting the data through a wireless uplink channel to the satellite. The satellite then sends the data
signal to the base station on another continent where it is picked up and sent to telephone exchanges for
transfer to the destination computer. Figure left shows a logical local and intercontinental connectivity.

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 o
 Modem: It’s a special digital to analog interface card that changes data from digital to analog so as to be
transmitted on telephone lines and on receiving end the data is changed from analog to digital for
computer to understand.
 Wireless telecommunication: With the dynamic growth in mobile communication and computing, it is
now possible to access Internet using devices such as mobile phones, PDAs and notebook PCs. Heard
about Wireless Fidelity to a hotspot? Global system for mobiles (GMS) provides a wireless connectivity
to mobile devices users known as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).
 Internet Service Providers (ISP’s): They are companies that offer Internet Services to end users. They
provide the Internet services to end users at a fee. Examples of ISP in Kenya include: Swiftkenya,
Africaonline, Todays online, Wananchi online, Interconnect
 Internet Software: Internet software help facilitate your access to Internet. To achieve communication
between computers special software called Protocol is needed.

There are two types of protocols used with Internet.

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – it governs how data is transferred from one computer to the
next.
 Internet Protocol (IP) – it determines the addressing system on the Internet.

Internet Services
 E-mail – this is the exchange of electronic letters, data and graphics on the Internet.
 Electronic Learning (E-learning) – this is learning through interaction with special programs on the
computer.
 Internet fax – Internet provides you with complete fax facilities from your computer.
 Electronic Commerce (e-commerce) – it’s a commercial activity that takes place by digital processes
over a computer network, usually the Internet between and among entitles in the private sector,
government and members of public i.e. the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet.
 Instant messaging – this is a more enhanced messaging service that allows two or more people to
communicate directly. To get the services, you must first register with an instant messenger such as
Yahoo! Messenger.
 Newsgroups – are organized groups of Internet users who wish to share ideas and interests. Once you
join a newsgroups, you can participate in discussion forums and debates.
 World Wide Web (WWW) – in order to connect a network to the Internet, the local area network needs
an Internet server. This server is given the name world wide wed (www) and has all the information that
others on the Internet access. Individuals and organisations establish sites where their web documents
can be placed for easy access by external world. These sites are called websites and each has a special
address called Uniform Resource Locater (URL) that is used to access them

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Applications that enable a user to access the Internet are called Web browsers e.g. Netscape Navigator,
Internet Explorer, Mozilla browser etc.

 Accessing Internet: Applications that enable a user to access the Internet are called Web browsers e.g.
Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer, Mozilla browser etc.
 Login / Sign in: To access a website, type the full address of the website in the address bar then press
enter key. Some websites allow free access to all their pages by all visitors. However others require
people to be members hence a new visitor has to register (sign up). The registration process gives the
visitor a user name, password that can be used to sign in or log on the website for each visit.
 Surf/Browse: Surfing /Browsing is the process of accessing Internet resources like web pages and
website.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

 The Uniform Resource Locator (URL), simply referred to as the web address, connects the user to a
particular website. The URL has two basic parts.
 Protocol – standard used to connect to the resource e.g. hypertext transfer protocol (http://) and file
transfer protocol (ftp://). For example, if you type http://www.google.co.ke, Google home page is
displayed.
 Domain name – name of the web server where the resource is located.
 The navigation toolbar (Figure below), consists of buttons you can easily use to navigate the web. These
include; back, forward, refresh, home, search and stop

 Back – returns the browser to the immediate former web page.

 Next – moves the browser to the next web page in case a person had clicked the back button.
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 Stop – is used to stop loading the current web page.
 Refresh – is used to reload a web page after failuring the current attempt.
 Home – takes the user to the first page (the home page) of the default website.
 Search – enables a person to search for information on the website.
 Favourites – displays all links bookmarked to be revisited later.
 History – displays the websites that were visited in the recent past.
 Mail – is used to view and send e-mails.
 Print – is used to print web pages.
 Go – is used to load the website whose address is in the address bar.

Hyperlink: A hyperlink is a text or picture on an electronic document, especially web page that causes web
pages to open when the link is clicked.
Search Engine: It’s a program that searches documents for specified keywords and returns a list of the
documents where the keywords were found. The common search engine includes; Google, Yahoo, MSN etc.
Downloading: After searching and finding information on the net, you may want to save the information
locally on your computer. The process of transferring information from a remote computer to a local storage
is called downloading.
Electronic Mail: Electronic mail refers to the sending and receiving of electronic letters and documents on
the Internet. E-mail Software falls under communication software that are designed to help the user to read
and send individual text documents on the Internet so long as the sender and receiver have an e-mail
address.
Email facilities
Mails
 Checking Mail – in order to check mail the user has to open the e-mail account by providing the
correct user name and password. In e-mail account, click the Inbox command to view a link list of
all received mails.
 Compose a mail – composing implies writing. To compose a message, click the compose command.
 Send mail – to send mail, type the correct e-mail address of the recipient in to; text box, type four
letter then click send command.
 Forward mail – a received mail can be forwarded to another recipient. After reading click the
Forward command and then provide the address of the recipient.

Using Yahoo
The use Yahoo mail, you first sign up for an e-mail account. Yahoo assigns each user a unique user name
referred to as an ID and a password.

Commonly used domains

Domain Type
.edu Educational institution
.gov Government institution
.org Non-profit making organization
.mil Military organization
.net An institution or organization providing networking services
.ac An academic institution

Sometimes a two letter extension is added after the domain name to show the country where the site is
located.
e.g. [email protected]
the domain .jp stands for Japan. Other domain names include .ke (Kenya), .uk (United Kingdom), .ug
(Uganda), .tz (Tanzania), .au (Australia) etc.
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 Attachments:
E-mail software enables a person to attach other files like pictures, music, movies Clips etc. To an e-mail
for sharing with others before sending. The source of attached files can be from the hard disk or other
storage devices.

Online Meeting:
It’s possible to hold on-line meeting with people by sending mails to them e.g. On-line interviews may
involve a person sending electronic mail composed of interview questions to a recipient who can read and
answer back.

Telephone Messages
Wireless Access Protocol (WAP) makes it possible to send e-mail to a mobile handset and a mobile
message to e-mail account.

Contact Management
Most mails programs allow the user to develop an address book which holds contact information like e-
mail address of different people.

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