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Computer Science Programming
Basics with Ruby

Ophir Frieder, Gideon Frieder, and David Grossman

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Computer Science Programming Basics with Ruby
by Ophir Frieder, Gideon Frieder, and David Grossman
Copyright © 2013 Ophir Frieder, Gideon Frieder, and David Grossman. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are
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Editors: Simon St. Laurent and Meghan Blanchette Cover Designer: Randy Comer
Production Editor: Holly Bauer Interior Designer: David Futato
Copyeditor: Audrey Doyle Illustrators: Rebecca Demarest and Kara Ebrahim
Proofreader: Julie Van Keuren

April 2013: First Edition

Revision History for the First Edition:

2013-04-15: First release

See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781449355975 for release details.

Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O’Reilly logo are registered trademarks of O’Reilly
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While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors assume
no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained
herein.

ISBN: 978-1-449-35597-5
[LSI]

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 Table of Contents

Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

1. Introduction to Computer Science. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Application Development 2
Step 1: Understand the Problem 2
Step 2: Write Out the Solution in Plain Language 3
Step 3: Translate the Language into Code 3
Step 4: Test the Code in the Computer 4
1.3 Algorithms 4
1.3.1 Algorithm Efficiency 5
1.4 Summary 6
1.4.1 Key Concepts 6
1.4.2 Key Definitions 7
1.5 Exercises 7

2. How Does the Computer Really Work?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Basic Nomenclature and Components of a Computer System 11
2.3 Scales of Magnitude 14
2.4 Instruction Execution—Speed and Timing Scales 16
2.5 Bit Strings and Their Meaning 17
2.6 The Interpreter Process and Ruby 19
2.7 Summary 21
2.7.1 Key Concepts 21
2.7.2 Key Definitions 22
2.8 Exercises 22

3. Core Programming Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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 3.1 Introduction 23
3.2 Getting Started 24
How to Install Ruby 24
How to Save Programs 24
3.3 What Is a Variable? 24
Constants: Variables That Never Change 26
Data Types 26
Integer 27
Float 27
Strings 28
Booleans 28
3.4 Basic Arithmetic Operators 28
3.5 Input and Output 31
Output Using Variables 31
Display User Input 32
Basic Programs 32
Step 1: Understanding the Problem 32
Step 2: Write Out the Problem in Plain Language 33
Step 3: Rewrite the Plain Language into Code 33
Step 4: Test the Code in the Computer 34
3.6 Common Programming Errors 34
Syntax Errors 34
Logic Errors 35
3.7 Mixing Data Types 36
3.8 Summary 36
3.8.1 Key Concepts 36
3.8.2 Key Definitions 37
3.9 Exercises 38

4. Conditional Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Flow of Execution 41
Logic Flow 41
4.3 Conditional Control 42
Control Flow 45
4.4 If-Then-Else Statements 46
Testing Conditional Flow 48
Elsif Statements 49
4.5 Case Statements 51
4.6 Debugging 52
4.6.1 Alternative Styles of Debugging 54
4.7 Summary 55

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 4.7.1 Key Concepts 56
4.7.2 Key Definitions 56
4.8 Exercises 56

5. Loop Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1 Introduction 59
5.2 While Loops 59
5.3 Until Loops 62
5.4 For Loops and Nested Loops 63
For Loops 63
Nested Loops 64
5.5 Infinite Loops 65
5.6 Example: Finding Prime Numbers 66
5.7 Summary 69
5.7.1 Key Concepts 70
5.7.2 Key Definitions 70
5.8 Exercises 70

6. Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1 Introduction 73
6.2 Array Types 73
6.2.1 One-Dimensional Arrays 73
Example: Find the Max 76
6.2.2 Multidimensional Arrays 77
Example: Find the Max—Modified 79
6.3 Hashes 81
Example: Hash 82
Example: Accessing a Hash 82
Example: Find the Max—Hash 83
6.4 Summary 84
6.4.1 Key Concepts 84
6.4.2 Key Definitions 84
6.5 Exercises 84

7. Sorting and Searching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

7.1 Introduction 87
7.1.1 Selection Sort 88
7.1.2 Insertion Sort 91
7.1.3 Bubble Sort 93
7.1.4 Radix Sort 95
7.2 Complexity Analysis 99
7.3 Searching 101

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 7.3.1 Linear Search 102
7.3.2 Binary Search 104
7.4 Summary 107
7.4.1 Key Concepts 108
7.4.2 Key Definitions 108
7.5 Exercises 109

8. Using Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

8.1 Introduction 111
8.2 Objects and Built-in Objects 111
8.2.1 Objects 112
8.2.2 Built-in Objects 113
8.2.3 Parameter Passing 115
8.3 Summary 117
8.3.1 Key Concepts 118
8.3.2 Key Definitions 118
8.4 Exercises 118

9. Defining Classes and Creating Objects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

9.1 Introduction 121
9.2 Instantiating Objects from Classes 121
9.3 Data and Methods 123
9.3.1 Grouping Data and Methods 124
9.3.2 Implementing Methods 125
9.4 Summary 128
9.4.1 Key Concepts 129
9.4.2 Key Definitions 129
9.5 Exercises 129

10. Object Inheritance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

10.1 Introduction 131
10.2 Inheritance 131
10.3 Basic Method Overriding 134
10.4 Accessing the Superclass 135
10.5 Applications 136
10.5.1 Person Database 136
10.5.2 Grocery Store 137
10.5.3 Video Games 137
10.6 Summary 138
10.6.1 Key Concepts 138
10.6.2 Key Definitions 138

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 10.7 Exercises 138

11. File Input/Output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

11.1 Introduction 141
11.2 File Access: Reading and Writing 141
11.2.1 File Reader Class 143
11.2.2 FileWriter Class 144
11.2.3 File Reader/Writer Example 145
11.3 Summary 146
11.3.1 Key Concepts 146
11.3.2 Key Definitions 147
11.4 Exercises 147

12. Putting It All Together: Tic-Tac-Toe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

12.1 Introduction 149
12.2 Programming Approach 150
12.3 Tic-Tac-Toe 150
12.4 Tic-Tac-Toe Revised 159
12.5 Summary 161
12.6 Exercises 162

A. Recommended Additional Reading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

B. Installing Ruby. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

C. Writing Code for Ruby. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

D. Using irb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

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www.it-ebooks.info
 Preface

Computer science introductory texts are often unnecessarily long. Many exceed 500
pages, laboriously describing every nuance of whatever programming language they are
using to introduce the concepts.
There is a better way: a programming language that has a low entry barrier. Preferably,
the language selected should be a real, widely used language with a subset that is powerful
and useful, yet mercifully small. Such a choice should arm the readers with marketable
tools. The esoteric details of the programming language, however, should be ignored
but with pointers for future investigation provided.
Ruby is a programming language well suited to this task. It is object-oriented, inter‐
preted, and relatively straightforward. More so, instead of being purely educationally
oriented, its popularity in industry is steadfastly growing.
Our book should be covered in sequential fashion. Each chapter assumes that the ma‐
terial from the preceding chapters has been mastered. To focus the discussion, we ignore
gory details, such as user interface design and development issues, that we believe are
ancillary to the core of computer science. Such issues should be, and are, covered in
depth in a variety of subsequent courses.
Our target audience is students and practitioners who wish to learn computer science
using Ruby rather than just how to program in a given language. This book consistently
emphasizes why computer science is different from computer programming. Students
and practitioners must understand what an algorithm is and what differentiates differ‐
ing algorithms for the same task. Although we are living in an era of growing compu‐
tational resources, we are also living in a world of growing data sets. Data amass every
day; thus, efficient algorithms are needed to process these data.
Students and practitioners completing a course using this book possess foundational
knowledge in the basics of computer science and are prepared to master abstract and
advanced concepts. Second semester courses should rely on languages other than Ruby,
furthering the understanding that programming languages are just interchangeable,

ix

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expressive tools. We know, however, that many students and practitioners may not take
another computer science course. If that is the case, this book provides them with an
overview of the field and an understanding of at least one popular programming lan‐
guage that happens to be useful from both a practical and a pedagogical standpoint.
Concepts taught in this book provide students and practitioners with a sufficient foun‐
dation to later learn more complex algorithms, advanced data structures, and new pro‐
gramming languages.
Finally, we hope to instill a core appreciation for algorithms and problem solving so
students and practitioners will solve problems with elegance and inspiration rather than
simply plowing ahead with brute force.
The slides corresponding to this book and the source code listed in the book are available
at http://ir.cs.georgetown.edu/Computer_Science_Programming_Basics_with_Ruby.

Conventions Used in This Book

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Indicates new terms, URLs, email addresses, filenames, and file extensions
Constant width
Used for program listings, as well as within paragraphs to refer to program elements
such as variable or function names, databases, data types, environment variables,
statements, and keywords
Constant width bold
Shows commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user
Constant width italic
Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values or by values deter‐
mined by context

This icon signifies a tip, suggestion, or general note

Using Code Examples

This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, you may use the code in
your programs and documentation. You do not need to contact us for permission unless
you’re reproducing a significant portion of the code. For example, writing a program
that uses several chunks of code from this book does not require permission. Selling or

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distributing a CD-ROM of examples from O’Reilly books does require permission. An‐
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permission. Incorporating a significant amount of example code from this book into
your product’s documentation does require permission.
We appreciate, but do not require, attribution. An attribution usually includes the title,
author, publisher, and ISBN. For example: “Computer Science Programming Basics in
Ruby by Ophir Frieder, Gideon Frieder, and David Grossman (O’Reilly). Copyright 2013
Ophir Frieder, Gideon Frieder, and David Grossman, 978-1-449-35597-5.”
If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or the permission given here,
feel free to contact us at [email protected].

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Acknowledgments
Gone are the days where one needs to set the stage with “computers are everywhere” or
“computers are a commodity.” Clearly, computers are everywhere, are used by everyone,
and permeate every daily function and activity. Unfortunately, the majority of society
can only use ready-made computer applications; they cannot program computers. With
this book, we intend to change that!
In authoring this book, a five-year process, we benefited from and are grateful for the
help of many; here we name but a few and apologize to those whose help we inadver‐
tently forgot to acknowledge by name.
We thank all the students who persevered through the many instantiations of this text,
from those who read the initial chapters over and over and over again as part of IIT’s
offerings. Their comments, suggestions, and criticisms guided our corrections through
the iterations.
The entire production of this book, from the first partial drafts to the final version
delivered to O’Reilly, was managed by two students, initially by Yacin Nadji (a doctoral
student at Georgia Tech) and more recently by Andrew Yates (a doctoral student at
Georgetown University). Without their help, we would have stumbled over one another,
and we would have given up the effort many times over.
We use and envision others will use our book in the classroom. To aid instruction, we
provide corresponding slides that would not exist without the help of two Georgetown
University students, Candice Penelton and Sarah Chang.

xii | Preface

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We benefited from many editorial remarks; we thank the editorial changes suggested
by Becca Page, the anonymous reviewers, and most notably, Mike Fitzgerald, who not
only reviewed the book word by word, but also tested our code. We also thank Jason
Soo for his periodic assistance with the Ruby source code and Abdur Chowdhury for
his general guidance and assistance. Likewise, we thank the entire O’Reilly production
team, who went way beyond what could be expected and significantly improved this
book.
Finally and foremost, we thank our family members whose support and tolerance helped
us through our jointly endured struggles (for David: Mary Catherine, Isaac, and Joseph;
for Gideon: Dalia; and for Ophir: Nazli).

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 CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Computer Science

In This Chapter
• Defining computer science
• Programming techniques
• Algorithms and algorithm efficiency

1.1 Introduction
Introductory students often confuse programming with computer science, but pro‐
gramming is merely a strategy to implement computer science concepts. We introduce
the basics of computer science using the Ruby programming language. Given our goal,
we intentionally forgo many of the intricacies of the language.
Computer science is never tied to a programming language; it is tied to the task of solving
problems efficiently using a computer. A computer comes with some resources, which
will be discussed in Chapter 2, such as internal memory for short-term storage, pro‐
cessing capability, and long-term storage devices. A complete program is a set of in‐
structions that use the computer to solve a real problem. The tool for producing these
instructions is called a programming language. The goal is to develop solutions that use
these resources efficiently to solve real problems.
Programming languages come and go, but the essence of computer science stays the
same. If we need to sort a sequence of numbers, for example, it is immaterial if we sort
them using programming language A or B. The steps the program will follow, commonly
referred to as the algorithm, will remain the same. Hence, the core goal of computer
science is to study algorithms that solve real problems. Computer scientists strive to

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create a correct sequence of steps that minimize resource demands, operate in a timely
fashion, and yield correct results.
Algorithms are typically specified using pseudocode. Pseudocode, which may itself be
simply written in plain language, specifies the logical, conceptual steps that must occur
without specifying the necessary details needed to actually execute each step. However,
we think that a properly selected subset of Ruby is sufficiently simple to introduce the
algorithms. So, instead of creating an algorithm by writing it in plain language, gener‐
ating equivalent pseudocode, and transforming it into a programming language, we go
straight from the plain-language definition of an algorithm to Ruby code.

1.2 Application Development

When writing a program, it is important to keep in mind that the computer will do
exactly what you tell it to do. It cannot think as a human would, so you must provide
clear instructions for every step.
When giving instructions to others, people will often fill in blanks in logic without even
realizing it. For example, if you instruct someone to “go to the bank,” you may not say
what mode of transportation should be used. A computer, however, does not have the
ability to “fill in the blanks.” A computer will only do exactly what you tell it to do.
Imagine, for example, explaining to a person and to a computer how to make a peanut
butter and jelly sandwich. To the person, all you might need to say is, “Spread the peanut
butter on one slice of bread, the jelly on the other slice of bread, and then put the pieces
of bread together.” If these instructions were given to a computer, however, the computer
would not know where to start. Implied in these instructions are many logical steps that
a human can automatically infer and the computer cannot. For example, the human
would know that the jar must first be opened to scoop peanut butter out before you can
spread it onto a slice of bread. The computer might try to spread the actual jar across
the bread, without taking the peanut butter or jelly out—assuming it could even find
them!
Computer science is ultimately about problem solving. The following is a basic approach
to solving problems:

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Write out a solution in plain language.
Step 3: Translate the language into code.
Step 4: Test the code in the computer.

Step 1: Understand the Problem

During this step, you try to answer all questions about the problem at hand. For example,
you may be asked to create a program that stores a list of names, like a directory. Instead

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of just creating this program with little forethought, it is important to know all the details
of the problem. Here are some examples:

• How many names will be stored?

• Do first and last names need to be stored separately?
• Are middle names needed?
• What is the maximum length that a name can be?

Step 2: Write Out the Solution in Plain Language

Once the problem is understood, the next step is to write an outline of how you will
solve it. An example of the process of storing a name might look like a sequence of
sentences:
Ask for the first name.
Store the first name.
Ask for the last name.
Store the last name.
Optionally, ask for the middle initial.
Store the middle initial.

Step 3: Translate the Language into Code

Once the plain-language version is written, it is time to translate it into actual code. The
Ruby code for the preceding example is shown in Example 1-1, but you are certainly
not expected to understand it yet.
Note the pound sign (#) on the righthand side. This sign means that the remainder of
the line is a comment. A comment is not part of the instructions given to the computer.
That is, a comment is a nonexecutable segment of code. Typically, comments are used
to explain what the code does. Not only is it critical to comment code for the sake of
readability and understanding, but using comments is considered good programming
style, and the liberal use of comments is essential. Always remember that you (or some‐
one else) may have to fix errors—colloquially referred to as bugs—years after you write
a program; comments will help you understand what your code does years after you
initially wrote it.

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 Gem of Wisdom
Algorithms are the core of computer science. Correct and efficient algorithms
guarantee that the computer works smart rather than only hard. Thus, think
about the problem, come up with a good algorithm, and then determine how
many steps the computer needs to complete the task.

Example 1-1. Plain language → Ruby code

1 puts "Enter first name: " # Ask for the first name
2 first_name = gets # Store the first name
3 puts "Enter last name: " # Ask for the last name
4 last_name = gets # Store the last name
5 puts "Enter middle initial: " # Ask for the middle initial
6 middle_initial = gets # Store the middle initial

Step 4: Test the Code in the Computer

This step entails running the program you created and seeing that it runs properly. It is
best to test portions of your code as you write them, instead of writing an entire program
only to find out that none of it works.

1.3 Algorithms
Algorithms are step-by-step methods of solving problems. The process of reading in
names previously described is an example of an algorithm, though a very simple one.
Some are extremely complicated, and many vary their execution depending on input.
Often algorithms take input and generate output, but not always. However, all algo‐
rithms have something in common: they all do something.
Imagine a website like Google Maps, which has an algorithm to get directions from one
point to another in either North America or Europe. It typically requires two inputs: a
source and a destination. It also gives two outputs: the narrative directions to get from
the source to the destination, and a map of the route.
The directions produced are also an algorithm; they accomplish the task of getting from
the source to the destination. Imagine getting the directions to your friend’s house
shown on the map in Figure 1-1.

1. Start going south on River Road.

2. Turn left (east) on Main Street.
3. Take a right (south) on Ruby Lane.
4. Turn left (east) toward Algorithm Circle.
5. Continue until you come to 345 Algorithm Circle (your friend’s house).

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Figure 1-1. Directions “algorithm”

First notice that the directions are numbered; each step happens in sequential order.
Additionally, it describes general steps like, “Turn left (east) on Main Street.” It does not
say, “Turn on your left turn signal and wait for the light to turn green, and then turn left
on Main Street.” That is not the point of an algorithm. An algorithm does not need to
write out every single detail, but it needs to have all the important parts.

1.3.1 Algorithm Efficiency

Different algorithms may accomplish the same task, but some will do it much faster
than others. Consider the algorithm just described for going to your friend’s house,
which certainly is not the only route to her or his home. Instead of getting on Ruby
Lane, you could have hopped on the expressway, gone to the airport, and then taken a
cab from the airport to your friend’s house—but that would be extremely inefficient.
Likewise, there may be a more efficient route to your friend’s house than the one de‐
scribed. Just because you have created an algorithm does not make it efficient, and being
able to create efficient algorithms is one of the factors that distinguishes a good computer
scientist. For example, imagine receiving the following set of directions to your friend’s
house instead of the ones shown in the previous section, illustrated on the map in
Figure 1-2:

1. Start going south on River Road.

1.3 Algorithms | 5

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 2. Turn left (east) one block south of Main Street onto Algorithm Circle.
3. Continue until you come to 345 Algorithm Circle (your friend’s house).

Figure 1-2. Directions “efficient algorithm”

Here we use a different algorithm that accomplishes the same task, and it does so slightly
more efficiently. That is, fewer turns are involved.

1.4 Summary
You now understand the core foundations of computer science, namely the use of al‐
gorithms to solve real-world problems. Ruby, as used throughout the remainder of the
book, is a powerful, yet relatively easy to understand, programming language that can
be used to implement these algorithms. It is, however, critical to remember that inde‐
pendent of the programming language used, without a good algorithm, your solution
will be ineffective.

1.4.1 Key Concepts

• The essence of computer science is problem solving. Computer science involves
using the computer as a tool to model or solve various problems, from storing names
in a database to finding efficient directions to a friend’s house.

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 Gem of Wisdom
Once we have an algorithm, we can compare it to other algorithms and pick the
best one for the job. Once the algorithm is done, we can write a program to
implement it.

• When programming, it is important to understand that the computer is never

wrong. It is merely following the directions you have given it.
• The following are basic steps for solving a computer science problem:

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Write out a solution in plain language.
Step 3: Translate the language into code.
Step 4: Test the code in the computer.

• Algorithms are step-by-step methods for solving problems. When writing an al‐
gorithm, it is important to keep in mind the algorithm’s efficiency.

1.4.2 Key Definitions

• Algorithm: A step-by-step method for solving problems.
• Algorithm efficiency: A measurement that determines how efficient one algorithm
is compared with another.

1.5 Exercises
1. Imagine that you are creating a pocket calculator. You have created the functionality
for all the buttons except x2, the button that squares a number, and exp, which allows
you to calculate baseexponent, where exponent is an integer. You may use any other
functionality a calculator would normally have: for example, (+, -, *, /, =).
a. Create the functionality for the x2 button.
b. Create the functionality for the exp button.
2. In the third-grade math class of French mathematician Carl Gauss, the teacher
needed to give the students some busywork. She asked the class to compute the sum
of the first 100 numbers (1 to 100). Long before the rest of the class had finished.
Carl raised his hand and told his teacher that he had the answer: 5,050.

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 a. Craft an algorithm that will sum the first n numbers (assuming n ≥ 1). How
many steps does your algorithm take to complete when n = 100? How many
steps does it take when n = 1,000?
b. Can you create an algorithm like Gauss’s where the number of steps does not
depend on n?
3. A palindrome is a word or phrase that reads the same way forward and backward,
like “racecar.” Describe a sequence of steps that determines if a word or phrase is a
palindrome.
4. Consider the three mazes shown in Figure 1-3. Describe two different algorithms
for solving a maze. Discuss advantages and disadvantages of each algorithm. Then
look at the maze and predict which algorithm will complete first. See if your pre‐
dictions were correct by applying your algorithms to the mazes.

Figure 1-3. Three mazes for Exercise 4

5. Figure 1-4 shows an alternative way to represent an algorithm. (Note: we introduce

this construct in detail later on. If it looks too intimidating, skip it until after you’ve
read Chapter 4.)
a. Starting at the circle labeled “Start” work your way through the figure. What is
the purpose of this algorithm?
b. Translate the figure into simple language. Note that a diamond in the figure
represents a condition that may be true or false.

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 Figure 1-4. Alternative representation of an algorithm for Exercise 5

6. A cable company must use cables to connect 15 homes together so that every home
is reachable by every other home. The company has estimated the costs of different
cable routes (Figure 1-5 shows the numbers associated with each link). One engi‐
neer provides an algorithm, shown in Figure 1-5, that will find the cheapest set of
routes to pick. Does the engineer’s algorithm work for this case? Why or why not?

1.5 Exercises | 9

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 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
Hoti d' hai periphereis ines, hais peristelletai ta t' alla moria kai hê
gastêr, ou synairousi to mêkos, alla systellousi kai stenousi tên
eurytêta, kai par' autou labein estin homologoumenon Erasistratou;
peristellesthai gar phêsi tois sitiois tên gastera kata ton tês pepseôs
hapanta chronon. all' ei peristelletai men, ouden de tou mêkous
aphaireitai tês koilias, ouk esti tês peristaltikês kinêseôs idion to
kataspan katô ton stomachon. hoper gar autos ho Erasistratos eipe,
touto monon auto symbêsetai to tôn anô systel||171lomenôn
diastellesthai ta katô. touto d' hoti, kan eis nekrou ton stomachon
hydatos encheês, phainetai gignomenon, oudeis agnoei. tais gar tôn
hylôn dia stenou sômatos hodoiporiais akolouthon esti to symptôma;
thaumaston gar, ei dierchomenou tinos auton onkou mê
diastalêsetai. oukoun to men tôn anô systellomenôn diastellesthai ta
katô koinon esti kai tois nekrois sômasi, di' hôn hopôsoun ti
diexerchetai, kai tois zôsin, eite peristelloito tois dierchomenois eith'
helkoito.
To de tês tou mêkous synaireseôs idion tôn tas eutheias inas
echontôn organôn, hin' epispasôntai ti. alla mên edeichthê
kataspômenos ho stomachos, ou gar an heilke ton larynga; dêlon
oun, hôs hê gastêr helkei ta sitia dia tou stomachou.
Kai hê kata ton emeton de tôn emoumenôn achri tou stomatos
phora pantôs men pou kai autê ta men hypo tôn anapheromenôn
diateinomena merê tou stomachou diestôta kektêtai, tôn prosô d' ho
ti an hekastot' epilambanêtai, tout' archomenon diastelletai, to d' ||
172 opisthen kataleipei dêlonoti systellomenon, hôsth' homoian einai
pantê tên diathesin tou stomachou kata ge touto tê tôn
katapinontôn; alla tês holkês mê parousês to mêkos holon ison en
tois toioutois symptômasi diaphylattetai.
Dia touto de kai katapinein rhaon estin ê emein, hoti katapinetai
men amphoin tês gastros tôn chitônôn energountôn, tou men entos
helkontos, tou d' ektos peristellomenou te kai synepôthountos,
emeitai de thaterou monou tou exôthen energountos, oudenos
helkontos eis to stoma. ou gar dê hôsper hê tês gastros orexis
proêgeito tou katapinein ta sitia, ton auton tropon kan tois emetois
epithymei ti tôn kata to stoma moriôn tou gignomenou pathêmatos,
all' amphô tês gastros autês eisin enantiai diatheseis, oregomenês
men kai prosiemenês ta chrêsima te kai oikeia, dyscherainousês de
kai apotribomenês ta allotria. dio kai to katapinein auto tois men
hikanôs oregomenois tôn oikeiôn edesmatôn tê gastri tachista
gignetai, saphôs helkousês auta kai kataspôsês prin ê masêthênai,
tois d' êtoi pharmakon ti kat' anan||173kên pinousin ê sition en chôra
pharmakou prospheromenois aniara kai mogis hê kataposis autôn
epiteleitai.
Dêlos oun estin ek tôn eirêmenôn ho men endon chitôn tês gastros
ho tas eutheias echôn inas tês ek tou stomatos eis autên holkês
heneka gegonôs kai dia tout' en tais kataposesi monais energôn, ho
d' exôthen ho tas enkarsias echôn heneka men tou peristellesthai
tois enyparchousi kai proôthein auta toioutos apotelestheis, energôn
d' ouden hêtton en tois emetois ê tais kataposesin. enargestata de
martyrei tô legomenô kai to kata tas channas te kai tous synodontas
gignomenon; heurisketai gar eniote toutôn hê gastêr en tô stomati
kathaper kai ho Aristotelês en tais peri zôôn egrapsen historiais kai
prostithêsi ge tên aitian hypo laimargias autois touto symbainein
phaskôn.
Echei gar hôde; kata tas sphodroteras orexeis anô prostrechei pasi
tois zôois hê gastêr, hôste tines tou pathous aisthêsin enargê
schontes exerpein hautois phasi tên koilian, eniôn de masômenôn eti
kai mêpô || 174 kalôs en tô stomati ta sitia katergasamenôn
exarpazei phanerôs akontôn. eph' hôn oun zôôn physei laimargôn
hyparchontôn hê t' eurychôria tou stomatos esti dapsilês hê te tês
gastros thesis engys, hôs epi synodontos te kai channês, ouden
thaumaston, hotan hikanôs peinasanta diôkê ti tôn mikroterôn zôôn,
eit' êdê plêsion ê tou syllabein, anatrechein epeigousês tês
epithymias eis to stoma tên gastera. genesthai d' allôs amêchanon
touto mê ouch hôsper dia cheiros tou stomachou tês gastros
epispômenês eis heautên ta sitia. kathaper gar kai hêmeis hypo
prothymias eniote tê cheiri synepekteinomen holous hêmas autous
heneka tou thatton epidraxasthai tou prokeimenou sômatos, houtô
kai hê gastêr hoion cheiri tô stomachô synepekteinetai. kai dia tout'
eph' hôn zôôn hama ta tria tauti synepesen, ephesis te sphodra tês
trophês ho te stomachos mikros hê t' eurychôria tou stomatos
dapsilês, epi toutôn oligê rhopê tês epektaseôs eis to stoma tên
koilian holên anapherei.
Êrkei men oun isôs andri physikô par' autês monês tês kataskeuês
tôn orga||175nôn tên endeixin tês energeias lambanein. ou gar dê
matên g' an hê physis ek dyoin chitônôn enantiôs allêlois echontôn
apeirgasato ton oisophagon, ei mê kai diaphorôs hekateros autôn
energein emellen. all' epei panta mallon ê ta tês physeôs erga
diagignôskein hoi peri ton Erasistraton eisin hikanoi, phere kak tês
tôn zôôn anatomês epideixômen autois, hôs hekateros tôn chitônôn
energei tên eirêmenên energeian. ei dê ti labôn zôon, eita gymnôsas
autou ta perikeimena tô stomachô sômata chôris tou diatemein tina
tôn neurôn ê tôn artêriôn ê tôn phlebôn tôn autothi tetagmenôn
ethelois apo tês genyos heôs tou thôrakos eutheiais tomais dielein
ton exô chitôna ton tas enkarsias inas echonta kapeita tô zôô
trophên prosenenkois, opsei katapinon auto kaitoi tês peristaltikês
energeias apolôluias. ei d' au palin eph' heterou zôou diatemois
amphoterous tous chitônas tomais enkarsiais, theasê kai touto
katapinon ouket' energountos tou entos. hô dêlon, hoti kai dia
thaterou men autôn katapinein hoion t' estin, || 176 alla cheiron ê di'
amphoterôn. pros gar au tois allois kai tout' esti theasasthai saphôs
epi tês eirêmenês anatomês, hôs en tô katapinein hypopimplatai
pneumatos ho stomachos tou synkatapinomenou tois sitiois, ho
peristellomenou men tou exôthen chitônos ôtheitai rhadiôs eis tên
gastera syn tois edesmasi, monou de tou endon hyparchontos
empodôn histatai tê phora tôn sitiôn diateinon t' auton kai tên
energeian empodizon.
All' oute toutôn ouden Erasistratos eipen outh' hôs hê skolia thesis
tou stomachou diaballei saphôs to dogma tôn nomizontôn hypo tês
anôthen bolês monês podêgoumena mechri tês gastros ienai ta
katapinomena. monon d' hoti polla tôn makrotrachêlôn zôôn
epikekyphota katapinei, kalôs eipen. hô dêlon, hoti to phainomenon
ou to pôs katapinomen apodeiknysin, alla to pôs ou katapinomen;
hoti gar mê dia monês tês anôthen bolês, ek toutou dêlon; ou mên
eith' helkousês tês koilias eite paragontos auta tou stomachou, dêlon
êdê pô. all' hêmeis ge || 177 pantas tous logismous eipontes tous t'
ek tês kataskeuês tôn organôn hormômenous kai tous apo tôn allôn
symptômatôn tôn te pro tou gymnôthênai ton stomachon kai
gymnôthentos, hôs oligô prosthen elegomen, hikanôs
enedeixametha tou men helkein heneka ton entos chitôna, tou d'
apôthein ton ektos gegonenai.
Prouthemetha men oun apodeixai tên kathektikên dynamin en
hekastô tôn organôn ousan, hôsper en tô prosthen logô tên
helktikên te kai proseti tên alloiôtikên. hypo de tês akolouthias tou
logou tas tettaras apedeixamen hyparchousas tê gastri, tên helktikên
men en tô katapinein, tên kathektikên d' en tô pettein, tên apôstikên
d' en tois emetois kai tais tôn pepemmenôn sitiôn eis to lepton
enteron hypochôrêsesin, autên de tên pepsin alloiôsin hyparchein.

IX
Oukoun et' aporêsomen oude peri tou splênos, ei helkei men to
oikeion, apokrinei de to allotrion, alloioun de kai katechein, hoson an
epispasêtai, pephyken, oude peri hêpatos ê phlebos ê artêrias ê
kardias ê tôn || 178 allôn tinos; anankaiai gar edeichthêsan hai
tettares hautai dynameis hapanti moriô tô mellonti threpsesthai kai
dia tout' autas hypêretidas einai threpseôs ephamen; hôs gar to tôn
anthrôpôn apopatêma tois kysin hêdiston, houtô kai ta tou hêpatos
perittômata to men tô splêni, to de tê cholêdochô kystei, to de tois
nephrois oikeion.
 X
Kai legein eti peri tês toutôn geneseôs ouk an etheloimi meth'
Hippokratên kai Platôna kai Aristotelên kai Dioklea kai Praxagoran
kai Philotimon; oude gar oude peri tôn dynameôn eipon an, ei tis tôn
emprosthen akribôs exeirgasato ton hyper autôn logon.
Epei d' hoi men palaioi kalôs hyper autôn apophênamenoi parelipon
agônisasthai tô logô, mêd' hyponoêsantes esesthai tinas eis tosouton
anaischyntous sophistas, hôs antilegein epicheirêsai tois enargesin,
hoi neôteroi de to men ti nikêthentes hypo tôn sophismatôn
epeisthêsan autois, to de ti kai antilegein epicheirêsantes apodein
moi poly tês tôn palaiôn edoxan dynameôs, || 179 dia touth', hôs an
ekeinôn autôn, eiper et' ên tis, agônisasthai moi dokei pros tous
anatrepontas tês technês ta kallista, kai autos houtôs epeirathên
syntheinai tous logous.
Hoti d' ê ouden ê pantapasin anysô ti smikron, ouk agnoô; pampolla
gar heuriskô teleôs men apodedeigmena tois palaiois, oute de
syneta tois pollois tôn nyn di' amathian all' oud' epicheiroumena
gignôskesthai dia rhathymian, out', ei kai gnôstheiê tini, dikaiôs
exetazomena.
Chrê gar ton mellonta gnôsesthai ti tôn pollôn ameinon euthys men
kai tê physei kai tê prôtê didaskalia poly tôn allôn dienenkein;
epeidan de genêtai meirakion, alêtheias tina schein erôtikên manian,
hôsper enthousiônta kai mêth' hêmeras mête nyktos dialeipein
speudonta te kai syntetamenon ekmathein, hosa tois endoxotatois
eirêtai tôn palaiôn; epeidan d' ekmathê, krinein auta kai basanizein
chronô pampollô kai skopein, posa men homologei tois enargôs
phainomenois, posa de diapheretai, || 180 kai houtô ta men
haireisthai, ta d' apostrephesthai. tô men dê toioutô pany sphodra
chrêsimous êlpika tous hêmeterous esesthai logous; eien d' an oligoi
pantapasin houtoi; tois d' allois houtô genêsetai to gramma peritton,
hôs ei kai mython onô tis legoi.
 XI
Symperanteon oun hêmin ton logon heneka tôn tês alêtheias
ephiemenôn hosa leipei kat' auton eti prostheisin. hôs gar hê gastêr
helkei men enargôs kai kataspa ta sitia tois sphodra peinôdesi, prin
akribôs en tô stomati leiôthênai, dyscherainei de kai apôtheitai tois
apositois te kai pros anankên esthiousin, houtô kai tôn allôn organôn
hekaston amphoteras echei tas dynameis, tên te tôn oikeiôn
helktikên kai tên tôn allotriôn apokritikên. kai dia touto, kan ex
henos ê chitônos organon ti synestôs, hôsper kai hai kysteis
amphoterai kai hai mêtrai kai hai phlebes, amphotera tôn inôn echei
ta genê, tôn eutheiôn te kai tôn enkarsiôn.

Kai men ge kai triton ti || 181 genos inôn esti <tôn> loxôn, elatton
poly tô plêthei tôn proeirêmenôn dyo genôn. heurisketai d' en men
tois ek dyoin chitônôn synestêkosin organois en thaterô monô tais
eutheiais isin anamemigmenon, en de tois ex henos hama tois allois
dyo genesi. synepilambanousi d' hautai megiston tê tês kathektikês
onomastheisês dynameôs energeia; deitai gar en toutô tô chronô
pantachothen esphinchthai kai peritetasthai tois enyparchousi to
morion, hê men gastêr en tô tês pepseôs, hai mêtrai d' en tô tês
kyêseôs chronô panti.
Taut' ara kai ho tês phlebos chitôn heis ôn ek polyeidôn inôn
egeneto kai tôn tês artêrias ho men exôthen ek tôn strongylôn, ho d'
esôthen ek men tôn eutheiôn pleistôn, oligôn de tinôn syn autais kai
tôn loxôn, hôste tas men phlebas tais mêtrais kai tais kystesin
eoikenai kata ge tên tôn inôn synthesin, ei kai tô pachei leipontai,
tas d' artêrias tê gastri. mona de pantôn organôn ek dyoin th' hama
kai amphoterôn enkarsias echontôn tas inas egeneto ta entera. to d'
hoti beltion ên || 182 tôn t' allôn hekastô toioutô tên physin
hyparchein, hoionper kai nyn esti, tois t' enterois ek dyoin homoiôn
chitônôn synkeisthai, tês peri chreias moriôn pragmateias estin.
oukoun nyn chrê pothein akouein peri tôn toioutôn, hôsper oude dia
ti peri tou plêthous tôn chitônôn hekastou tôn organôn
diapephônêtai tois anatomikois andrasin. hyper men gar toutôn
autarkôs en tois peri tês anatomikês diaphônias eirêtai; peri de tou
dioti toiouton hekaston egeneto tôn organôn, en tois peri chreias
moriôn eirêsetai.

XII
Nyni d' oudeteron toutôn prokeitai legein, alla tas physikas dynameis
monas apodeiknyein en hekastô tôn organôn tettaras hyparchousas.
epi tout' oun palin epanelthontes anamnêsômen te tôn emprosthen
eirêmenôn epithômen te kephalên êdê tô logô panti to leipon eti
prosthentes. epeidê gar hekaston tôn en tô zôô moriôn helkein eis
heauto ton oikeion chymon apodedeiktai kai prôtê schedon hautê
tôn physikôn esti dynameôn, ephexês || 183 ekeinô gnôsteon, hôs ou
proteron apotribetai tên helchtheisan <trophên> êtoi sympasan ê
kai ti perittôma autês, prin an eis enantian metapesê diathesin ê
auto to organon ê kai tôn periechomenôn en autô ta pleista. hê men
oun gastêr, epeidan men hikanôs emplêsthê tôn sitiôn kai to
chrêstotaton autôn eis tous heautês chitônas enapothêtai bdallousa,
tênikaut' êdê to loipon apotribetai kathaper achthos allotrion; hai
kysteis d', epeidan hekaston tôn helchthentôn ê tô plêthei diateinon
ê tê poiotêti daknon aniaron genêtai.
Tô d' autô tropô kai hai mêtrai; êtoi gar, epeidan mêketi pherôsi
diateinomenai, to lypoun apothesthai speudousin ê tê poiotêti
daknomenai tôn ekchythentôn eis autas hygrôn. hekateron de tôn
eirêmenôn gignetai men kai biaiôs estin hote kai amblôskousi
tênikauta, gignetai d' hôs ta polla kai prosêkontôs, hoper ouk
amblôskein all' apokyïskein te kai tiktein onomazetai. tois men oun
amblôthridiois pharmakois ê tisin allois pathêmasi diaphthei||184rousi
to embryon ê tinas tôn hymenôn autou rhêgnyousin hai amblôseis
hepontai, houtô de kapeidan aniathôsi poth' hai mêtrai kakôs
echousai tê diatasei, tais de tôn embryôn autôn kinêsesi tais
sphodrotatais hoi tokoi, kathaper kai touth' Hippokratei kalôs eirêtai.
koinon d' hapasôn tôn diatheseôn hê ania kai tautês aition tritton ê
onkos perittos ê ti baros ê dêxis; onkos men, epeidan mêketi pherôsi
diateinomenai, baros d', epeidan hyper tên rhômên autôn ê to
periechomenon, dêxis d', epeidan êtoi ta proteron en tois hymesin
hygra stegomena rhagentôn autôn eis autas ekchythê tas mêtras ê
kai sympan apophtharen to kyêma sêpomenon te kai dialyomenon
eis mochthêrous ichôras houtôs erethizê te kai daknê ton chitôna tôn
hysterôn.
Analogon oun en hapasi tois organois hekasta tôn t' ergôn autôn tôn
physikôn kai mentoi tôn pathêmatôn te kai nosêmatôn phainetai
gignomena, ta men enargôs kai saphôs houtôs, hôs apodeixeôs
deisthai mêden, ta d' hêtton men enargôs, ou mên agnôsta ge
pantapasi tois || 185 ethelousi prosechein ton noun.

Epi men oun tês gastros hai te dêxeis enargeis, dioti pleistês
aisthêseôs metechei, ta t' alla pathêmata ta te nautian empoiounta
kai hoi kaloumenoi kardiôgmoi saphôs endeiknyntai tên apokritikên
te kai apôstikên tôn allotriôn dynamin, houtô de kapi tôn hysterôn te
kai tês kysteôs tês to ouron hypodechomenês; enargôs gar oun kai
hautê phainetai mechri tosoutou to hygron hypodechomenê te kai
athroizousa, achris an êtoi pros tou plêthous autou diateinomenê
mêketi pherê tên anian ê pros tês poiotêtos daknomenê; chronizon
gar hekaston tôn perittômatôn en tô sômati sêpetai dêlonoti, to men
elattoni, to de pleioni chronô, kai houtô daknôdes te kai drimy kai
aniaron tois periechousi gignetai. ou mên epi ge tês epi tô hêpati
kysteôs homoiôs echei; hô dêlon, hoti neurôn hêkista metechei. chrê
de kantautha ton ge physikon andra to analogon exeuriskein. ei gar
helkein te ton oikeion apedeichthê chymon, hôs phainesthai pollakis
mestên, apokri||186nein te ton auton touton ouk eis makran,
anankaion estin autên ê dia to plêthos barynomenên ê tês poiotêtos
metaballousês epi to daknôdes te kai drimy tês apokriseôs
ephiesthai. ou gar dê ta men sitia tên archaian hypallattei poiotêta
tacheôs houtôs, hôst', epeidan empesê tois leptois enterois, euthys
einai kopron, hê cholê d' ou poly mallon ê to ouron, epeidan hapax
ekpesê tôn phlebôn, exallattei tên poiotêta, tachista metaballonta kai
sêpomena. kai mên eiper epi te tôn kata tas hysteras kai tên koilian
kai ta entera kai proseti tên to ouron hypodechomenên kystin
enargôs phainetai diatasis tis ê dêxis ê achthos epegeiron hekaston
tôn organôn eis apokrisin, ouden chalepon kapi tês cholêdochou
kysteôs tauto tout' ennoein epi te tôn allôn hapantôn organôn, ex
hôn dêlonoti kai hai artêriai kai hai phlebes eisin.

XIII
Ou mên oude to dia tou autou porou tên th' holkên gignesthai kai
tên apokrisin en diapherousi || 187 chronois ouden eti chalepon
exeurein, ei ge kai tês gastros ho stomachos ou monon edesmata
kai pomata paragôn eis autên, alla kan tais nautiais tên enantian
hypêresian hypêretôn enargôs phainetai, kai tês epi tô hêpati
kysteôs ho auchên heis ôn hama men plêroi di' hautou tên kystin,
hama d' ekkenoi, kai tôn mêtrôn ho stomachos hôsautôs hodos estin
eisô men tou spermatos, exô de tou kyêmatos.
Alla kantautha palin hê men ekkritikê dynamis enargês, ou mên
homoiôs g' autê saphês tois pollois hê helktikê; all' Hippokratês men
arrhôstou mêtras aitiômenos auchena phêsi; “Ou gar dynatai auteês
ho stomachos eirysai tên gonên.”
Erasistratos de kai Asklêpiadês eis tosouton hêkousi sophias, hôst'
ou monon tên koilian kai tas mêtras aposterousi tês toiautês
dynameôs alla kai tên epi tô hêpati kystin hama tois nephrois. kaitoi
g' hoti mêd' eipein dynaton heteron aition ê ourôn ê cholês
diakriseôs, en tô prôtô dedeiktai logô.
Kai mêtran oun kai gastera kai tên epi tô hêpati kystin di' henos kai
tautou sto||188machou tên th' holkên kai tên apokrisin heuriskontes
poioumenas mêketi thaumazômen, ei kai dia tôn phlebôn hê physis
ekkrinei pollakis eis tên gastera perittômata. toutou d' eti mallon ou
chrê thaumazein, ei, di' hôn eis hêpar anedothê phlebôn ek gastros,
authis eis autên ex hêpatos en tais makroterais asitiais helkesthai tis
dynatai trophê. to gar tois toioutois apistein homoion esti dêpou tô
mêketi pisteuein mêd' hoti ta kathaironta pharmaka dia tôn autôn
stomatôn ex holou tou sômatos eis tên gastera tous oikeious
epispatai chymous, di' hôn emprosthen hê anadosis egeneto, all'
hetera men zêtein anadoseôs, hetera de katharseôs stomata. kai
mên eiper hen kai tauto stoma dittais hypêretei dynamesin, en
diaphorois chronois eis tanantia tên holkên poioumenais,
emprosthen men tê kata to hêpar, en de tô tês katharseôs kairô tê
tou pharmakou, ti thaumaston esti dittên hypêresian te kai chreian
einai tais phlepsi tais en tô mesô tetagmenais hêpatos te kai tôn
kata tên koilian, hôsth', hopote men en toutois aphthonos eiê
periechomenê trophê, dia tôn eirêmenôn eis || 189 hêpar
anapheresthai phlebôn, hopote d' eiê kena kai deomena trephesthai,
dia tôn autôn authis ex hêpatos helkesthai?
Pan gar ek pantos helkein phainetai kai panti metadidonai kai mia tis
einai syrrhoia kai sympnoia pantôn, kathaper kai touth' ho theiotatos
Hippokratês eipen. helkei men oun to ischyroteron, ekkenoutai de to
asthenesteron.
Ischyroteron de kai asthenesteron heteron heterou morion ê haplôs
kai physei kai koinê pasin estin ê idiôs tôde tini gignetai. physei men
kai koinê pasin anthrôpois th' hama kai zôois hê men kardia tou
hêpatos, to d' hêpar tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros, hai d' artêriai tôn
phlebôn helkysai te to chrêsimon heautais apokrinai te to mê
toiouton ischyroterai. kath' hekaston d' hêmôn idiôs en men tôde tô
kairô to hêpar ischyroteron helkein, hê gastêr d' en tôde. pollês men
gar en tê koilia periechomenês trophês kai sphodrôs oregomenou te
kai chrêzontos tou hêpatos, pantôs ischyroteron helkei to
splanchnon; empalin de tou men hêpatos empeplêsmenou te kai
dia||190tetamenou, tês gastros d' oregomenês kai kenês
hyparchousês hê tês holkês ischys eis ekeinên methistatai.
Hôs gar, ei kan tais chersi tina sitia katechontes allêlôn harpazoimen,
ei men homoiôs eiêmen deomenoi, perigignesthai ton ischyroteron
eikos, ei d' houtos men empeplêsmenos eiê kai dia tout' amelôs
katechôn ta peritta ê kai tini metadounai pothôn, ho d'
asthenesteros oregoito deinôs, ouden an eiê kôlyma tou mê panta
labein auton, houtô kai hê gastêr ek tou hêpatos epispatai rhadiôs,
hotan autê men hikanôs oregêtai trophês, empeplêsmenon d' ê to
splanchnon. kai tou ge mê peinên eniote to zôon hê periousia tês en
hêpati trophês aitia; kreittona gar echousa kai hetoimoteran hê
gastêr trophên ouden deitai tês exôthen; ei de ge pote deoito men,
aporoiê de, plêroutai perittômatôn. ichôres de tines eisi tauta
cholôdeis te kai phlegmatôdeis kai orrhôdeis, hous monous helkousê
methiêsin autê to hêpar, hotan pote kai autê deêtai trophês.

Hôsper oun ex allêlôn helkei ta moria || 191 trophên, houtô kai

apotithetai pot' eis allêla to peritton kai hôsper helkontôn
epleonektei to ischyroteron, houtô kai apotithemenôn kai tôn ge
kaloumenôn rheumatôn hêde hê prophasis. hekaston gar tôn moriôn
echei tina tonon symphyton, hô diôtheitai to peritton. hotan oun hen
ex autôn arrhôstoteron genêtai kata dê tina diathesin, ex hapantôn
eis ekeino syrrhein anankê ta perittômata. to men gar ischyrotaton
enapotithetai tois plêsion hapasin, ekeinôn d' au palin hekaston eis
heter' atta tôn asthenesterôn, eit' authis ekeinôn hekaston eis alla
kai tout' epi pleiston gignetai, mechri per an ex hapantôn
elaunomenon to perittôma kath' hen ti meinê tôn asthenestatôn;
enteuthen gar ouket' eis allo dynatai metarrhein, hôs an mête
dechomenou tinos auto tôn ischyroterôn mêt' apôsasthai dynamenou
tou peponthotos.
Alla peri men tôn pathôn tês geneseôs kai tês iaseôs authis hêmôn
epideiknyntôn hikana kax ekeinôn estai labein martyria tôn en tôde
tô logô panti || 192 dedeigmenôn orthôs. ho d' en tô paronti deixai
proukeito, palin analabômen, hôs ouden thaumaston ex hêpatos
hêkein tina trophên enterois te kai gastri dia tôn autôn phlebôn, di'
hôn emprosthen ex ekeinôn eis hêpar anedidoto. kai pollois athroôs
te kai teleôs apostasin ischyrôn gymnasiôn ê ti kôlon apokopeisin
haimatos dia tôn enterôn gignetai kenôsis ek tinôn periodôn, hôs
pou kai Hippokratês elegen, ouden men allo lypousa, kathairousa d'
oxeôs to pan sôma kai tas plêsmonas ekkenousa, dia tôn autôn
dêpou phlebôn tês phoras tôn perittôn epiteloumenês, di' hôn
emprosthen hê anadosis egigneto.
Pollakis d' en nosois hê physis dia men tôn autôn dêpou phlebôn to
pan ekkathairei zôon, ou mên haimatôdês g' hê kenôsis autois, alla
kata ton lypounta gignetai chymon. houtô de kan tais cholerais
ekkenoutai to pan sôma dia tôn eis entera te kai gastera
kathêkousôn phlebôn.
To d' oiesthai mian einai tais hylais phoran teleôs agnoountos esti tas
physikas || 193 dynameis tas t' allas kai tên ekkritikên enantian
ousan tê helktiktê; tais gar enantiais dynamesin enantias kinêseis te
kai phoras tôn hylôn anankaion akolouthein. hekaston gar tôn
moriôn, hotan helkysê ton oikeion chymon, epeita kataschê kai
apolausê, to peritton hapan apothesthai speudei, kathoti malista
dynatai tachista th' hama kai kallista, kata tên tou perittou rhopên.
Hothen hê gastêr ta men epipolazonta tôn perittômatôn emetois
ekkathairei, ta d' hyphistamena diarrhoiais. kai to ge nautiôdes
gignesthai to zôon tout' estin hormêsai tên gastera kenôthênai di'
emetou. houtô de dê ti biaion kai sphodron hê ekkritikê dynamis
echei, hôst' en tois eileois, hotan apokleisthê teleôs hê katô
diexodos, emeitai kopros. kaitoi prin dielthein to te lepton enteron
hapan kai tên nêstin kai ton pylôron kai tên gastera kai ton
oisophagon ouch hoion te dia tou stomatos ekpesein oudeni toioutô
perittômati. ti dê thaumaston, ei kak tês eschatês epiphaneias tês
kata to derma mechri tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros aphiknoito ti ||
194 metalambanomenon, hôs kai touth' Hippokratês hêmas
edidaxen, ou pneuma monon ê perittôma phaskôn alla kai tên
trophên autên ek tês eschatês epiphaneias authis epi tên archên,
hothen anênechthê, katapheresthai. elachistai gar rhopai kinêseôn
tên ekkritikên tautên oiakizousi dynamin, hôs an dia tôn enkarsiôn
men inôn gignomenên, ôkytata de diadidomenên apo tês kinêsasês
archês epi ta katantikry perata. oukoun apeikos oud' adynaton aêthei
pote psyxei to pros tô dermati morion exaiphnês pilêthen hama men
arrhôstoteron auto genomenon, hama d' hoion achthos ti mallon ê
paraskeuên threpseôs echon tên emprosthen alypôs autô
paresparmenên hygrotêta kai dia tout' apôtheisthai speudon, hama
de tês exô phoras apokekleismenês tê pyknôsei, pros tên loipên
epistraphênai kai houtô biasamenon eis to parakeimenon autô
morion athroôs apôsasthai to peritton, ekeino d' au palin eis to met'
auto, || 195 kai touto mê pausasthai gignomenon, achris an hê
metalêpsis epi ta entos perata tôn phlebôn teleutêsê.
Hai men dê toiautai kinêseis thatton apopauontai, hai d' apo tôn
endothen dierethizontôn, hôs en te tois kathairousi pharmakois kai
tais cholerais ischyroterai te poly kai monimôterai gignontai kai
diamenousin, est' an kai hê peri tois stomasi tôn angeiôn diathesis,
hê to plêsion helkousa, paramenê. hautê men gar to syneches
ekkenoi morion, ekeino d' au to met' auto kai tout' ou pauetai mechri
tês eschatês epiphaneias, hôste diadidontôn tôn ephexês aei moriôn
heterôn heterois to prôton pathos ôkytata diikneisthai mechri tôn
eschatôn. houtôs oun echei kapi tôn eileôn. auto men gar to
phlegmainon enteron oute tou barous oute tês drimytêtos anechetai
tôn perittômatôn kai dia tout' ekkrinein auta speudei kai apôtheisthai
porrhôtatô. kôlyomenon de katô poieisthai tên diôsin, hotan
entauthoi pote to sphodrotaton ê tês phlegmonês, eis ta plêsiazonta
tôn hyperkeimenôn enterôn apôtheitai. kai houtôs êdê kata || 196 to
syneches tên rhopên tês ekkritikês dynameôs anô poiêsamenês achri
tou stomatos epanerchetai ta perittômata.
Tauta men oun dê kan tois tôn nosêmatôn logismois epi pleon
eirêsetai. to d' ek pantos eis pan pheresthai ti kai metalambanesthai
kai mian hapantôn einai sympnoian te kai syrrhoian, hôs Hippokratês
elegen, êdê moi dokô dedeichthai saphôs kai mêket' an tina, mêd' ei
bradys autô nous eneiê, peri tôn toioutôn aporêsai mêdenos, hoion
hopôs hê gastêr ê ta entera trephetai kai tina tropon ek tês eschatês
epiphaneias eisô ti diikneitai. pantôn gar tôn moriôn helkein men to
prosêkon te kai philion, apokrinein de to barynon ê daknon echontôn
dynamin ouden thaumaston enantias synechôs gignesthai kinêseis
en autois, hôsper epi te tês kardias horatai saphôs kai tôn artêriôn
hapasôn kai tou thôrakos kai tou pneumonos. epi men ge toutôn
hapantôn monon ou kath' hekastên kairou rhopên tas enantias
kinêseis th' hama tôn organôn kai phoras tôn hylôn || 197 enargôs
estin idein gignomenas. eit' epi men tês tracheias artêrias ouk
aporeis enallax pote men eisô paragousês eis ton pneumona to
pneuma, pote d' exô, kai tôn kata tas rhinas porôn kai holou tou
stomatos hôsautôs oud' einai soi dokei thaumaston oude paradoxon,
ei, di' hou mikrô prosthen eisô parekomizeto to pneuma, dia toutou
nyn ekpempetai, peri de tôn ex hêpatos eis entera te kai gastera
kathêkousôn phlebôn aporeis kai soi thaumaston einai phainetai, dia
tôn autôn anadidosthai th' hama tên trophên eis hêpar helkesthai t'
ex ekeinou palin eis gastera? diorisai dê to hama touto poterôs
legeis. ei men gar kata ton auton chronon, oud' hêmeis touto ge
phamen. hôsper gar eispneomen en heterô chronô kai authis palin
en heterô antekpneomen, houtô kai trophên en heterô men chronô
to hêpar ek tês gastros, en heterô d' hê gastêr ek tou hêpatos
epispatai. ei d' hoti kath' hen kai tauto zôon hen organon enantiais
phorais hylôn hypêretei, touto soi bouletai dêloun to hama kai touto
se tarattei, tên t' || 198 eispnoên ide kai tên ekpnoên. pantôs pou kai
hautai dia men tôn autôn organôn gignontai, tropô de kinêseôs te
kai phoras tôn hylôn diapherousin.
Ho pneumôn men oun kai ho thôrax kai artêriai hai tracheiai kai hai
leiai kai kardia kai stoma kai rhines en elachistais chronou rhopais
eis enantias kinêseis auta te metaballei kai tas hylas methistêsin. hai
d' ex hêpatos eis entera kai gastera kathêkousai phlebes ouk en
houtô brachesi chronou moriois all' en pollais hêmerais hapax eniote
tên enantian kinountai kinêsin.
Echei gar hôde to sympan. hekaston tôn organôn eis heauto tên
plêsiazousan epispatai trophên ekboskomenon autês hapasan tên
chrêstên notida, mechris an hikanôs koresthê, kai tautên, hôs kai
prosthen edeiknymen, enapotithetai heautô kai meta tauta prosphyei
te kai homoioi, toutesti trephetai. diôristai gar hikanôs emprosthen
heteron ti tês threpseôs ex anankês autês proêgoumenon hê
prosphysis hyparchein, ekeinês d' eti proteron hê prosthesis. hôsper
oun || 199 tois zôois autois horos esti tês edôdês to plêrôsai tên
gastera, kata ton auton tropon hekastô tôn moriôn horos esti tês
prostheseôs hê plêrôsis tês oikeias hygrotêtos. epei toinyn hapan
morion tê gastri homoiôs oregetai trephesthai, kai periptyssetai tê
trophê kai houtô sphingei pantachothen autên hôs hê gastêr. hepetai
d' ex anankês toutô, kathaper kai prosthen errhethê, to pettesthai
tois sitiois, tês gastros ou dia touto peristellomenês autois, hin'
epitêdeia tois allois ergasêtai moriois; houtô gar an ouketi physikon
organon alla zôon ti gignoito logismon te kai noun echon, hôs
haireisthai to beltion.
All' hautê men peristelletai tô to pan sôma dynamin helktikên tina
kai apolaustikên kektêsthai tôn oikeiôn poiotêtôn, hôs emprosthen
edeiknyto; symbainei d' en toutô tois sitiois alloiousthai. kai mentoi
kai plêrôtheisa tês ex autôn hygrotêtos kai korestheisa baros
hêgeitai to loipon auta. to peritton oun euthys apotribetai te kai
ôthei katô pros || 200 heteron ergon autê trepomenê, tên
prosphysin. en de toutô tô chronô dierchomenê to enteron hapan hê
trophê dia tôn eis auto kathêkontôn angeiôn anarpazetai, pleistê
men eis tas phlebas, oligê de tis eis tas artêrias, hôs mikron
hysteron apodeixomen. en toutô d' au tô chronô kai tois tôn enterôn
chitôsi prostithetai.
Kai moi temôn êdê tô logismô tên tês trophês oikonomian hapasan
eis treis moiras chronôn, en men tê prôtê noei menousan th' hama
kata tên koilian autên kai pettomenên kai prostithemenên eis koron
tê gastri kai ti kai tô hêpati par' autês anapheromenon.
En de tê deutera, dierchomenên ta t' entera kai prostithemenên eis
koron autois te toutois kai tô hêpati kai ti brachy meros autês pantê
tou sômatos pheromenon; en de dê toutô tô kairô to prostethen en
tô prôtô chronô prosphyesthai noei tê gastri.
Kata de tên tritên moiran tou chronou trephesthai men êdê tên
koilian homoiôsasan heautê teleôs ta prosphynta, prosphysin de tois
enterois kai tô hêpati gignesthai tôn prostethentôn, ana||201dosin de
pantê tou sômatos kai prosthesin. ei men oun epi toutois eutheôs to
zôon lambanoi trophên, en hô palin hê gastêr chronô pettei te
tautên kai apolauei prostitheisa pan ex autês to chrêston tois
heautês chitôsi, ta men entera teleôs homoiôsei ton prosphynta
chymon, hôsautôs de kai to hêpar. en holô de tô sômati prosphysis
tôn prostethentôn tês trophês estai moriôn. ei d' asitos anankazoito
menein hê gastêr en toutô tô chronô, para tôn en mesenteriô te kai
hêpati phlebôn helxei tên trophên; ou gar ex autou ge tou sômatos
tou hêpatos. legô de sôma tou hêpatos autên te tên idian autou
sarka prôtên kai malista, meta de tênde kai tôn angeiôn hekaston
tôn kat' auto. ton men gar en hekastô tôn moriôn êdê
periechomenon chymon ouket' eulogon antispan heterô moriô kai
malisth' hotan êdê prosphysis ê exomoiôsis autou gignêtai. ton d' en
tais eurychôriais tôn phlebôn to mallon ischyon th' hama kai
deomenon antispa morion.

Houtôs oun kai hê gastêr en || 202 hô chronô deitai men autê

trophês, esthiei d' oudepô to zôon, en toutô tôn kata to hêpar
exarpazei phlebôn. epei de kai ton splêna dia tôn emprosthen
edeiknymen hoson en hêpati pachyteron helkonta katergazesthai te
kai metaballein epi to chrêstoteron, ouden oud' entautha
thaumaston helkesthai ti kak tou splênos eis hekaston tôn
koinônountôn autô kata tas phlebas organôn, hoion eis epiploon kai
mesenterion kai lepton enteron kai kôlon kai autên tên gastera; kata
de ton auton tropon exereugesthai men eis tên gastera to perittôma
kath' heteron chronon, auton d' authis ek tês gastros helkein ti tês
oikeias trophês en heterô kairô.
Katholou d' eipein, ho kai prosthen êdê lelektai, pan ek pantos
helkein te kai pempein enchôrei kata diapherontas chronous,
homoiotatou gignomenou tou symbainontos, hôs ei kai zôa noêsais
polla trophên aphthonon en koinô katakeimenên, eis hoson bouletai,
prospheromena. kath' hon gar êdê pepautai chronon hetera, kata
touton eikos esthiein hetera, kai mellein ge ta men || 203 pauesthai,
ta d' archesthai, kai tina men synesthionta, ta d' ana meros
esthionta kai nai ma Dia ge to heteron harpazein thaterou pollakis, ei
to men heteron epideoito, tô d' aphthonôs parakeoito. kai houtôs
ouden thaumaston out' ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti palin
hypostrephein oute dia tôn autôn angeiôn ex hêpatos te kai splênos
eis koilian anenechthênai ti, di' hôn ek tautês eis ekeina proteron
anênechthê.
Kata men gar tas artêrias hikanôs enarges to toiouton, hôsper kai
kata tên kardian te kai ton thôraka kai ton pneumona. toutôn gar
hapantôn diastellomenôn te kai systellomenôn enallax anankaion, ex
hôn heilkysthê ti proteron, eis tauth' hysteron ekpempesthai. kai
tautên ara tên anankên hê physis progignôskousa tois en tê kardia
stomasi tôn angeiôn hymenas epephyse kôlysontas eis toupisô
pheresthai tas hylas. all' hopôs men touto gignetai kai kath' hontina
tropon, en tois peri chreias moriôn eirêsetai deiknyntôn hêmôn ta t'
alla kai hôs adynaton houtôs akribôs kleiesthai ta stomata tôn
angeiôn, hôs ||204 mêden palindromein. eis men gar tên artêrian tên
phlebôdê, kai gar kai tout' en ekeinois deichthêsetai, poly pleon ê dia
tôn allôn stomatôn eis toupisô palin anankaion epanerchesthai. to d'
eis ta paronta chrêsimon, hôs ouk endechetai ti tôn aisthêtên kai
megalên echontôn eurytêta mê ouk êtoi diastellomenon helkein ex
hapantôn tôn plêsion ê ekthlibein authis eis tauta systellomenon ek
te tôn êdê proeirêmenôn en tôde tô logô saphes an eiê kax hôn
Erasistratos te kai hêmeis heterôthi peri tês pros to kenoumenon
akolouthias edeixamen.

XIV
Alla mên kai hôs en hekastê tôn artêriôn esti tis dynamis ek tês
kardias epirrheousa, kath' hên diastellontai te kai systellontai,
dedeiktai di' heterôn.
Eiper oun syntheiês amphô to te tautên einai tên kinêsin autais to te
pan to diastellomenon helkein ek tôn plêsion eis heauto, thaumaston
ouden soi phaneitai tas artêrias, hosai men eis to derma perainousin
autôn, epispasthai ton exôthen aera diastellomenas, hosai de kata ti
pros tas || 205 phlebas anestomôntai, to leptotaton en autais kai
atmôdestaton epispasthai tou haimatos, hosai d' engys tês kardias
eisin, ex autês ekeinês poieisthai tên holkên. en gar tê pros to
kenoumenon akolouthia to kouphotaton te kai leptotaton hepetai
prôton tou baryterou te kai pachyterou; kouphotaton d' esti kai
leptotaton hapantôn tôn kata to sôma prôton men to pneuma,
deuteron d' ho atmos, epi toutô de triton, hoson an akribôs ê
kateirgasmenon te kai leleptysmenon haima.
Taut' oun eis heautas helkousin hai artêriai pantachothen, hai men
eis to derma kathêkousai ton exôthen aera; plêsion te gar autais
houtos esti kai kouphotatos en tois malista; tôn d' allôn hê men epi
ton trachêlon ek tês kardias aniousa kai hê kata rhachin, êdê de kai
hosai toutôn engys ex autês malista tês kardias; hosai de kai tês
kardias porrhôterô kai tou dermatos, helkein tautais anankaion ek
tôn phlebôn to kouphotaton tou haimatos; hôste kai tôn eis tên
gastera te kai ta entera kathêkousôn artêriôn tên holkên en tô
diastellesthai gignesthai para te tês || 206 kardias autês kai tôn
parakeimenôn autê phlebôn pampollôn ousôn. ou gar dê ek ge tôn
enterôn kai tês koilias trophên houtô pacheian te kai bareian en
heautois echontôn dynantai ti metalambanein, ho ti kai axion logou,
phthanousai plêrousthai tois kouphoterois. oude gar ei katheis
auliskon eis angeion hydatos te kai psammou plêres epispasaio tô
stomati ton ek tou auliskou aera, dynait' an akolouthêsai soi pro tou
hydatos hê psammos; aei gar en tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia
to kouphoteron hepetai proteron.

XV
Oukoun chrê thaumazein, ei pantelôs oligon ek tês koilias, hoson an
akribôs ê kateirgasmenon, eis tas artêrias paragignetai phthanousas
plêrousthai tôn kouphoterôn, all' ekeino gignôskein, hôs dy' eston
holkês eidê, to men tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia, to d'
oikeiotêti poiotêtos gignomenon; heterôs men gar eis tas physas ho
aêr, heterôs d' ho sidêros hypo tês hêrakleias epispatai lithou; kai
hôs hê men pros to kenoumenon akolouthia || 207 to kouphoteron
helkei proteron, hê de kata tên tês poiotêtos oikeiotêta pollakis, ei
houtôs etyche, to baryteron, an tê physei syngenesteron hyparchê.
kai toinyn kai tais artêriais te kai tê kardia, hôs men koilois te kai
diastellesthai dynamenois organois, aei to kouphoteron akolouthei
proteron, hôs de trephesthai deomenois, eis autous tous chitônas,
hoi dê ta sômata tôn organôn eisin, helketai to oikeion. hoson an
oun eis tên koilotêta diastellomenôn autôn haimatos metalêphthê,
toutou to oikeiotaton te kai malista trephein dynamenon hoi chitônes
autoi tôn angeiôn epispôntai.
Tou d' ek tôn phlebôn eis tas artêrias metalambanesthai ti pros tois
eirêmenois hikanon kai touto ge tekmêrion. ei pollas kai megalas
artêrias diatemôn apokteinai to zôon boulêtheiês, heurêseis autou
tas phlebas homoiôs tais artêrias ekkenoumenas, ouk an toutou pote
genomenou chôris tôn pros allêlas autais anastomôseôn. hôsautôs
de kai kat' autên tên kardian ek tês dexias koilias eis tên aristeran
helketai to lepto||208taton echontos tina trêmata tou mesou
diaphragmatos autôn, ha mechri men pleistou dynaton estin idein,
hoion bothynous tinas ex euryterou stomatos aei kai mallon eis
stenoteron proïontas. ou mên auta ge ta eschata perata dynaton eti
theasasthai dia te smikrotêta kai hoti tethneôtos êdê tou zôou
katepsyktai te kai pepyknôtai panta. all' ho logos kantautha prôton
men ek tou mêden hypo tês physeôs gignesthai matên hormômenos
exeuriskei tas anastomôseis tautas tôn koiliôn tês kardias; ou gar dê
eikê ge kai hôs etychen hoi es stenon houtô teleutôntes egenonto
bothynoi.
Deuteron de kak tou dyoin ontoin stomatoin en tê dexia tês kardias
koilia tou men eisagontos to haima, tou d' exagontos poly meizon
einai to eisagon. hôs gar ou pantos tou haimatos, hoson hê koilê
phleps didôsi tê kardia, palin ex ekeinês ekpempomenou tô
pneumoni, meizôn estin hê apo tês koilês eis autên emphysis tês
emphyomenês eis ton pneumona phlebos. oude || 209 gar tout' estin
eipein, hôs edapanêthê ti tou haimatos eis tên autou tou sômatos
tês kardias threpsin. hetera gar esti phleps hê eis ekeino
kataschizomenê mête tên genesin ek tês kardias autês mête tên tou
haimatos echousa metalêpsin. ei de kai dapanatai ti, all' ou tosouton
ge meiôn estin hê eis ton pneumona phleps agousa tês eis tên
kardian emphyomenês, hoson eikos eis tên trophên anêlôsthai tês
kardias, alla pleon pollô. dêlon oun, hôs eis tên aristeran ti
metalambanetai koilian.
Kai gar oun kai tôn kat' ekeinên angeiôn dyoin ontôn elatton esti
pollô to ek tou pneumonos eis autên eisagon to pneuma tês
ekphyomenês artêrias tês megalês, aph' hês hai kata to sôma
sympasai pephykasin, hôs an mê monon ek tou pneumonos pneuma
metalambanousês autês, alla kak tês dexias koilias haima dia tôn
eirêmenôn anastomôseôn.
Hoti d' ameinon ên tois tou sômatos moriois tois men hypo katharou
kai leptou kai atmôdous haimatos trephesthai, tois d' hypo pacheos
kai tholerou kai hôs oud' entautha ti pareôratai tê physei, tês || 210
peri chreias moriôn pragmateias estin, hôst' ou chrê nyn hyper
toutôn eti legein, all' hypomnêsantas, hôs dyo eston holkês eidê, tôn
men eureiais hodois en tô diastellesthai tê pros to kenoumenon
akolouthia tên helxin poioumenôn, tôn d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos,
ephexês legein, hôs ta men protera kai porrhôthen helkein ti dynatai,
ta de deutera ek tôn engytatô monôn. auliskon men gar hoti
mêkiston eis hydôr enesti kathenta rhadiôs anaspan eis to stoma di'
autou to hygron; ou mên ei g' epi pleon apagagois tês hêrakleias
lithou ton sidêron ê tous pyrous tou keramiou—kai gar kai toiouton ti
prosthen elegeto paradeigma—dynait' an eti genesthai tis holkê.
Saphestata d' an auto mathois epi tôn en tois kêpois ochetôn; ek
toutôn gar eis men ta parakeimena kai plêsion hapanta diadidotai tis
ikmas, eis de ta porrhôterô proselthein ouketi dynatai, kai dia tout'
anankazontai pollois ochetois mikrois apo tou megalou tetmêmenois
eis hekaston meros tou kêpou tên epirrhysin tou hydatos
epitechnasthai; kai têlikauta ge ta || 211 metaxy diastêmata toutôn
tôn mikrôn ochetôn poiousin, hêlika malista nomizousin arkein eis to
hikanôs apolauein helkonta tês hekaterôthen autois epirrheousês
hygrotêtos. houtôs oun echei kan tois tôn zôôn sômasin. ochetoi
polloi kata panta ta melê diesparmenoi paragousin autois haima
kathaper en kêpois hydreian tina. kai toutôn tôn ochetôn ta metaxy
diastêmata thaumastôs hypo tês physeôs euthys ex archês
diatetaktai pros to mêt' endeôs chorêgeisthai tois metaxy moriois
helkousin eis heauta to haima mête kataklyzesthai pot' auta plêthei
perittês hygrotêtos akairôs epirrheousês.
Ho gar dê tropos tês threpseôs autôn toiosde tis esti. tou synechous
heautô sômatos, hoionper to haploun angeion Erasistratos
hypotithetai, ta men epipolês merê prôta tês homilousês apolauei
trophês; ek de toutôn au metalambanei kata to syneches helkonta ta
toutôn hexês, eit' ex ekeinôn authis hetera kai tout' ou pauetai
gignomenon, achris an eis hapant' autou diadothê ta moria tês
trephousês ousias hê poiotês. hosa de tôn moriôn epi pleon || 212
alloioumenou deitai tou mellontos auta threpsein chymou, toutois
hôsper ti tamieion hê physis pareskeuasen êtoi koilias ê sêrangas ê ti
tais sêranxin analogon. hai men gar sarkes hai te tôn splanchnôn
hapantôn hai te tôn myôn ex haimatos autou trephontai bracheian
alloiôsin dexamenou. ta d' osta pampollês en tô metaxy deitai tês
metabolês, hina traphê, kai estin hoionper to haima tais sarxi,
toioutos ho myelos tois ostois en men tois mikrois te kai akoiliois
kata tas sêrangas autôn diesparmenos, en de tois meizosi te kai
koilias echousin en ekeinais êthroismenos.
Hôs gar kai dia tou prôtou grammatos edeiknyto, tois men homoian
echousi tên ousian eis allêla metaballein enchôrei, tois de pampoly
diestôsin amêchanon allêlois homoiôthênai chôris tôn en mesô
metabolôn. toiouton ti kai tois chondrois esti to perikechymenon
myxôdes kai tois syndesmois kai tois hymesi kai tois neurois to
paresparmenon en autois hygron glischron; hekaston gar || 213
toutôn ex inôn synkeitai pollôn, haiper homoiomereis t' eisi kai ontôs
aisthêta stoicheia. kata de tas metaxy chôras autôn ho oikeiotatos
eis threpsin parespartai chymos, hon heilkysan men ek tôn phlebôn
tou haimatos, hoson hoion t' ên eklexamenai ton epitêdeiotaton,
exomoiousi de kata brachy kai metaballousin eis tên heautôn ousian.
Hapant' oun tauta kai allêlois homologei kai tois emprosthen
apodedeigmenois hikanôs martyrei kai ou chrê mêkynein eti ton
logon; ek gar tôn eirêmenôn enestin hekastô ta kata meros hapanta
kath' hontina gignetai tropon exeuriskein hetoimôs, hôsper kai dia ti
pollois kôthônizomenois pampoly tachista men anadidotai to pothen,
oureitai d' oligou dein hapan entos ou pollou chronou. kai gar
kantautha tê te tês poiotêtos oikeiotêti kai tê tês hygrotêtos leptotêti
kai tê tôn angeiôn te kai tôn kat' auta stomatôn eurytêti kai tê tês
helktikês dynameôs eurôstia to tachos synteleitai tês anadoseôs, tôn
men plêsion tês koilias tetagmenôn moriôn oikeiotêti poiotêtos || 214
heautôn heneka helkontôn to poma, tôn d' hexês toutois
exarpazontôn kai autôn eis heauta kapeita tôn ephexês palin ek
toutôn metalambanontôn, achris an eis tên koilên aphikêtai phleba,
tounteuthen d' êdê tôn nephrôn to oikeion epispômenôn. hôst'
ouden thaumaston oinon men hydatos analambanesthai thatton
oikeiotêti poiotêtos, auton de ton oinon ton men leukon kai katharon
hetoimôs anadidosthai dia leptotêta, ton d' au melana kai tholeron
ischesthai te kata tên hodon kai bradynein hypo pachous.
Eiê d' an tauta kai tôn hyper tôn artêriôn emprosthen eirêmenôn ou
smikra martyria. pantachou gar hoson oikeion te kai lepton haima
tou mê toioutou rhaon hepetai tois helkousin. atmon oun helkousai
kai pneuma kai lepton haima kata tas diastaseis hai artêriai tôn kata
tên koilian kai ta entera periechomenôn chymôn ê oud' holôs ê
pantapasin epispôntai brachy.
 INDEX AND GLOSSARY

(The numbers refer to the pages of the present edition; fuller

references will be found in the footnotes.)

Abortifacient drugs, 285

Abortion, 231, 285
Absorption from digestive tract (v. Anadosis)
Acidity of urine, 245, 287
Activity (function), 13
Adhesion (prosphysis) of nutriment to tissues, 39
Affinity, 33
Alimentary canal, 119, 309
coats of, 23, 263
Allopathic treatment, 199
Alteration (qualitative change), 7, 9, 241, 251
Anadosis (absorption from digestive tract), 63, 119
Anæmia, 173
Anasarca (dropsy), 41
Anastomoses (communications between arteries and veins), 321
Anaxagoras, “preformationist” doctrine of, 7
Ancient writers, value of, 279
Animal life, 3
Animals (v. also History, Natural)
cold-blooded, 181
long-necked, 275
Anorexia (want of appetite), 247
Aorta (main artery of body), 143, 323
Appetite, 249
Aristotle, 9, et passim (v. also Peripatetic School)
Arrows, drugs for extracting heads of, 83
“Art” of Nature (i.e. of the living organism), 57
Arteries, structure of, 283
to-and-fro motion in, 313
attraction of air by, through skin, 317
Artery, pulmonary, 121, 323
Artificer, 133
Asclepiades, 49, et passim
Asepsis (absence of corruption), 201
Assimilation, 33
Asthenia (weakness), 239
Atomist School in Medicine, 45
Atrabiliary (melancholic) humour, 209
Attraction (v. also Horror vacui)
physiological, 45
magnetic, 73
Auricle, left, of heart, 315
right, of heart, 321
Authority, value of, 279
Aversion, 249

Baking, 259
Beauty, 47
Bile, yellow, 63, 123, 177, 191, 289
“vitelline,” 209
black, 203 (v. also Melancholic humour)
Bile-passages, mechanical blocking of, 171
Biliousness, 193
Biology, repudiation of, by Atomist School, 45
Bladder, urinary, 51, 53, et passim
for bile (v. Gall-bladder)
Blood-production, 17, 169, 183, 191, 201
Boiling, 259
Boils, 253
Bone, structure of, 327
Bone-marrow, 327
Borborygmi (gurglings) in stomach, 237
Bread, constitution of, 11
Bubo (swollen lymphatic glands in groin), 185
Butchers (as the primitive anatomists), 51
Pg 336
Cadaver (corpse), experiment on, 265
Cartilage (gristle), 329
Catarrh (mucous discharge), 215
Cattle (as typifying “herd-morality”), 47
“Cell,” of animal tissues, 153
nutrition of, 327
Change, qualitative (v. Alteration)
Channels (v. Morphological hypothesis)
Cheese-making, 91
Childbirth, 231, 285
Children’s game, 27
Chill, 171, 203 (v. also Cold)
Cholagogues (drugs that draw off bile), 65
Cholera, 299
Chorion (membrane enclosing unborn child), 229
Chrysippus, 9
Chyle (emulsified contents of stomach), (v. Emulsification)
Cirrhosis (induration) of liver, 171
Coats (tunics), 23
Cold, action of, on skin, 301
Cold-in-the-head, 215 (v. also Chill)
Colon (large intestine), 313
Colour, 5
Conception, of semen, 233
Congius (measure), 111
Contractions (v. Peristalsis)
Cooking, 191
Corn, attractive power of, 87
Coryza (mucous discharge: now a “cold”), 215
Crisis, 75
Cyathus (measure), 65

Decay, 7
Deductive reasoning, 227
Deglutition (swallowing), 95, 261, 265, 273
Democritus, 153
Deposits (in tissues), 297
Desire (appetite), 249, 269
Destruction (act of perishing), 7
Diaphragm (midriff), 255
Diarrhœa, 247, 299
Diet, 35, 179, 255
Digestion, cause of, 243
impairment of, 185, 217, 237
Digestive tract, action on food, 251, et seq.
structure (v. Alimentary Canal)
Diocles, 51
Disease, definition of, 197
Diseases, the four primary, 185
Disjunctive argument, 167
Distribution (diadosis) of nutriment to tissues, 163
Dropsy, 41, 67, 171
Drugs, 65, 285, 293 (v. also Poisons)
Dyscrasia (abnormal blending of the four qualities), 189
Dysentery, 205
Dyspepsia (v. Indigestion)

Education, 279
Effect (product, work done), 13
Emaciation, 161
Emanations, 77
Embryo, 229
Emesis (v. Vomiting)
Empiricist physicians, 69, 193
Emulsification, 239
Epicurus, 71
Epigastric muscles, 237
Epispastic (attractive), 117
Erasistratus, 95
Erasistrateans, 105
Etna, 259
Eucrasia (proper blending of the four qualities), 189
Evaporation, 51, 87, 251
Experience (v. Empiricist physicians)
Expulsive faculty, 231

Faculty (potentiality), 13
Fæces (ordure from bowel), 255
Fermentation, 209
Fever as a cause of indigestion, 185
Fibres, 329
of blood, 215
circular and longitudinal, 263
oblique, 281
Filtration, 91
Fish, voraciousness of, 269
Flavour, 5
Fluxions, 297
Fœtus (unborn child), 233
death of, 287
Forced-feeding, 247
Forces, material, 127, 301
Function (activity), cause of, 197

Gall-bladder, 147, 245

absence of nerves in, 289
Gardens, irrigation of, 325
Pg 337 Genesis (development of embryo), 19
Germander (drug), 67
Gestation (carrying of embryo by mother), 229
Give-and-take between organs, 295
Gravity (explaining secretion of urine), 107
Greediness, 271
Growth, 27, 137
Gullet, 263
use of, by stomach, 271
function of its two coats, 273
Gurgling in stomach, 237
Habit of body, 69
Hæmorrhage, intestinal, 297
Hæmorrhoids (v. Piles)
Heartburn, 287
Heat, innate, 41, 141, 185
Hepatic veins (entering vena cava from liver), 147
Herophilus, 233
Hippocrates, 9, et passim
Histogenesis (tissue-production), 21
History, natural, 269
Homœomeries (similar parts), 169
Homœopathy, p. 199, Note 1
Honey, 179, 191
Horror vacui (“Nature’s abhorrence of a vacuum”), 99, 155
Humours, the four, origin of, 167, 183, 209
Hydragogues (drugs that draw water out of the system), 65

Ileus volvulus (obstruction of bowels), 299, 303

Illusions, sensory, 7
Indigestion, 185, 217, 237
Inductive reasoning, 227
Inflammation, 89, 233
Interaction of any two bodies, 251
Intestine, small, 255
Intestines, structure of, 283
movements of, 243
Ionia, 29
Iron, 71
Irrigation of gardens and tissues, 325

Jaundice, 179, 207

Jejunum (part of small intestine), 299
Kidneys, 49, 89

Labour (v. Childbirth)

Larynx (voice-box), involved in swallowing, 265
Leprosy, 41
Leucippus, 153
Lichen (a skin-disease), 253
Liver, proper tissue of, 311
transverse fissure of, 147
induration of, 171
give-and-take between it and stomach, 291
Lodestone, 71
Love, 47
Lumen (internal cavity of a vessel), 119
Lycus, 109

Magnetism, 71
Marrow of bones, 327
Mastication, 253
Material forces, 127
Medicine, taking of, 269 (v. also Drugs)
Melancholic (v. Atrabiliary)
Membranes, fœtal, 231, 285 (v. also Chorion)
Menander, 105
Menodotus, 81
Menstrual blood, 131, 171
Metabolism, diseases of, 41
Midwife, 235
Miscarriage, (v. Abortion)
Molecules (of Asclepiades), 63
Morphological hypothesis of bile-secretion, 125, 147
Motion, active and passive, 57
Mouth, lining of, 261
digestion in, 253
Mucus, 203, 215
Muscles, voluntary, 263

“Nature,” 1;
its “Art,” 57
Nature-lore (v. Physiology)
Nausea, 287
“Nerve,” 151, 273
Nutriment, 41
Nutrition, 31, 149

Obstetric chair, 235

Obstruction of bowels, 299, 303
Œsophagus (v. Gullet)
Omentum (an apron-like fold of fat, overlying the intestine), 143, 255, 313
Pg 338 Organism, unity of, 61
Organs, nutrition of, 307
Os uteri (mouth of womb), 229
Ovum, human, 135
Oxidation, 211
Oxygen (v. Pneuma)

Pain, 287
Parturition, 231
Pathology, relation to Physiology, 189, 287
Peasants, 87
Perch (v. Fish)
Peripatetic (Aristotelian) School, 139
Peristalsis (contraction and dilatation), 97, 243, 263
Peritoneum, 53
Phidias, 129
Philistion, 173
Philotimus, 183
Phlegm, 67, 201, 215
Phlegmatic temperament, 193
“Physiology,” 139
Piles, 171
Plant-life, 3
Plato, 173, 203, 215
Plethora (congestion), 119
Pneuma (as a vital principle), 153;
(as oxygen), 187
Poisons, action of, 251
Porch, the (Stoic School), 145
“Pores” (v. Channels)
Portal vein, 147
Potter’s earth, 213
Practitioner, 197
Praxagoras, 51
Praxiteles, 129
“Preformationist” doctrine of Anaxagoras, p. 7, Note 5
Presentation (prosthesis) of nutriment to tissues, 39
Prevention and Cure, 169
Principles, the four fundamental (v. Qualities)
Prodicus, 201
Prolapse of uterus, 235
Propulsive faculty, 231
Prosphysis (v. Adhesion)
Prosthesis (v. Presentation)
Psyche, 3, 153
Psychology, repudiation of, by Atomist School, 45
Pulmonary artery, 121
Pylorus (outlet of stomach), 239
regurgitation through, 289
Pyrrhonists (typical sceptics), 197

Qualities, the four fundamental, 9, 183, 259

derivative, 21

Relativity, 17
Renal veins, 107
Respiration, 175, 305
Retentive faculty, 225
Rhetoric, 97

Safflower (drug), 67
Saliva, action of, 253
Scammony (drug), 67
Schools, two contrasted, in Medicine, 45
Scientist, 197
Scorpions, 253
Sculpture, 129
Sectarianism, 55
Sects, medical (v. Schools)
Self-control, 47
Self-education, 279
Semen, 131, 233
Sensation, 47
Septum, perforated, between ventricles of heart, 321
Serum (watery part of blood or milk), 91, 213
Shaping (development of organs), 19
Sieves, 91
Skin-diseases, 253 (v. also Leprosy and Lichens)
Slaves, 103
Sociability, 47
Sophistry, 219, 279
Sophists, 7
Soul, 45
Specific selection of nutriment by tissues (v. Attraction, physiological)
Spermatic ducts, 57
Spirit (v. Pneuma)
Spleen, function and diseases of, 205
“uselessness” of, 143
as an emunctory of the liver, 277
Statues, 129
Sting-ray (fish), bite of, 85
Stoics, 15, 145
Pg 339 Stomach, function of, 197, 237, 251, 255
coats of, 261
independent habits of, 271
give-and-take between it and liver, 291
Stone in bladder, 51
Strength, relative, of different organs, 293
Substance, 9
Superfluities (waste-substances), 35, 291
Swallowing (v. Deglutition)
Symptoms, 13
Synapse, 147

Teeth, 253
Temperament (crasis, mixture of elementary principles), 15, 139, 193
Temperance, 47
Theophrastus, 139
Thorns, drugs for extracting, 83
Tissues, development of, 21
their action in producing humours, 179, 195
Trachea (windpipe), 305
Transference (passive motion), 7
Transpiration, 153
Treatment, principles of, 199
Tricuspid orifice of heart, 321
Tubes, rigid, 119, 317, 325

Unity of organism, 61
Ureters, 23, 51
Urine, 51
“Useless” organs (Erasistratus), 143
Uterus (womb), 227

Vacuum, tendency to refill (v. Horror vacui)

Valves of heart, 121, 315
Vaporisation (v. Evaporation)
Vegetable diet, 35, 179
Vegetative life, 3
Veins, structure of, 283
“arterial” (v. Pulmonary artery)
coronary, 323
hepatic, 147
mesenteric, 293, 305
portal, 147
renal, 107, 143
vena cava (chief vein of body), 91
collapse of, 119
Ventricles of heart, communication between, 321
Vipers, 85
Vitalist School in Medicine, 45
Vivisection, 59, 241, 273
Voluntary motion, 3
Volvulus (intestinal obstruction), 299, 303
Vomiting, 241, 247, 267
fæcal, 299

Waste-products (v. Superfluities)

Whey (v. Serum)
Wine, 209, 329
Womb (v. Uterus)
Wounds, 185
Wrestling, 125

Zeno, of Citium, 9
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