IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Function Basics

A function is a relationship between two changing quantities in which there is exactly one value
of the dependent variable (y) for each value of the independent variable (x). A function can be
given in the form of an equation, or it can be represented by a graph, or by ordered pairs of
numbers (x, y).

When a function is given in the form of an equation, it may be written using function notation.
So, for example, the function y = 3x + 1 could also be written as f ( x ) = 3x + 1. Function
notation is useful because it allows you to see both the independent variable and the dependent
variable at the same time. On IB exams function notation may also be written as f : x
3 x + 1 .

Example:
For the function f ( x ) = 3x + 1, find f ( 2 ) , f ( k ) , f ( x + 5 ) .
Solution:
f ( 2 ) = 3(2) + 1 = 7
f ( k ) = 3k + 1
f ( x + 5 ) = 3(x + 5) + 1 = 3x + 15 + 1 = 3x + 16

As seen in the example above, the input to a function can be a number, a variable, or an
expression. The input to a function is also called the argument.

The domain of a function is the set of all numbers that are possible input values (x). The range of
a function is the set of all numbers that are possible output values (y). Note that when we speak
of the domain and range of a function, it is understood that we are only considering real number
values.

Example:
State the domain and range of y = x − 3 .
Solution:
The square root of a negative number is not a real number, so in this function
x – 3 must be non-negative, that is, greater than or equal to zero. Therefore the
domain is x ≥ 3. Since the square root of a number is always non-negative, the
corresponding range is y ≥ 0.

Example:
State the domain and range of y = x2.

Solution:
Any number can be multiplied by itself, so the domain is all real numbers. Since a
squared number is always non-negative, the range is y ≥ 0.
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Example:
State the domain and range of the function shown in the graph below.
y
4

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Solution:
The domain contains all the numbers between the leftmost and rightmost points
on the graph, so the domain is –5 ≤ x ≤ 5. The range is all the numbers between
the highest and lowest points on the graph, so the range is –4 ≤ y ≤ 4.

For functions f and g, the composite function f  g is defined as f ( g ( x ) ) . Here g is called the
inside function and f is called the outside function. This means that the function g is substituted
into the function f. A composite function can be evaluated for a particular number or it can be
written in terms of x.

Example:
Let f ( x ) = 2x and g ( x ) = x + 1. Find ( f  g )( 2 ) and ( f  g )( x ) .
Solution:
( f  g )( 2 ) = f ( g (2)) = f (2 + 1) = f (3) = 2·3 = 6
( f  g )( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( x + 1) = 2(x + 1) = 2x + 2

Composition of functions is not commutative. This means that, in general, f  g ≠ g  f .

Example:
Find ( g  f )( x ) for the functions f and g from the previous example.
Solution:
( g  f )( x ) = g ( f ( x )) = g (2 x ) = 2x + 1

A function and its inverse function undo each other. For example, the functions f ( x ) = x + 3
and g ( x ) = x – 3 are inverses, since subtracting three and adding three undo each other.
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

The inverse of a function f ( x ) can be denoted by the symbol f −1 ( x ) , pronounced “f-inverse-

of-x.” It is important to understand that the superscript –1 in this symbol is not an exponent!
When used in the context of functions, the superscript –1 always means an inverse function.

The most important thing to remember about inverses of functions is that x and y switch. This
simple fact can be used to solve many types of problems involving inverse functions, as seen in
the following examples.

Example:
Find the equation of the inverse of f(x) = 2x – 6.
Solution:
When finding the inverse of an equation given in function notation, it is helpful to
change f ( x ) to y first. Then switch x and y and solving for y. Write your final
answer using function notation:
y = 2x – 6
x = 2y – 6
x+6
y=
2
x+6
f −1 ( x ) =
2

Example:
Find the inverse of f ( x ) = ln x .
Solution:
First change f ( x ) to y, then switch x and y and solve for y. Write your final
answer using function notation.
y = ln x
x = ln y
y = ex
2
( )
y = ex
y = e2x
f −1 ( x ) = e 2 x
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Example:
2x + 1
Let g ( x ) = . Find g −1 ( −9 ) .
x−5

Solution:
Since –9 is an x-value in g −1 , it has to be a y-value in g. So just set g ( x ) equal to
–9 and solve for x:
2x +1
= –9
x−5
2x + 1 = –9(x – 5)
2x + 1 = –9x + 45
11x = 44
x=4
g −1 ( − 9 ) = 4

Example:
The graph of a function is shown below. Draw the graph of the inverse function.
y

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

Solution:
Draw the graph of the inverse function by switching x and y for each point on the
original function graph. For example, since (4, 5) is a point on the original
function graph, (5, 4) is a point on the graph of the inverse function. The resulting
graph of the inverse function is shown below:
y

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

The graphs of a function and its inverse are reflections over the line y = x. This is illustrated in
the figure below, which shows the function and its inverse from the previous example along with
y = x drawn as a dashed line.
y

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 x
-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

When a function is composed with its inverse in either direction, the result is equal to x for all
( ) ( )
values in the domain, that is, f  f −1 ( x ) = f −1  f ( x ) = x. This should make sense if when
you remember that a function and its inverse undo each other!

Example:
Use composite functions to show that the functions f ( x ) = 5x + 3 and
x−3
g ( x) = are inverses.
5
Solution:

( f  g )( x ) = f ( g ( x ) ) = f 
x −3  x −3
 = 5  +3 = x −3+3 = x
 5   5 
5x + 3 − 3 5x
( g  f )( x ) = g ( f ( x ) ) = g ( 5 x + 3 ) = = =x
5 5
Since ( f  g )( x ) = ( g  f )( x ) = x, the functions f and g are inverses.

A self-inverse function is a function that is its own inverse. Although such functions are
1
relatively rare, there are a few examples you should know of, namely y = x, y = –x, and y = .
x
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Graphs of Functions

A function can be represented by a graph in the xy-coordinate plane. The vertical line test can be
used to determine whether or not a graph represents a function. If any vertical line intersects the
graph more than once, then the graph is not a function.

Examples:
y y

x
x

function not a function

The points where a function graph intersects the coordinate axes are called the axis intercepts.
Notice that a function graph can only have one y-intercept because the y-axis is a vertical line.
However a function graph can have multiple x-intercepts. Some function graphs do not cross the
x-axis at all, so they have no x-intercepts; others cross the x-axis once, twice, or more.

The x-intercept(s) of a function can be calculated by substituting y = 0 in the equation. The

y-intercept of a function can be calculated by substituting x = 0 in the equation. The coordinates
of the axis intercepts can also be found using a graphing calculator.

Example:
Find the coordinates of the x- and y-intercepts of the graph of 3x – 5y = 15.
Solution:
3(0) – 5y = 15
– 5y = 15
y = –3
3x – 5(0) = 15
3x = 15
x=5
The intercepts are (0, –3) and (5, 0).
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

A function graph can be transformed in several ways: translation, dilation, and reflection. The
resulting graph is a new function called the image. The starting function is called the pre-image.

A translation of a function graph shifts the graph up, down, left, or right without changing its
shape. Numerically, translations of functions involve addition. The table below explains the
translation formulas, which you need to memorize.

Formula Description

Vertical The number A is added to each y-value on the graph:

translation: • If A is positive, the whole graph shifts up A units.
f (x) + A • If A is negative, the whole graph shifts down A units.

Horizontal The number B is added to each x-value on the graph:

translation: • If B is positive, the whole graph shifts right B units.
f ( x − B) • If B is negative, the whole graph shifts left B units.

v 
Translations of function graphs can also be expressed using a vector of the form  1  . Here the
 v2 
top component describes the horizontal shift and the bottom component describes the vertical
shift.

A dilation of a function graph stretches or shrinks the graph. Numerically, dilations of functions
involve multiplication. The following table explains the dilation formulas, which you need to
memorize.

Formula Description

Vertical dilation: Each y-value on the graph is multiplied by the number C:

C f (x) • If C > 1, the whole graph stretches (gets taller).
• If 0 < C < 1, the whole graph shrinks (gets shorter).

Horizontal
dilation: Each x-value on the graph is multiplied by the number D:
1  • If D > 1, the whole graph stretches (gets wider).
f  x • If 0 < D < 1, the whole graph shrinks (gets narrower).
D 
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Function graphs can also be transformed by reflection over the coordinate axes. Numerically,
reflections are simply dilations by a factor of –1. The table below explains the reflection
formulas, which you need to memorize.

Formula Description

x-axis reflection: Each y-value on the graph is multiplied by –1. The whole
graph is reflected over the x-axis. This reflection is
− f ( x)
equivalent to a vertical dilation by a factor of –1..

y-axis reflection: Each x-value on the graph is multiplied by –1. The whole
f (−x)
graph is reflected over the y-axis. This reflection is
equivalent to a horizontal dilation by a factor of –1

When a function graph is being dilated and translated, follow the order of operations and apply
the dilation first, because multiplication happens before addition.

Example:
The point P(–2, 6) lies on the graph of a function f. The function g is a
transformation of f given by g ( x ) = 2 f ( x + 5 ) − 4 . Find the coordinates of the
image of the point P on the graph of g.
Solution:
The equation g ( x ) = 2 f ( x + 5 ) − 4 describes three transformations applied to f: a
vertical dilation by a factor of 2, a vertical translation four units down, and a
horizontal translation 5 units left. Start with P(–2, 6) and apply the dilation first,
then the translations:
Multiply y by 2: (–2, 12)
Add –4 to y: (–2, 8)
Add –5 to x: (–7, 8)
The image of P on the graph of g is (–7, 8).
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Quadratic Functions and Equations

A function in which the independent variable is raised to the second power is called a quadratic
function. The graph of a quadratic function is called a parabola. The highest or lowest point of a
parabola is called the vertex. A parabola is always symmetrical about the vertical line passing
through the vertex, which is called the axis of symmetry.

There are a several ways to write the equation of a quadratic function, and each form gives us
different information about the graph.

The equation f ( x ) = ax2 + bx + c is called standard form. When a quadratic equation is given in
b
standard form, it is easy to find the equation of the axis of symmetry using the formula x = − .
2a
It is also easy to see from this form of the equation that the y-intercept of the graph is at the point
(0, c).

The equation y = a(x – q)(x – p) is called factored form. When a quadratic equation is given in
factored form, it is easy to see that the x-intercepts of the graph are at the points (p, 0) and (q, 0).

The equation y = a(x – h)2 + k is called vertex form. When a quadratic equation is given in vertex
form it is easy to see the coordinates of the vertex, (h, k). To change a quadratic function from
standard form to vertex form, first find x-coordinate of the vertex using the axis of symmetry
formula. Then substitute this number back into the original equation to get the y-coordinate of
the vertex.

Note that the value of the number a is the same in all three forms. The sign of a determines the
concavity of the graph. If a is positive, the parabola is concave up; if a is negative, the parabola
is concave down. Since a is the coefficient of x2 in all three forms, a cannot equal zero or the
equation would no longer be a quadratic function.

Example:
Write the equation y = 3x2 – 5x + 7 in vertex form.
Solution:
−5 5
The x-coordinate of the vertex is x = − = .
2⋅3 6
2
5 5 59
The y-coordinate of the vertex is y = 3   − 5   + 7 = .
6 6 12
2
 5  59
The equation in vertex form is y = 3  x −  − .
 6  12
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

You can use information from each of the different forms to help you sketch the graph of a
quadratic function.

Example:
Find the coordinates of the x- and y-intercepts and the vertex of the graph of
y = 2x2 – 12x + 16. Then draw the graph of the function.
Solution:
The equation is given in standard form, so from the given equation we can write
down the y-intercept, (0, 16).
Next, find the x-intercepts by changing the equation into factored form:
y = 2x2 – 12x + 16 = 2(x2 – 6x + 8) = 2(x – 4)(x – 2)
The x-intercepts are (4, 0) and (2, 0).
Use the axis of symmetry formula to find the x-coordinate of the vertex, then plug
that number back in to the original equation to find the y-coordinate:
b −12
x= − =− =3
2a 2⋅2
y = 2(3)2 – 12(3) + 16 = –2
The vertex is (3, –2).
Plot these four points and connect them with a smooth, symmetrical curve in the
shape of a parabola:

20

15

10

−1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−5
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

A quadratic equation has the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , where a ≠ 0 . Some quadratic equations can
be solved by factoring, and all quadratic functions can be solved using the quadratic formula:
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= . Whichever method you use, remember that you must always move all
2a
terms to one side of the equation first so that it is equal to zero!

Example:
Solve 2x2 + x = 3
Solution:
First move all the terms to one side so that the equation is equal to zero:
2x2 + x – 3 = 0
This equation is easy to factor:
(2x + 3)(x – 1) = 0
Now set each factor equal to zero and solve for x:
2x + 3 = 0 x–1=0
3
x=– x=1
2

Example:
Solve x2 + 6 = 14 – 5x
Solution:
First move all the terms to one side so that the equation is equal to zero:
x2 + 5x – 8 = 0
This equation cannot be factored, so use the quadratic formula:
−5 ± 52 − 4 (1)( −8) −5 ± 57
x= =
2 (1) 2
x ≈ 1.27 and x ≈ –6.27

The discriminant is the portion of the quadratic formula that is under the square root symbol. It is
often denoted by the Greek letter delta: ∆ = b2 – 4ac. The sign of the discriminant tells you the
number of solutions (also called roots) for a quadratic equation. Also, recall that the solutions of
a quadratic equation are the x-intercepts of the corresponding quadratic function; therefore the
discriminant also tells us the number of x-intercepts of a quadratic function graph.
If ∆ > 0, there are two real solutions (and two x-intercepts).
If ∆ = 0, there is one real solution (and one x-intercept).
If ∆ < 0, there are no real solutions (and no x-intercepts).

In the case where the discriminant equals zero, the quadratic expression will have two identical
factors. For this reason, a quadratic equation with one real solution may also be referred to as
having a repeated root or equal roots. The graph of a quadratic function with a repeated root has
its vertex of the x-axis.
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Rational, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions

Recall that when an integer is divided by another integer the result is called a rational number.
2
For example, two divided by three is equal to the rational number . Similarly, when a linear
3
function is divided by another linear function the result is a rational function of the form
ax + b
f ( x) = , where a, b, c, and d are integers.
cx + d

1
The most basic example of a rational function is y = , which is also called the reciprocal
x
function. The graph of the reciprocal function has the following attributes:
• The domain is x ≠ 0.
• The range is y ≠ 0.
• The graph is asymptotic to both the x-axis and the y-axis.
• The graph consists of two separate branches which are symmetrical about the origin.
• The graph passes through the points (1, 1) and (–1, –1).

1
The graph of the function y = is shown below:
x
y
6

-5 5
x

-2

-4

-6

ax + b
The graph of a rational function of the form f ( x ) = has attributes similar to those of the
cx + d
reciprocal function graph. Because division by zero is undefined, the denominator of a rational
d
function cannot equal zero. By solving the inequality cx + d ≠ 0 we get the domain x ≠ − . This
c
d
means that the graph of f ( x ) will always have a vertical asymptote at the line x = − , and the
c
graph will never touch or cross this vertical line.
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

ax + b
The graph of the rational function f ( x ) = also has a horizontal asymptote at the line
cx + d
a
y= . Note, however, that a function graph may cross a horizontal asymptote at some x-values;
c
a
the graph only becomes asymptotic to y = at the extreme ends of the graph, that is, when the
c
absolute value of x is large.

Example:
Write down the equations of the vertical and horizontal asymptotes on the graph
3x + 1
of y = , then draw the graph.
2x − 5
Solution:
5 3
The vertical asymptote is x = , and the horizontal asymptote is y = . These
2 2
asymptotes are represented by dashed lines on the graph below.
y

-3 3 x

-3

Exponential functions have the form y = ax. The number a is called the base, and it can be any
non-negative number except one, that is, a > 0 and a ≠ 1. The graph of an exponential function
has the following attributes:
• The domain is all real numbers.
• The range is y > 0.
• The graph is asymptotic to the x-axis.
• The graph intersects the y-axis at the point (0, 1).
• The graph is concave up.
• If the base is greater than one, the graph is increasing.
• If the base is between zero and one, the graph is decreasing.
IB Math SL – Functions and Equations Notes

Examples of exponential function graphs are shown below:

y y

x x

y = ax where a > 1 y = ax where 0 < a < 1

Logarithmic functions have the form y = log a x . A logarithmic function is the inverse of the
exponential function with the same base. For example, the functions y = log 3 x and y = 3x are
inverses of each other.

Remember that the graphs of a function and its inverse are reflections across the line y = x. Thus
the graph of a logarithmic function has the following attributes:
• The domain is x > 0.
• The range is all real numbers.
• The graph is asymptotic to the y-axis.
• The graph intersects the x-axis at the point (1, 0).
• The graph is concave down.
• If the base is greater than one, the graph is increasing.
• If the base is between zero and one, the graph is decreasing.

Example:
The graph below shows the functions y = log 2 x and y = 2x . These graphs are reflections
of each other across the line y = x, shown dashed.

y
y = 2x

y = log 2x