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Home > Learning theories > What are learning theories and why are they important for
learning design?

What are
learning
theories and
why are they
important
for learning 11 minute read

design? This is the first in a series of posts

looking at learning theories and
how they can inform the design of
blended and online learning in
Higher Education.

This opening post begins with some definitions

of ‘learning’ and ‘learning theories’. I then
highlight nine major learning theories. In
subsequent posts, I will provide concise
summaries and analyses of each theory.
Following this, I present a table which compares
the pedagogic properties of these theories. Next,
I look at how learning theories can inform
learning design and teaching practice. After
that, I discuss how we can assess how useful a
learning theory might be to inform our teaching
practice. Finally, I consider if we need learning
theories which specifically address digital
technologies and online learning.

Some definitions of learning

There is no one definition of learning that is
universally accepted by theorists, researchers
and educators (Schunk, 2020). I find the
following definitions most useful.

Ambrose et al. (2010) adapt Mayer (2002) to

define learning as “a process that leads to
h
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change, which occurs as a result of experience

and increases the potential for improved
performance and future learning”. For Brown et
al. (2014), learning means “acquiring knowledge
and skills and having them readily available
from memory so you can make sense of future
problems and opportunities.” Sweller et al.
(2011) write that “If nothing has changed in long-
term memory, nothing has been learned.”

Schunk (2020) writes that “learning is an

enduring change in behaviour, or in the
capacity to behave in a given fashion, which
results from practice or other forms of
experience”. He also adds that learning “involves
acquiring and modifying knowledge, skills,
strategies, beliefs, attitudes and behaviours”
and that “people learn cognitive, behavioural,
linguistic, motor, and social skills”.

Lefrançois (2019) states that learning is “is an

invisible, internal neurological process”. His
view is that learning involves relatively
permanent changes in disposition (the
inclination to perform) and capability
(knowledge or skills required to do something)
as a result of experience. It is not always
possible to directly observe changes in
disposition and capability. Therefore to assess
whether learning has occurred, some type of
performance is required.

What are learning theories?

Harasim (2017), states that “a theory is an
explanation for why something occurs or how it
occurs”. She defines a learning theory as a
theory which aims “to help us to understand
both how knowledge is created and how people
learn”. Lefrançois (2019) writes that a learning
theory aims to “systematise and organise what
is known about human learning”. He argues that
a robust learning theory seeks to explain
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behaviour, to predict it and even to shape or

change learner behaviours.

Many theorists contend that all learning

theories fall within one of two groups based on
epistemology. There are theories based on
an objectivist epistemology (Behaviourism,
Cognitivism and Connectivism) or
a constructivist epistemology (Constructivism
and Online Collaborative Learning). Harasim
(2017) argues that most theories fall into one of
two categories: scientific (hypothesis-driven or
experimental theories) and social or critical
theories. These categories reflect the broader
theoretical discourse of ‘hard’ science (STEM)
versus ‘soft’ social science theories and
quantitative versus qualitative scientific
research. This divide is still present in
educational discourse, but there are increasing
efforts to lessen it.

Most learning theories have “an empirical

element and a formalised way of study, analysis
and conclusion” (Harasim, 2017). They establish
a language and discourse which influence both
educational research and practice. However,
they have limitations, as learning is a complex
phenomenon. Learning theories cannot provide
complete and definitive answers to pedagogic
questions, but they can improve our
understanding of how people learn.

It is also worth noting that these theories did

not evolve in a linear progression and that the
newest theories do not supersede earlier ones:
“the earliest theories continue to have a
profound influence on current theories and
research” (Lefrançois, 2019).

Nine key learning theories

Learning theories have a long history dating
back to the Greeks. There are dozens of learning
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g
theories which seek to address how children
and adults learn. See 100 learning theorists
(Clark, 2020) and the comprehensive learning-
theories.com website if you are interested in
exploring this range of theories further.

Given this long history and the broad spectrum

of learning theories, in this series of posts I will
be focussing on what I consider to be the nine
most relevant theories for designing blended
and online learning for Higher Education:

Behaviourism
Cognitivism / Information Processing Theory
Constructivism and social constructivism
Social Cognitive Theory and social learning
Theories of motivation and self-regulated
learning
Connectivism
Online Collaborative Learning (OCL)
Multimedia learning theories
Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

My choice of these nine theories stems from a

synthesis of three major books on learning
theories: Schunk (2020), Lefrançois
(2019) and Harasim (2017). Additional research
sources were Bates (2019), Bower (2017),
the Instructional Design.org website (Culatta &
Kearsley, n.d.), the Plan B website (Clark, 2020)
and the Simply Psychology website (Mcleod,
n.d.).

A note on Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)

I have included Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) as
a distinct theory even though it is a cognitivist
theory. The reason for this choice is that there is
a global CLT research community which has
generated significant research which is worth
exploring in more detail. Findings from CLT are
also very relevant to the design of digital and
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online learning. Interestingly, two of the key

learning theories sources I am using (Harasim,
2017) and (Lefrançois, 2019) make no reference
at all to CLT. However, in the UK, Professor
Dylan Wiliam has stated that he thinks CLT “is
the single most important thing for teachers to
know” (Wiliam, 2017).

What are the pedagogic properties

of the major learning theories?
The table below is adapted from a table by
Bower (2017), who based his on one devised by
Conole et al. (2004). I have used a slightly
different set of learning theories to Bower, and I
have used additional properties. As Bower
(2017) notes the ratings assigned are “coarse
generalizations, and there may be quite a
variety of possibilities along each polarity for
each pedagogy, depending on how the teacher
and students engage in the task.” He also points
out that understanding these pedagogic
properties can be useful for helping teachers to
think through which technologies are most
suitable for a given approach. For example “if
the activity is to be completed socially rather
than individually, then technologies with
communication capabilities will most likely be
required. If students are to produce a final
product, then a technology that enables creative
output will often be needed” (Bower, 2017).

Comparative table showing the pedagogic

properties of nine major learning
theories.

Learning View of View of

theory knowledge learning

Objectivist vs Information
constructivist acquisition
vs active
task-based
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learning

Behaviourism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Cognitivism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Constructivism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Social
Cognitive ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄
Theory

Motivation and ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

self-regulation

Connectivism ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Online
Collaborative ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄
Learning

Multimedia
learning ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄
theories

Cognitive Load ▄▄▄▄▄ ▄▄▄▄▄

Theory

How can learning theories inform

learning design and teaching
practice in Higher Education?
Schunk (2020) argues that the central purpose
of learning theories is to improve teaching and
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of learning theories is to improve teaching and
that “effective teaching requires that we
determine the best theoretical perspectives for
the types of learning we deal with and their
implications for teaching”. Harasim (2017) also
takes the view that learning theories should not
exist purely as high-level abstractions; theories
are integral to educational practice. An
understanding of learning theories can help
educators to “reflect on their practice, improve
upon, reshape and refine their work, and
contribute to advancing the discipline”
(Harasim, 2017). Theories also provide a link
between educational research and practices
providing “tools to organize and translate
research findings into recommendations for
educational practice” (Schunk, 2020). They can
also “provide a basis for judging the accuracy
and usefulness of beliefs” (Lefrançois, 2019).

Harasim (2017) makes the point that each

learning theory is associated with particular
pedagogies and learning technologies. Bates
(2014) also argues that “the choice of or
preference for one particular theoretical
approach will have major implications for the
way that technology is used to support
teaching”. Schunk (2020) suggests that teachers
need to ask the question ‘How does learning
occur?’ and that whatever answer they come up
with will inform lesson design, teaching
practices and student activities. Ultimately,
teachers use learning theories (consciously or
not) and their related educational approaches
and technologies to design, develop and deliver
effective learning experiences.

The challenge of applying learning

theories to educational practice
However, making use of learning theories is not
always straightforward. Harasim (2017) cites
Robert Calfee (2006), who argued that
“educational psychology continues to struggle
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p y gy gg
with the most appropriate relation to practice …
It can come across as highly theoretical and
detached from the practicalities of everyday
teaching and learning”. Calfee also highlighted
that “theoretical discussion is mainly focused
on the teaching of children in the age range of 3-
18 rather than on adults”. Schunk (2020) notes
that historically there has been a disconnect
between the domain of educational psychology
and the practice of teaching. Most learning
theorists have been psychologists carrying out
experimental and lab-based research. Whereas
most educators have been “primarily concerned
with directly applying teaching methods to
classrooms and learning environments”. The
experience gained whilst teaching is still
important because “theory without experience
can be misguided because it may underestimate
the effects of situational factors” (Schunk, 2020).

Learning theories and epistemology

Different theories of learning reflect diverse
views and beliefs on the origin, nature and
limits of knowledge. Bates (2014) states that
“every teacher starts from some epistemological
or theoretical position, even if it is not explicit,
or even if the teacher is not fully aware of their
beliefs”. Harasim (2017) also thinks that all
teachers hold “some perspective on how to
teach (and concomitantly, even if
unconsciously, a perspective on how people
learn)”. Therefore teachers may have different
views as to how best to teach. For example,
Pugsley (2011) sees the roles of educators “more
as facilitators of learning, rather than imparters
of knowledge”. In contrast, Hirsch (2016) and
proponents of direct instruction argue that
knowledge and curricula are fundamental to
education.

Alongside the role of individual beliefs, Bates

(2014) argues that each academic discipline has
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(2014) argues that each academic discipline has
an agreed consensus about what constitutes
valid knowledge within that subject domain.
Harasim (2017) also highlights the role of
disciplinary knowledge communities:
“Deciding what to study when we seek to
explain how people learn or deciding how to
teach depends upon our disciplinary beliefs and
perspectives”.

How can we assess how useful a

learning theory might be to inform
our pedagogic thinking and
learning designs?
For Wheeler (2015), a robust theory “stands the
test of time and continues to provide adequate,
generalisable explanations.” Lefrançois (2019)
makes the point that evaluating theories is not
always about assessing whether they are right
or wrong. Instead, he suggests that they can be
assessed mainly by how useful they are to
educational practice.

Bates (2014) notes that some form of empirical

evidence supports some theories such as
Behaviourism whereas other theories such as
Connectivism do not have a strong basis in
evidence. He also notes that why people base
their teaching on a given theoretical approach
“is as much about values and beliefs about
knowledge as it is about the effectiveness of
each theory” (Bates, 2014).

Harasim (2017) considers how we assess the

value of learning theories to our teaching
practice. She quotes Entwistle et al. (2010) who
state that “It is not sufficient for a pedagogical
theory simply to explain how people learn; it
also has to provide clear indications about how
to improve the quality and efficiency of
learning”. Entwistle at al. (2010) suggest
assessing how useful a learning theory might be
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to educational practice by asking:

Is the theory derived from research data or

observations in an educational context?
Does the theory have direct practical
implications for teaching and learning [in the
particular context in which you are working]?
How realistic and practical are the suggestions?
Can the aspects identified as affecting learning
be readily changed [by the teacher]?
Is the theory presented in clear language which
is understandable to teachers?
Will the theory spark off new ideas about
teaching?

Lefrançois (2019) also offers questions for

evaluating ‘good’ learning theories. Many of his
questions overlap with Entwistle al. (2010).
Additional questions which I find helpful are:

Can the theory be used for predicting as well as

for explaining?
Is the theory internally consistent?
Are there any unverifiable assumptions?

I will be using these nine questions to evaluate

each of the nine learning theories which I have
selected for this series of blog posts.

Do we need learning theories

which specifically address digital
technologies and online learning?
The field of instructional design from 1945
onwards made use of behaviourist thinking
with its focus on the systematic design of
instruction based on concrete and discrete
learning steps. Early learning theories did not
specifically address digital technologies.
However, behaviourist learning theory
continued its development from the 1950s
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onwards alongside the invention and eventual
widespread use of computers. Harasim (2017)
describes the ‘mechanisation’ of the
instructional process and recounts the rise of
learning technologies such as “teaching
machines, programmed instruction, computer-
assisted instruction (CAI) and, eventually,
courseware and massive open online courses
(MOOCs)”.

The development of computers and the model

of learners mentally processing information
(just as computers process information)
influenced cognitivist learning theories.
Cognitive scientists developed educational
technologies such as intelligent tutoring
systems (ITS) and AI “in an attempt to mimic or
replicate the human mind through computer
programs” (Harasim, 2017). From this brief
history, we can see that links between learning
theories and technologies have existed over the
last 75 years.

Harasim (2017) observes that in the field of

online learning there is often an over-emphasis
on training teachers in the use of specific tools
and technologies, “but a theory-informed
approach to transforming our educational
practice remains elusive”. She critiques the view
that new technologies have led to
transformational pedagogies and notes that the
most common practice amongst educators has
been “to merely add technology onto traditional
ways of teaching”.

Furthermore, she argues that the Internet has

not led to a qualitative transformation of
learning but merely quantitative changes such
as improvements in speed of delivery and
increases in scale to deliver education to higher
numbers of people. She concludes that the field
of online learning “lacks a theoretical
f
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10/11/23, 2:21 PM What are learning theories and why are they important for learning design?
framework to guide educational design,
pedagogies and use of online technologies”.
Wheeler (2015) suggests that educators should
question whether older theories are still useful,
“but we should also ask whether the newer
theories add anything significant to our
understanding of learning in new digital
contexts.”

Connectivism is a learning theory focussed on

technology and achieved some traction in the
early 2000s. However, arguably it isn’t a fully
formed learning theory, and it has very little to
say about how people learn using technology.
Online Collaborative Learning theory (Harasim
2012), is a more recent constructivist theory
which focuses on the use of technology “to
increase and improve communication between
teacher and learners” (Bates, 2015).

I am not convinced that we need a learning

theory which specifically addresses digital
technologies as this seems to be a very
deterministic way of thinking. For me, learning
is fundamentally about people rather than
technology. Many of the existing learning
theories can inform designing for learning with
digital technologies. As Harasim (2017) suggests,
we need to reflect more on how these theories
can inform our pedagogic approaches and
teaching practices in the context of the
opportunities afforded by online technologies.

Conclusion
Learning theories are critical because they
“help us to understand both how knowledge is
created and how people learn” Harasim (2017).
While evaluating theories is not always about
assessing whether they are right or wrong,
Lefrançois (2019) suggests that they can be
mainly assessed by how useful they are to
educational practice. Teachers make use of
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learning theories (consciously or not) and their

related pedagogic approaches and technologies
to design, develop and deliver effective teaching
and learning experiences. As we design for
learning, we need to be aware that our
theoretical starting points will inform our
teaching practices, choice of learning
technologies and the kinds of activities we
provide to our students.

The next post in this series is an interactive

learning theories timeline showing the
historical evolution of the nine theories I am
focussing on. This timeline highlights critical
theoretical ideas and provides links to key
books and research papers.

References
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M.,
Lovett, M. C., & Norman, M. K. (2010). How
learning works: Seven research-based
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id=UZE6fBn81_EC&printsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v

Bates, T. (2014). Learning theories and online

learning | Tony Bates. Retrieved 4 May 2020,
from www.tonybates.ca/2014/07/29/learning-
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Bates, T. (2015). 2.3 Objectivism and

behaviourism. In Teaching in a Digital Age.
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3-2-behaviourism/

Bates, T. (2015). 4.4 Online collaborative

learning. In Teaching in a Digital Age. Tony
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Entwistle, N., Hughes, J. C., & Mighty, J. (2010).

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Posted by:
Thomas H on 01 Oct 2020

Category:
Learning theories

Tag:
learning theories

Posted by Thomas H
Learning Designer at the University of
London. Interested in Learning
Design, Learning Experience Design,
Instructional Design, Multimedia
learning, Educational research, and
Open education.

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