Lecture 4

Harmonic Excitation of Single-Degree-of-Freedom

Systems “Forced Vibration”
There are many sources of excitations that cause machines and structures to
vibrate. They include Unbalance rotating devices, Gusting winds, Vortex shedding,
moving vehicles, Earthquakes, Rough road surfaces, and so on.

The forced vibrations of systems are usually caused by dynamic forces F (t) or
support motions y (t) such as shown.

I- Exciting Force F (t) = Fo sin ωt (or = Fo cos ωt)

1
 𝐹 ≡ 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝐹𝑜 ≡ 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜔 ≡ 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

Equation of motion:
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑐𝑥̇ = 𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝐹𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝑐𝜔𝑛 𝑘 𝐹𝑜
𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝑚𝜔𝑛 𝑚 𝑚
𝐹𝑜
𝑥̈ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥 = sin 𝜔𝑡 (1)
𝑚

The last equation is the general equation of motion of single degree of freedom
system.

Solution of equation of motion:

The complete solution of this equation is the sum of:

1- Homogeneous solution “xh” (Free Response or natural response) which

is dies out with time, it is often referred as a transient response, and
2- Particular solution “xp” (Forced response) which is known as the steady
state response.

The total response is

𝑥 = 𝑥ℎ + 𝑥𝑝
𝑣𝑜 +𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
𝑥ℎ = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 [𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡]
𝜔𝑑

The particular solution or steady state response is best determined with the use of
complex algebra,

Since 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡

∴ 𝐹 = 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔. (𝐹𝑜 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 ) 𝑖 = √−1 (2)

2
 𝐹
We can express the right-hand side of equation (1) as 𝑜 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 , with the provision
𝑚
that only the imaginary part of the term will be used in the solution process.

We assume the steady state response as,

𝑥𝑝 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

∴ 𝑥̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 (3)

𝑥̈ = −𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

Substituting equations (2), (3) into (1) yields,

𝐹𝑜 𝑖𝜔𝑡
(−𝜔2 + 𝑖𝜔. 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 2 )𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 = 𝑒
𝑚
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑦 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝜔𝑛 2 = 𝑘

𝜔 2 𝜔 𝐹𝑜
[1 − ( ) + 𝑖. 2𝜁 ] 𝐴 =
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝑘

𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠

2
𝜔 2 𝜔 𝜔 2 𝜔 2
[1 − ( ) + 𝑖. 2𝜁 ] = √[1 − ( ) ] + [2𝜁 ] 𝑒 𝑖𝜑
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝑖𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ
𝜔
[2𝜁 ]
𝜔𝑛
tan 𝜑 =
𝜔 2
[1 − (𝜔 ) ]
𝑛

𝐹𝑜 −𝑖𝜑
𝑒
𝐴= 𝑘 = 𝑋𝑒 −𝑖𝜑
2 2 2
√[1 − ( 𝜔 ) ] + [2𝜁 𝜔 ]
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒

3
𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑥𝑝 = 𝑋𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜑)

𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜑)

∴ 𝑥𝑝 = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) (4)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐹𝑜
𝑋= 𝑘 (5)
√[1 − 𝑟 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
2

𝑎𝑛𝑑
2𝜁𝑟
𝜑 = tan−1 (6)
1 − 𝑟2
𝜔
𝑟= 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝜔𝑛

φ is called the phase angle, the angle by which the steady state response lags the
exciting force as shown.

The complete solution,

𝑣𝑜 +𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥𝑜
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 [𝑥𝑜 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡] + 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) (7)
𝜔𝑑

4
The vibratory motion described by equation (7) is a combination of two motions;
one has a frequency ωd and an exponentially decreasing amplitude, while the other
has a frequency ω and constant amplitude of X.

As mentioned, the transient vibration disappears with time, leaving just the steady
state motion.

For Undamped Systems:

For the undamped system “ζ = 0”. According to Eq. (6), “φ” is equal to zero or
180o depending on the value of “r” whether it is less or more than one. This means
that the displacement is in phase or out of phase with the force. The homogeneous
part of the solution does not vanish. The general solution is written as

𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑋 sin 𝜔𝑡 (8)

The constants “A” and “B” are determined from the initial conditions. Most
probably, at the start of applying the external force, the initial displacement and
velocity are zero. Thus, applying the conditions “x = 0” and “ x = 0” for “t = 0”, we
get

𝐴=0

5
 𝑋𝑠𝑡 . 𝑟 𝐹𝑜
𝐵=− 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑋𝑠𝑡 =
1 − 𝑟2 𝑘
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒,
𝑋𝑠𝑡
𝑥= (sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑟 sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡) (9)
1−𝑟 2

The displacement “x” is formed of two frequencies.

Forced response of a harmonically excited undamped simple oscillator:

(a) for a large frequency difference; .
(b) for a small frequency difference (beat phenomenon)
(c) response at resonance. .
6
When ω is very close to ωn “r ≈1” i.e. the exciting frequency is equal to the natural
frequency, the amplitude, theoretically, is infinite. This situation is known as
“resonance”. Actually, the amplitude does not jump to infinity all of a sudden. It
increases gradually. This is explained as follows.

According to Eq. (9), take the limit as “ω” tends to “ωn” by differentiating the
nominator and the denominator with respect to “ω” and substitute “ω = ωn”, then
𝑋𝑠𝑡
𝑥= (sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡) (10)
2

𝑋𝑠𝑡
𝑥=− 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (11)
2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,

sin 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙

The plot of Eqs. (10) and (11) is shown in Fig.

7
Steady-State Response:

Equation (7) can be written as:

𝑥 = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) (12)

Equation (5) in dimensionless form,

𝑋 1
= (13)
𝑋𝑠𝑡 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
𝑋
= 𝑀. 𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑋𝑠𝑡

A plot of equation (12) for various magnitudes of damping is shown. These curves
reveal some important characteristics of steady-state vibration of a system
subjected to a harmonic excitation:

1- r << 1, the M.F. is nearly 1 approaching the static loading condition,

2- r ≈ 1, and ζ is small, the M.F. becomes very large,

8
 3- r >>1, the system approaches a
motionless state,
4- ζ has a negligible effect on the M.F.
when r <<1 and r>>1, but has a very
significant effect in the region of r ≈ 1,
5- setting the derivative of the right-hand
side of equation (13) w.r.t r equal to
zero yields 𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = √1 − 2𝜁 2 < 1.0
,which shows that the M.F. is maximum
just short of r = 1.0 depending upon the
magnitude of ζ, this condition is referred as resonance,
𝑋 1
6- The M.F. at resonance is given by = ,
𝑋𝑠𝑡 2𝜁
7- M.F. increases as the damping drops below 4% , at 0.01 the M.F. is 50 times
greater than the static displacement Xst caused by applying Fo statically,
8- How to reduce the M.F. (or the amplitude of vibration X)?
r < 1.0 r = 1.0 r >1.0
ζ↑ ζ↑ ζ↑
m↓ m↑ m↑
k↑ k↓ k↓

The Phase Angle “φ”

A family of curves of equation (7) is

shown,

1- For values of “r << 1”, φ is

small, this means that the
excitation F is nearly in phase
with the displacement x.
2- For values of “r < 1”,
“0 < φ < 90o”. This means
that the displacement is
lagging behind the force.

9
3- For “r = 1”, the phase angle is equal to 90 o for all values of the damping
factor, F is in phase with the velocity 𝑥̇ .
4- For “r > 1”, “90o < φ < 180o.
5- For large values of “r>> 1.0”, the phase angle approaches “180o”. The force
and the displacement are out of phase.
6- For no damping (ζ = 0), φ = 0, when r < 1.0 and φ = 180, when r > 1.0.
7- The excitation force F and the steady-state response x do not attain their
maximum values at the same time, φ is a measure of this time difference.

Graphical Analysis:

𝑚𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝑐𝜔
𝜑 = tan−1
𝑘 − 𝑚𝜔 2
𝐹0 2 = (𝑐𝜔𝑥𝑜 )2 + (𝑘𝑥𝑜 − 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥𝑜 )2

10
Example 1:

For the system shown determine:

(a) the differential equation of motion of

the uniform slender rod if the
damping is sufficient to keep the
oscillation small for all values of the
exciting frequency ω,
(b) the damped natural frequency in terms
of the system parameters,
(c) the of the damping coefficient c for critical damping, and
(d) The amplitude of steady-state response.

If the rod was steel and had a magnification factor of 2.5 at resonance. Then
replace the steel rod with aluminum one of identical length and cross section.
Assuming that c and k are the same for both systems, find the magnification factor
with the aluminum rod.

(sp. wt. of alum. = 27.04 KN/m3, sp. wt. of steel = 78.4 KN/m3)

Solution:

a) ∑ 𝑀𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝜃̈
𝑙 2
∴ 𝐼𝑜 𝜃̈ + 𝑐 ( ) 𝜃̇ + 𝑘𝑙 2 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑜 𝑙 sin 𝜔𝑡 (Equation of motion)
2
𝑘𝑙 2
b) 𝜔𝑛 = √ (natural frequency)
𝐼𝑜
𝑙 2
𝑐( ) 𝑐𝑙 1
2
c) 𝑐𝑐 = 2𝐼𝑜 𝜔𝑛 = 2𝑙√𝑘𝐼𝑜 𝜁= = √
𝑐𝑐 8 𝑘𝐼 𝑜

𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 √1 − 𝜁 2
𝜃𝑠𝑡 𝐹𝑜
d) Steady-state response: 𝜃 = , 𝜃𝑠𝑡 =
√[1−𝑟 2 ]2 +[2𝜁𝑟]2 𝑘𝑙
1 1
∗ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑙 2 , 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝐼𝑜 = 𝑚𝑠𝑡 𝑙 2
3 3
(𝐼𝑜 )𝑠𝑡 𝜌𝑠𝑡
= ,
(𝐼𝑜 )𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑎𝑙

11
 𝜁𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑠𝑡
=√
𝜁𝑠𝑡 𝜌𝑎𝑙

1 𝑀. 𝐹𝑎𝑙 𝜁𝑠𝑡 𝜌𝑎𝑙

𝑀. 𝐹. )𝜔=𝜔𝑛 = , )𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = =√
2𝜁 𝑀. 𝐹.𝑠𝑡 𝜁𝑎𝑙 𝜌𝑠𝑡

27.04
𝑀. 𝐹. )𝑎𝑙 = 2.5√ = 1.47
78.4

II- Impressed Force Due to Rotating Unbalance:

Rotating unbalance is one of the major causes of vibration in machines. Even with
the best balancing process there still exists, even with small amount, an unbalance
which causes vibration especially when the operating speed is near resonance.
Consider the case of a machine of a total mass “M” supported by springs of total
stiffness “k” and a damper with damping coefficient “c”. The unbalance is
represented by a mass “m” with eccentricity “e” rotating with an angular speed
“ω”. The machine is constrained to move in the vertical direction only.

M m x
e
ωt

k/2 c k/2

The vertical displacement of the machine is “x” from the equilibrium position.

The equation of motion is Fig.

given3-17
by:

12
 𝑀𝑥̈ + 𝑐𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝑒𝜔2 sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝑐𝜔𝑛 𝑘 𝑚𝑒𝜔2
𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = sin 𝜔𝑡
2𝑀𝜔𝑛 𝑀 𝑀
𝑚𝑒𝜔2
𝑥̈ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥 = sin 𝜔𝑡 (1)
𝑀

The steady-state solution of equation (1):

∴ 𝑥 = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑) (2)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

𝑚𝑒𝜔2
𝑋= 𝑘
√[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2

Or, in dimensionless form,

𝑀𝑋 𝑟2
= (3)
𝑚𝑒 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
2𝜁𝑟
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑 = tan−1 (4)
1 − 𝑟2

13
A plot of equation (3) for various magnitudes of damping is shown. These curves
reveal some important characteristics of steady-state vibration of a system
subjected to rotating unbalance:
𝑀𝑋
1- r << 1, the is nearly 0,
𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑋
2- r ≈ 1, and ζ is small, the becomes very large,
𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑋
3- r >>1, the value of tends to one,
𝑚𝑒
𝑀𝑋
4- ζ has a negligible effect on the when r <<1 and r>>1, but has a very
𝑚𝑒
significant effect in the region of r ≈ 1,
5- setting the derivative of the right-hand side of equation (3) w.r.t r equal to
1 𝑀𝑋
zero yields 𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = > 1.0 ,which shows that the is maximum just
√1−2𝜁 2 𝑚𝑒
short of r = 1.0 depending upon the magnitude of ζ, this condition is referred
as resonance,
𝑀𝑋 𝑀𝑋 1
6- The at resonance is given by = ,
𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒 2𝜁
7- How to reduce the amplitude of vibration X?
r < 1.0 r = 1.0 r >1.0
ζ↑ ζ↑ ζ↑
M↓ M↑ M↑
k↑ k↓ k↓

Example 2:

The frame shown consists of a steel beam welded rigidly to two vertical channels.
An eccentric exciter weighing 250 N is
attached to the beam, which weighs 10
KN and is used to excite the frame. The
unbalance weight of the exciter is 25 N
and it has an eccentricity of 5 cm. By
varying the rotational speed of the
exciter until resonance occurs, the

14
maximum horizontal amplitude was found to be 3.75 mm. Assuming no bending
on the beam and considering the channels to be completely fixed at C and D,
determine,

(a) The natural frequency in Hz.,

(b) The damping factor, and
(c) The magnification factor at resonance.

Solution:

M = (10000+250)/9.81

= 1045 Kg

𝑘 870000 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑎) 𝜔𝑛 = √ =√ = 28.85 𝑓 = 4.6 𝐻𝑧
𝑀 1045 𝑠

𝑏) 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒: 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛
𝑀𝑋 1
=
𝑚𝑒 2𝜁

𝜁 = 0.0162
𝑀𝑋
𝑐) 𝑀. 𝐹. = = 30.75
𝑚𝑒

III- Support Excitation:

In many applications dynamical systems are subjected to base excitations. A

machine operating in a factory is affected by the vibration of other machines.
Another example of base excitation is the earthquake which affects greatly the
buildings. To study the effect of base excitation, consider the spring-mass-damper
system shown.

15
The base moves with a
harmonic motion “y” which
is given by:

y = Y sin ωt

The vibratory motion of a

system subjected to support
excitation may be analyzed in terms of:

i) The absolute motion: “motion w.r.t. a coordinate system attached to the earth”

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑀𝑥̈ + 𝑐(𝑥̇ − 𝑦̇ ) + 𝑘(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 0 (𝐼)

2𝑐𝜔𝑛 𝑘 𝑐 𝑘
𝑥̈ + 𝑥̇ + 𝑥 = 𝑦̇ + 𝑦
2𝑀𝜔𝑛 𝑀 𝑀 𝑀

𝑥̈ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥 = 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑦̇ + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑦 (1)

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

We assume the steady state response as,

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

∴ 𝑥̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 (2)

𝑥̈ = −𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

Using the imaginary part of Y𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 for Y= sin ωt

𝑦 = 𝑌𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

∴ 𝑦̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝑌𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 (3)

Substituting the terms in equations (2) and (3) into equation (1), the results may be
arranged as:

𝜔 2 𝜔 𝜔
[1 − ( ) + 𝑖. 2𝜁 ] 𝐴 = [1 + 𝑖. 2𝜁 ] 𝑌 (4)
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛

16
Equation (4) can be written more simply as:

(a + i b) A = (1 + i b) Y

The ratio,

𝐴 1 + ib √1 + 𝑏 2 𝑒 𝑖𝜑1
= = (5)
𝑌 a + ib √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑒 𝑖𝜑2

𝐴 √1 + 𝑏 2 −𝑖𝜑
𝑜𝑟 = 𝑒
𝑌 √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜑 = 𝜑2 − 𝜑1

𝜑1 = tan−1 𝑏
𝑏
𝜑2 = tan−1
𝑎
∴ 𝑥 = 𝑋 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)

𝑋 √1 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = (6)
𝑌 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2

To determine the phase angle φ between X and Y, multiply the numerator and
denominator of equation (5) by a – i b (the conjugate of a + ib),

(1 + i b)(a − ib) a + b2 b(a − 1)

= 2 + 𝑖
(a + i b)(a − ib) a + b 2 a2 + b 2

Dividing the imaginary part by its real part gives:

−1
2𝜁𝑟 3
𝜑 = tan (7)
1 − 𝑟 2 + (2𝜁𝑟)2

17
A plot of equation (6) for various magnitudes of damping is shown. These curves
reveal some important characteristics of steady-state vibration of a system
subjected to support excitation:
𝑋
1- The amplitude ratio =1 for all values of the damping when r=√2.
𝑌
𝑋
2- is less than 1 when, r > √2 so r=√2 is the beginning of the region of
𝑌
vibration isolation.
𝑋
3- r >>√2, the value of is quite small, which mean that the mass is
𝑌
essentially stationary.
𝑋
4- The amplitude ratio attains a maximum for 0 < ζ < 1 at the frequency ratio
𝑌
r = rpeak < 1 given by:
1 1
𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = [√1 + 8𝜁 2 − 1]2
2𝜁

The Phase Angle “φ”

A family of curves of equation (7) is shown,

18
 1- For values of “r << 1”, φ is small,
2- For large values of “r>> 1.0”, the phase angle approaches “180o”.
3- For no damping (ζ = 0), φ = 0, when r < 1.0 and φ = 180, when r > 1.0.
4- The excitation displacement y and the steady-state response x do not attain
their maximum values at the same time, φ is a measure of this time
difference.

ii) The relative motion: “the displacement z of the mass M relative to the support
motion y = y (t)”
𝑧 =𝑥−𝑦
𝑧̇ = 𝑥̇ − 𝑦̇
𝑧̈ = 𝑥̈ − 𝑦̈
Substituting into equation (I)

𝑀(𝑧̈ + 𝑦̈ ) + 𝑐𝑧̇ + 𝑘𝑧 = 0

𝑧̈ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑧̇ + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑧 = −𝑦̈

𝑧 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

19
∴ 𝑧̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡

𝑧̈ = −𝜔2 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑍
Substituting, and solving for the ratio , we obtain:
𝑌

∴ 𝑧 = 𝑍 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)

Where,

𝑍 𝑟2
= (8)
𝑌 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2

𝑎𝑛𝑑
2𝜁𝑟
𝜑 = tan−1 (9)
1 − 𝑟2

20
A plot of equation (8) for various magnitudes of damping is shown. These curves
reveal some important characteristics of steady-state relative vibration of a system
subjected to support excitation:
𝑍 𝑋
1- When the amplitude ratio ≈1, which corresponds to the absolute ratio =0
𝑌 𝑌
the mass is essentially stationary.
𝑍
2- When r > 3, ≈ 1 which indicate that the relative amplitude Z is the same as
𝑌
the amplitude of the moving support Y. This is the principle in measuring
vibratory motion.

Example 3:

The trailer shown is being pulled over an undulating road at a velocity v. The
contour of the road is such that it can be approximated by a sine wave having a
wavelength of 3 m. and amplitude of
15 mm. The total static deflection of
the springs and tires of the trailer due
to its weight has been measured as 38
mm. Assuming that damping is
viscous of magnitude 0.05, determine:

a) The speed v at which the

amplitude of the trailer will be maximum,
b) The maximum amplitude, and
c) The amplitude when the speed 90 Km/hr.

Solution:

The contour of the road: y = Y sin ωt

The distance traveled: S = v. t

2πv
l = v. τ =
ω
2πv
ω =
l

21
 2πvt
y = Y sin ( )
l

𝑘 𝑔 9.81 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑛 = √ =√ =√ = 16.07
𝑚 𝛿𝑠𝑡 38 ∗ 10−3 𝑠

The maximum amplitude X is when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛

2πv
ω = = 16.07
l
𝑚 𝐾𝑚
∴ 𝑣 = 7.67 = 27.62
𝑠 ℎ𝑟
𝑏) 𝜁 = 0.05 𝑟 = 1 𝑌 = 15 ∗ 10−3 𝑚

𝑋 √1 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
=
𝑌 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2

𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 150.75 𝑚𝑚

𝐾𝑚 2𝜋 ∗ 90 ∗ 103 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑐) 𝑎𝑡 90 𝜔= = 52.36
ℎ𝑟 3 ∗ 3600 𝑠
𝑟 = 3.26
𝑋
= 0.11
𝑌
𝑋 = 1.64 𝑚𝑚

22
IV- Vibration Isolation:

Vibration isolation analysis is concerned with reducing the magnitude of force

transmitted from moving components of machines to supporting foundation or
with reducing the support motion transmitted to instruments or equipments.

The transmitted forces can be reduced by mounting the machine on isolation

mounts, which are pads of rubber or some type of elastomer such as neoprene. The
pads are modeled by a spring and a dashpot.

- Motor-compressor units in refrigerators are supported on isolation mounts to

minimize the force transmitted to the refrigerator frame, and in turn to the
floor upon which refrigerator sits.
- Instruments and equipments can malfunction or even suffer serious damage
if not isolated from vibrating supports upon which they were mounted. For
example, an electron microscope housed in a building that is close to street
carrying heavy traffic would need to be isolated from the floor of the
building.

Transmissibility of Forces:

The force transmitted to the foundation through the isolation system is:

𝑓𝑇𝑅 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥̇
𝐹𝑜
𝑋= 𝑘
√[1 − 𝑟 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
2

23
𝑥 = 𝑋𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜑)

𝑥̇ = 𝑖𝜔𝑋𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜑)

∴ 𝑓𝑇𝑅 = (𝑘 + 𝑖𝑐𝜔)𝑋𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜑)

= 𝑘𝑋√1 + (2𝜁𝑟)2 𝑒 𝑖(𝜔𝑡−𝜑)

The magnitude of force transmitted:

𝐹𝑇𝑅 = 𝑘𝑋√1 + (2𝜁𝑟)2 (10)

𝐹𝑇𝑅 √1 + [2𝜁𝑟]2 𝑋
𝑇𝑅 = = = (11)
𝐹𝑜 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2 𝑌
𝑋
TR is referred to as transmissibility; the ratio is used to determine what portion
𝑌
of the support motion amplitude Y is being transmitted to the system being excited
by the support motion.

24
1- The region of vibration isolation begins at r > √2 since either ratio of
equation (11) must be less than 1 for vibration isolation. Thus, for a given
excitation frequency ω, the isolation mounts must be selected so that the
𝑘
natural frequency ωn of the resulting system is less than ω√2. Since ωn = √
𝑚
and the mass of the mounts is generally much less than the mass of the
system, appropriate isolation mounts are usually selected on the basis of
their stiffness. However, there are certain systems for which isolation is
accomplished by adding mass to the system when the exciting frequency ω
is very low.
2- Since the transmissibility of an exciting force or support motion decreases as
r increases in the isolation region, the less stiff the isolation mounts the
greater the efficiency of the isolation system, some damping must be present
to minimize the peak response when the system passes through resonance
during start-up or shut down.
3- When r > 3 the response curves are about the same for different of damping
below 20 percent (ζ < 0.2). This shows that in this region the transmissibility
of a force or support motion is relatively unaffected by changing the
damping. This is a fortunate feature of vibration isolation, since accurate
values of ζ are generally not known.
4- Relative transmissibility is the ratio:

25
 𝐹𝑇𝑅 𝑟 2 √1 + [2𝜁𝑟]2
𝑇𝑅𝑅 = =
𝑚𝑒𝜔𝑛2 √[1 − 𝑟 2 ]2 + [2𝜁𝑟]2

Since the transmissibility is relatively unaffected by the damping in the isolation

region, it is common practice to neglect damping in equation (11) when isolating a
system.
1
𝑇𝑅 = (12)
𝑟2 − 1
In which negative root has been used so that equation (12) will yield positive
transmissibility.

The reduction R in transmissibility is given by

R = 1 – TR (13)

and is used to indicate the efficiency of an isolation system.

From equations (12), (13)

1
1−𝑅 =
𝑟2 − 1
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ

2−𝑅
𝑟=√ (14)
1−𝑅

Equation (14) can be used to determine the required stiffness k of an isolation

system to accomplish a desired reduction R.

Expressing ω as
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔=
60
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑛 𝑎𝑠

26
 𝑘 𝑘𝑔
𝜔𝑛 = √ =√
𝑚 𝑊

𝑤𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛

30 𝑘𝑔(2 − 𝑅)
𝑁= √ (𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑝𝑚)
𝜋 𝑊(1 − 𝑅)

𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑊 = 𝑘𝛿𝑠𝑡 ,

30 𝑔(2 − 𝑅)
𝑁= √ (𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑝𝑚) (15)
𝜋 𝛿𝑠𝑡 (1 − 𝑅)

In these equations:

k = stiffness of isolation system (N/m)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

δst = static deflection (m)

W = weight of machine or structure (N)

Equation (15) can be plotted on log-log paper to facilitate the design of isolation
systems by providing a graph such as the one shown. Taking the logarithm of both
sides of equation (15) gives

1 30 𝑔(2 − 𝑅)
log 𝑁 = − log 𝛿𝑠𝑡 + log √ (16)
2 𝜋 (1 − 𝑅)

𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,

A plot of equation (16) is shown:

27
These curves can be used to determine the stiffness k that a system must have for a
specified reduction in transmissibility. It is usually difficult to provide isolation at
very low excitation frequencies. At those frequencies, static deflection δ st, can
become so large that isolation becomes impractical.

When it becomes necessary to provide a highly efficient isolation system (R≥90%)

at fairly low excitation frequencies, the machine or instrument to be isolated is
sometimes attached to, or rested upon, a rather large mass M (such as a block of
concrete).

It is often necessary to consider isolating a system for more than one excitation
frequency, in such instances, it should be apparent that the lowest excitation
frequency is the one of primary importance, as the reduction R for an excitation
frequency ω2 would be even greater than that for ω1 when ω1 < ω2.

Example 4:

The machine shown has an armature with a small imbalance that is causing a force
FTR to be transmitted to the foundation upon which the machine rests. The machine
weighs 18 KN and has an operating speed of 2000 rpm. It is desired to reduce the

28
amplitude of the transmitted force by 80 percent, using isolation pads represented
by the springs shown.

Solution:

𝑅 = 0.8

30 𝑘𝑔(2 − 𝑅)
𝑁= √
𝜋 𝑊(1 − 𝑅)

𝑘 = 1.34 ∗ 107 𝑁 ⁄𝑚

Example 5:

A large machine that weighs 135 KN is found to be transmitting a force of 2250 N

to its foundation when running at 1200 rpm. The total (equivalent) spring stiffness
is 2.66*107 N/m. Determine the magnitude of the unbalance force Fo developed by
the machine. What is the amplitude of vibration of the machine?

Solution:

𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 125.66 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠

𝑘
𝜔𝑛 = √ = 43.97 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠
𝑚

𝑟 = 2.86
𝐹𝑇𝑅 1
𝑇𝑅 = = 2
𝐹𝑜 𝑟 −1

𝐹𝑜 = 16.154 𝑘𝑁 𝐹𝑇𝑅 = 𝑘𝑥

∴ 𝑥 = 0.0085 𝑚𝑚

29