Chapter 15

Logarithms
Why it is important to understand: Logarithms
All types of engineers use natural and common logarithms. Chemical engineers use them to measure
radioactive decay and pH solutions, both of which are measured on a logarithmic scale. The Richter scale
which measures earthquake intensity is a logarithmic scale. Biomedical engineers use logarithms to mea-
sure cell decay and growth, and also to measure light intensity for bone mineral density measurements. In
electrical engineering, a dB (decibel) scale is very useful for expressing attenuations in radio propagation
and circuit gains, and logarithms are used for implementing arithmetic operations in digital circuits.
Logarithms are especially useful when dealing with the graphical analysis of non-linear relationships
and logarithmic scales are used to linearise data to make data analysis simpler. Understanding and using
logarithms is clearly important in all branches of engineering.

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

• define base, power, exponent and index

• define a logarithm
• distinguish between common and Napierian (i.e. hyperbolic or natural) logarithms
• evaluate logarithms to any base
• state the laws of logarithms
• simplify logarithmic expressions
• solve equations involving logarithms
• solve indicial equations
• sketch graphs of log10 x and loge x

the index. In the expression 24 , the number 2 is called

15.1 Introduction to logarithms the base.
With the use of calculators firmly established, logarith- In another example, we know that 64 = 82
mic tables are now rarely used for calculation. However, In this example, 2 is the power, or exponent, or index.
the theory of logarithms is important, for there are sev- The number 8 is the base.
eral scientific and engineering laws that involve the rules
of logarithms. 15.1.1 What is a logarithm?
From Chapter 7, we know that 16 = 24 Consider the expression 16 = 24
An alternative, yet equivalent, way of writing this
The number 4 is called the power or the exponent or expression is log2 16 = 4

Basic Engineering Mathematics. 978-0-415-66278-9, © 2014 John Bird. Published by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.
 Logarithms 127

This is stated as ‘log to the base 2 of 16 equals 4’ Here are some worked problems to help understanding
We see that the logarithm is the same as the power of logarithms.
or index in the original expression. It is the base in
the original expression that becomes the base of the Problem 1. Evaluate log3 9
logarithm.
Let x = log3 9 then 3x = 9 from the definition of
The two statements 16 = 24 and
a logarithm,
log2 16 = 4 are equivalent i.e. 3 x = 32 , from which x = 2
If we write either of them, we are automatically imply- Hence, log3 9 = 2
ing the other.
In general, if a number y can be written in the form a x , Problem 2. Evaluate log10 10
then the index x is called the ‘logarithm of y to the base
of a’, i.e.
Let x = log10 10 then 10x = 10 from the definition
x
if y = a then x = log a y of a logarithm,
i.e. 10x = 101 , from which x = 1
In another example, if we write down that 64 = 82 then
the equivalent statement using logarithms is log8 64 = 2. Hence, log10 10 = 1 (which may be checked
In another example, if we write down that log3 27 = 3 using a calculator).
then the equivalent statement using powers is 33 = 27.
So the two sets of statements, one involving powers and Problem 3. Evaluate log16 8
one involving logarithms, are equivalent.
Let x = log16 8 then 16x = 8 from the definition
15.1.2 Common logarithms of a logarithm,
From the above, if we write down that 1000 = 103 , then i.e. (24 )x = 23 i.e. 24x = 23 from the laws
3 = log10 1000. This may be checked using the ‘log’ of indices,
button on your calculator. 3
Logarithms having a base of 10 are called common from which, 4x = 3 and x =
4
logarithms and log10 is usually abbreviated to lg. The 3
following values may be checked using a calculator. Hence, log16 8 =
4
lg 27.5 = 1.4393 . . .
lg 378.1 = 2.5776 . . . Problem 4. Evaluate lg 0.001

lg 0.0204 = −1.6903 . . .
Let x = lg 0.001 = log10 0.001 then 10x = 0.001
i.e. 10x = 10−3
15.1.3 Napierian logarithms from which, x = −3
Logarithms having a base of e (where e is a mathemat- Hence, lg 0.001 = −3 (which may be checked
ical constant approximately equal to 2.7183) are called using a calculator)
hyperbolic, Napierian or natural logarithms, and
loge is usually abbreviated to ln. The following values
may be checked using a calculator. Problem 5. Evaluate ln e

ln 3.65 = 1.2947 . . . Let x = ln e = loge e then ex = e

ln 417.3 = 6.0338 . . . i.e. e x = e1 , from which
x =1
ln 0.182 = −1.7037 . . .
Hence, ln e = 1 (which may be checked
Napierian logarithms are explained further in Chapter by a calculator)
16, following.
128 Basic Engineering Mathematics

1 15.2 Laws of logarithms

Problem 6. Evaluate log3
81
There are three laws of logarithms, which apply to any
1 1 1 base:
Let x = log3 then 3x = = 4 = 3−4
81 81 3 (1) To multiply two numbers:
from which x = −4
log (A × B) = log A + log B
1
Hence, log3 = −4 The following may be checked by using a calculator.
81
lg 10 = 1
Problem 7. Solve the equation lg x = 3
Also, lg 5 + lg 2 = 0.69897 . . . + 0.301029 . . . = 1

If lg x = 3 then log10 x = 3 Hence, lg (5 × 2) = lg 10 = lg 5 + lg 2

and x = 103 i.e. x = 1000 (2) To divide two numbers:
 
Problem 8. Solve the equation log2 x = 5 A
log = log A − log B
B
If log2 x = 5 then x = 25 = 32 The following may be checked using a calculator.
 
Problem 9. Solve the equation log5 x = −2 5
ln = ln 2.5 = 0.91629 . . .
2
1 1
If log5 x = −2 then x = 5−2 = = Also, ln 5 − ln 2 = 1.60943 . . . − 0.69314 . . .
52 25
= 0.91629 . . .
Now try the following Practice Exercise  
5
Hence, ln = ln 5 − ln 2
2
Practice Exercise 59 Laws of logarithms
(answers on page 428) (3) To raise a number to a power:

In Problems 1 to 11, evaluatethe given expressions. log An = n log A

1. log10 10000 2. log2 16 3. log5 125 The following may be checked using a calculator.
1
4. log2 5. log8 2 6. log7 343 lg 52 = lg 25 = 1.39794 . . .
8
7. lg 100 8. lg 0.01 9. log4 8 Also, 2 lg 5 = 2 × 0.69897 . . . = 1.39794 . . .

10. log27 3 11. ln e2 Hence, lg 52 = 2 lg 5

Here are some worked problems to help understanding

In Problems 12 to 18, solve the equations.
of the laws of logarithms.
12. log10 x = 4 13. lg x = 5
Problem 10. Write log 4 + log 7 as the logarithm
1 of a single number
14. log3 x = 2 15. log4 x = −2
2
4 log 4 + log 7 = log(7 × 4) by the first law of
16. lg x = −2 17. log8 x = − logarithms
3
18. ln x = 3 = log 28
 Logarithms 129
 
4×3
Problem 11. Write log 16 − log2 as the logarithm = log by the first and second
25
of a single number laws of logarithms
 
  12
16 = log = log 0.48
log 16 − log2 = log by the second law of 25
2
logarithms
= log 8 Problem 16. Write (a) log 30 (b) log 450 in terms
of log 2, log 3 and log 5 to any base
Problem 12. Write 2 log 3 as the logarithm of a
(a) log 30 = log(2 × 15) = log(2 × 3 × 5)
single number
= log 2 + log 3 + log 5
2 log 3 = log 32 by the third law of logarithms by the first law
of logarithms
= log 9
(b) log 450 = log(2 × 225) = log(2 × 3 × 75)
1
Problem 13. Write log 25 as the logarithm of a = log(2 × 3 × 3 × 25)
2
single number
= log(2 × 32 × 52 )

1 1 = log 2 + log 32 + log 52

log 25 = log 25 2 by the third law of logarithms
2 by the first law
√ of logarithms
= log 25 = log 5
i.e. log 450 = log 2 + 2 log 3 + 2 log 5
Problem 14. Simplify log 64 − log 128 + log 32 by the third law of logarithms

64 = 26 , 128 = 27 and 32 = 25 √ 
8× 5
4

Hence, log 64 − log 128 + log32 Problem 17. Write log in terms of
81
= log 26 − log 27 + log 25 log 2, log 3 and log 5 to any base
= 6 log 2 − 7 log2 + 5 log 2  √ 
8× 4 5 √
by the third law of logarithms log = log 8 + log 4 5 − log 81
81
= 4 log 2 by the first and second laws
of logarithms
1 1
Problem 15. Write log 16 + log 27 − 2 log5 1
2 3 = log 23 + log 5 4 − log 34
as the logarithm of a single number
by the laws of indices
 √ 
8× 5
4
1 1 1
log 16 + log 27 − 2 log5 i.e. log = 3 log 2 + log 5 − 4 log 3
2 3 81 4
1 1 by the third law of logarithms
= log 16 2 + log 27 3 − log 52
by the third law of logarithms
√ √ Problem 18. Evaluate
= log 16 + log 3 27 − log 25 1
log 25 − log125 + log 625
by the laws of indices 2
3 log 5
= log 4 + log 3 − log 25
130 Basic Engineering Mathematics

1 Problem 21. Solve the equation

log 25 − log125 + log 625  
2 log x 2 − 3 − log x = log 2
3 log 5
1  
log 52 − log 53 + log 54   x2 − 3
2 log x2 − 3 − log x = log from the second
= x
3 log 5
4 law of logarithms
2 log5 − 3 log5 + log 5  
= 2 x2 − 3
3 log 5 Hence, log = log 2
x
1 log 5 1
= = x2 − 3
3 log 5 3 from which, =2
x
Problem 19. Solve the equation Rearranging gives x 2 − 3 = 2x
log(x − 1) + log(x + 8) = 2 log(x + 2)
and x 2 − 2x − 3 = 0
LHS = log(x − 1) + log(x + 8) = log(x − 1)(x + 8) Factorising gives (x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
from the first
law of logarithms from which, x = 3 or x = −1

= log(x 2 + 7x − 8) x = −1 is not a valid solution since the logarithm of a

negative number has no real root.
RHS = 2 log(x + 2) = log(x + 2)2
from the first Hence, the solution of the equation is x = 3
law of logarithms
Now try the following Practice Exercise
= log(x 2 + 4x + 4)
Hence, log(x 2 + 7x − 8) = log(x 2 + 4x + 4)
Practice Exercise 60 Laws of logarithms
from which, x 2 + 7x − 8 = x 2 + 4x + 4 (answers on page 428)
i.e. 7x − 8 = 4x + 4 In Problems 1 to 11, write as the logarithm of a
single number.
i.e. 3x = 12
and x=4 1. log 2 + log 3 2. log 3 + log5

3. log 3 + log 4 − log 6

1
Problem 20. Solve the equation log 4 = log x 4. log 7 + log 21 − log49
2
5. 2 log2 + log 3 6. 2 log 2 + 3 log5
1 1
log 4 = log 4 2 from the third law of 1
2 7. 2 log 5 − log 81 + log36
logarithms 2
√
= log 4 from the laws of indices 1 1
8. log 8 − log 81 + log27
1 3 2
Hence, log 4 = log x
2 √ 1
becomes log 4 = log x 9. log 4 − 2 log3 + log 45
2
i.e. log 2 = log x 1
10. log 16 + 2 log3 − log18
from which, 2=x 4
i.e. the solution of the equation is x = 2 11. 2 log 2 + log 5 − log10
 Logarithms 131

Problem 22. Solve the equation 2x = 5, correct

Simplify the expressions given in Problems
to 4 significant figures
12 to 14.
12. log 27 − log9 + log81 Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides of 2x = 5
13. log 64 + log 32 − log 128 gives

14. log 8 − log4 + log 32 log10 2x = log10 5

i.e. x log10 2 = log10 5
Evaluate the expressions given in Problems 15
and 16. by the third law of logarithms
1 1 log10 5 0.6989700 ...
log 16 − log 8 Rearranging gives x = =
15. 2 3 log10 2 0.3010299 ...
log 4
= 2.322, correct to 4
1
log 9 − log3 + log 81 significant figures.
16. 2
2 log 3
Problem 23. Solve the equation 2x+1 = 32x−5
Solve the equations given in Problems 17 to 22.
correct to 2 decimal places
17. log x 4 − log x 3 = log 5x − log 2x
Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives
18. log 2t 3 − log t = log 16 + logt
19. 2 log b 2 − 3 log b = log 8b − log 4b log10 2x+1 = log10 32x−5
20. log(x + 1) + log(x − 1) = log 3
i.e. (x + 1) log10 2 = (2x − 5) log10 3
1
21. log 27 = log(0.5a)
3 x log10 2 + log10 2 = 2x log10 3 − 5 log10 3
22. log(x 2 − 5) − log x = log 4
x(0.3010) + (0.3010) = 2x(0.4771) − 5(0.4771)

i.e. 0.3010x + 0.3010 = 0.9542x − 2.3855

15.3 Indicial equations
Hence, 2.3855 + 0.3010 = 0.9542x − 0.3010x
The laws of logarithms may be used to solve
certain equations involving powers, called indicial 2.6865 = 0.6532x
equations.
For example, to solve, say, 3 x = 27, logarithms to a base from which 2.6865
x= = 4.11,
of 10 are taken of both sides, 0.6532
correct to 2 decimal places.
i.e. log10 3x = log10 27
and x log10 3 = log10 27 Problem 24. Solve the equation x 2.7 = 34.68,
correct to 4 significant figures
by the third law of logarithms

Taking logarithms to base 10 of both sides gives

log10 27 1.43136 . . .
Rearranging gives x = =
log10 3 0.47712 . . . log10 x 2.7 = log10 34.68
=3 which may be readily
checked. 2.7 log10 x = log10 34.68
 
log 27 27 log10 34.68
Note, is not equal to log Hence, log10 x = = 0.57040
log 3 3 2.7
132 Basic Engineering Mathematics

y
Thus, x = antilog 0.57040 = 100.57040
0.5
= 3.719,
correct to 4 significant figures.

0 1 2 3 x
Now try the following Practice Exercise
x 3 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1
0.5 y  log10x 0.48 0.30 0  0.30  0.70  1.0
Practice Exercise 61 Indicial equations
(answers on page 429)
1.0
In Problems 1 to 8, solve the indicial equations for
x, each correct to 4 significant figures.
Figure 15.1
1. 3x = 6.4 2. 2 x = 9
y
3. 2x−1 = 32x−1 4. x 1.5 = 14.91 2

5. 25.28 = 4.2 x 6. 42x−1 = 5x+2

1
7. x −0.25 = 0.792 8. 0.027 x = 3.26
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
9. The decibel gainn of an amplifier is given
P2 1
by n = 10 log10 , where P1 is the power x 6 5 4 3 2 1 0.5 0.2 0.1
P1 y  loge x 1.79 1.61 1.39 1.10 0.69 0 0.69 1.61 2.30
input and P2 is the power output. Find the
P2 2
power gain when n = 25 decibels.
P1
Figure 15.2

(b) loga a = 1
15.4 Graphs of logarithmic functions Let loga a = x then a x = a from the definition of a
logarithm.
A graph of y = log10 x is shown in Fig. 15.1 and a graph
If a x = a then x = 1
of y = loge x is shown in Fig. 15.2. Both can be seen
Hence, loga a = 1. (Check with a calculator that
to be of similar shape; in fact, the same general shape
log10 10 = 1 and loge e = 1)
occurs for a logarithm to any base.
In general, with a logarithm to any base, a, it is noted (c) loga 0 → −∞
that Let loga 0 = x then a x = 0 from the definition of a
logarithm.
(a) log a 1 = 0
If a x = 0, and a is a positive real number, then
Let loga = x then a x = 1 from the definition of the x must approach minus infinity. (For example,
logarithm. check with a calculator, 2−2 = 0.25, 2−20 = 9.54 ×
If a x = 1 then x = 0 from the laws of logarithms. 10−7 , 2−200 = 6.22 × 10−61 , and so on.)
Hence, log a 1 = 0. In the above graphs it is seen Hence, log a 0 → −∞
that log10 1 = 0 and loge 1 = 0

For fully worked solutions to each of the problems in Practice Exercises 59 to 61 in this chapter,
go to the website:
www.routledge.com/cw/bird