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UCI 102: LESSON NOTES

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS
1.1 Overview of Computer Networks:
1.1.1 Definition and importance of computer networks
A network refers to two or more connected computers that can share resources such as data,
a printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these resources.
The three pillars of a good computer network — Connect, Communicate, and Provide —
represent the fundamental goals and functionalities that a well-designed network should
achieve. Let's delve into each of these pillars:
1. Connect:
Definition: The "Connect" pillar emphasizes the network's ability to establish reliable and
efficient connections between devices and systems.
- Components:
Physical Connectivity: Ensuring that the network infrastructure, including cables, routers,
switches, and other hardware, is in place to physically connect devices.
Logical Connectivity: Establishing logical paths for data to travel through the network,
often facilitated by protocols and addressing schemes.
Importance: Connecting devices seamlessly enables the sharing of resources, data, and
services. It is the foundation for all network activities.
2. Communicate:
-Definition: The "Communicate" pillar focuses on the ability of the network to facilitate the
exchange of data and information between connected devices.
Key Components:
Protocols: Defining rules and conventions for communication between devices, ensuring
that data is transmitted, received, and interpreted correctly.
Data Transmission: Managing the reliable and efficient transfer of data across the
network, considering factors like bandwidth, latency, and error handling.
Importance: Effective communication is essential for applications, services, and users to
interact seamlessly over the network. It enables collaboration, information sharing, and the
functionality of various networked systems.
3. Provide Resources:
Definition: The "Provide" pillar refers to the network's ability to offer services, resources,
and support to connected devices and users.
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-Key Components:
Resource Sharing: Allowing devices to access and utilize shared resources such as files,
printers, and applications.
Services Delivery: Ensuring that network services (e.g., email, web services) are available
and accessible to users as needed.
Importance: The network should not only enable connectivity and communication but also
provide the necessary resources and services to support the activities and requirements of
users and applications.

1.1.2 History and evolution of networks

ARPANET - the First Network
ARPANET − Advanced Research Projects Agency Network − the granddad of Internet was a
network established by the US Department of Defense (DOD). The work for establishing the
network started in the early 1960s and DOD sponsored major research work, which resulted
in development on initial protocols, languages and frameworks for network communication.
It had four nodes at University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Stanford Research Institute
(SRI), University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) and University of Utah. On October 29,
1969, the first message was exchanged between UCLA and SRI. E-mail was created by Roy
Tomlinson in 1972 at Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc. (BBN) after UCLA was connected to BBN.
Internet
ARPANET expanded to connect DOD with those universities of the US that were carrying out
defense-related research. It covered most of the major universities across the country. The
concept of networking got a boost when University College of London (UK) and Royal Radar
Network (Norway) connected to the ARPANET and a network of networks was formed.
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The term Internet was coined by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine of Stanford
University to describe this network of networks. Together they also developed protocols to
facilitate information exchange over the Internet. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) still
forms the backbone of networking.
Telenet
Telenet was the first commercial adaptation of ARPANET introduced in 1974. With this the
concept of Internet Service Provider (ISP) was also introduced. The main function of an ISP is
to provide uninterrupted Internet connection to its customers at affordable rates.
World Wide Web
With commercialization of internet, more and more networks were developed in different
part of the world. Each network used different protocols for communicating over the
network. This prevented different networks from connecting together seamlessly. In the
1980s, Tim Berners-Lee led a group of Computer scientists at CERN, Switzerland, to create a
seamless network of varied networks, called the World Wide Web (WWW).

World Wide Web is a complex web of websites and web pages connected together through
hypertexts. Hypertext is a word or group of words linking to another web page of the same or
different website. When the hypertext is clicked, another web page opens.
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The evolution from ARPANET to WWW was possible due to many new achievements by
researchers and computer scientists all over the world. Here are some of those developments
–

Year Milestone
1957
Advanced Research Project Agency formed by US
1969
ARPANET became functional
1970
ARPANET connected to BBNs
1972
Roy Tomlinson develops network messaging or E-
mail. Symbol @ comes to mean "at"
1973 APRANET connected to Royal Radar Network of
Norway
1974 Term Internet coined
First commercial use of ARPANET, Telenet, is
approved
1982 TCP/IP introduced as standard protocol on ARPANET
1983 Domain Name System introduced
1986 National Science Foundation brings connectivity to
more people with its NSFNET program
1990 ARPANET decommissioned
First web browser Nexus developed
HTML developed
2002-2004 Web 2.0 is born

1.1.3 Applications of Computer Networks

i) Resource Sharing
• Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
• Software (application software)
ii) Information Sharing
• Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
• Search Capability (WWW)
iii) Communication
• Email
• Message broadcast
• Tele/Video conference
iv) Remote computing
v) Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
vi) Blogging
vii) Social Media
viii) Marketing and eCommerce
1.1.4 Types of computer networks
Computer networks come in various types, each designed to serve specific purposes and cater
to different scales of communication. Here are some common types of computer networks:
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1. Local Area Network (LAN):

Scope: Limited geographical area, such as a single building or campus.
Purpose: Facilitates communication and resource sharing among devices within a close
proximity.

Advantages of LAN
• Computer resources like hard-disks, and printers can share local area networks.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing a licensed
software for each client on the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server computer.
• You can easily transfer data over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes the data more secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection among all
the LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
• The initial setup cost of Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not offer
good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN admin is not
able to secure centralized data repository.
2. Wide Area Network (WAN):
Scope: Spans a large geographic area, often connecting LANs across cities, countries, or
continents.
Purpose: Enables long-distance communication and connectivity for organizations with
multiple locations.
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Advantages of WAN
• It covers a large geographical area. Therefore business offices far apart can easily
communicate.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.
Disadvantage of WAN
• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of
different technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple wired
and wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of networks.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Scope: Covers a larger geographical area than a LAN but is smaller than a WAN, typically
serving a city or metropolitan region.
Purpose: Connects multiple LANs within a city to provide high-speed data transfer.
Advantages of MAN
• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive big network and greater access .
Disadvantages of MAN
• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
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4. Personal Area Network (PAN):

Scope: Very small, typically within the range of an individual person, like a room or a personal
workspace. A common example is Bluetooth Network
Purpose: Connects personal devices, such as laptops, smartphones, and tablets.

5. Campus Area Network (CAN):

Scope: Covers a larger area than a single LAN but is smaller than a MAN, typically within a
university campus or large enterprise.
Purpose: Connects multiple buildings or facilities within a specific campus.
6. Storage Area Network (SAN):
Scope: A specialized network connecting storage devices (such as servers and storage arrays)
to provide high-speed, block-level data access.
Purpose: Facilitates efficient storage and retrieval of data in enterprise environments.
7. Enterprise Private Network:
Scope: Customized network infrastructure designed to meet the specific needs of a large
organization.
Purpose: Supports the internal communication, collaboration, and resource-sharing
requirements of a specific enterprise.
8. Virtual Private Network (VPN):
Scope: Utilizes public networks (such as the Internet) to create a secure and private
connection between remote users or offices.
Purpose: Enables secure communication over an untrusted network, often used for remote
access to an organization's resources.
9. Intranet:
Scope: Internal network within an organization, utilizing internet technologies for private
communication.
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Purpose: Facilitates information sharing, collaboration, and internal communication.

10. Extranet:
Scope: Extends the functionalities of an intranet to include external users, such as business
partners, suppliers, or customers.
Purpose: Supports secure collaboration and data sharing between an organization and its
external partners.
11. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN):
Scope: Similar to a traditional LAN but utilizes wireless technology for communication.
Purpose: Provides flexibility and mobility within a confined area without the need for physical
cables.

1.2 Networking Basics

1.2.1 Network Infrastructure Components
Definition of Network Infrastructure:
- Network infrastructure refers to the foundational components and hardware that enable
the communication and exchange of data between devices, systems, and users within an
organization or across the internet.
Importance of Network Infrastructure
- Network infrastructure is the backbone of modern businesses and institutions, facilitating
data transfer, communication, and access to resources.
- It supports various services, including internet connectivity, email, file sharing, video
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Network components can be classified into Hardware, Software protocols and network
operating systems; and Transmission media.
a) Hardware Components
1. Server
1. Definition of a Server:
- A server is a computer or a software system
that provides services or resources to other
computers, known as clients, over a network.

2. Server Hardware:
- Servers are typically equipped with higher processing power, memory, and storage
capacity compared to regular desktop computers.
- Common server types include web servers, file servers, database servers, and application
servers.
3. Server Operating Systems:
- Servers often run specialized operating systems optimized for stability and performance.
Examples include Windows Server, Linux distributions (e.g., Ubuntu Server, CentOS), and
Unix-based systems (e.g., FreeBSD).
4. Server Roles and Functions:
- Web Server: Serves web content to users' browsers (e.g., Apache, Nginx, Microsoft IIS).
- File Server: Stores and manages files and documents for client access.
- Database Server: Stores and manages databases and provides data access services.
- Mail Server: Handles email communication (e.g., Microsoft Exchange, Postfix, Sendmail).
- DNS Server: Resolves domain names to IP addresses (e.g., BIND, Windows DNS).
- Application Server: Hosts and manages applications for client access (e.g., Java EE, .NET).
2. Router
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Routers are networking devices operating at

layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI model. They
are responsible for receiving, analysing, and
forwarding data packets among the connected
computer networks. When a data packet arrives,
the router inspects the destination address,
consults its routing tables to decide the optimal
route and then transfers the packet along this
route. Cisco, D-Link, HP,3Com, Juniper, Nortel
etc.
Types of Routers
A variety of routers are available depending upon their usages. The main types of routers are
−
• Wireless Router − They provide WiFi connection WiFi devices like laptops,
smartphones etc. They can also provide standard Ethernet routing. For indoor
connections, the range is 150 feet while its 300 feet for outdoor connections.
• Broadband Routers − They are used to connect to the Internet through telephone and
to use voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology for providing high-speed Internet
access. They are configured and provided by the Internet Service Provider (ISP).
• Core Routers − They can route data packets within a given network, but cannot route
the packets between the networks. They helps to link all devices within a network thus
forming the backbone of network. It is used by ISP and communication interfaces.
• Edge Routers − They are low-capacity routers placed at the periphery of the networks.
They connect the internal network to the external networks, and are suitable for
transferring data packets across networks. They use Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
for connectivity. There are two types of edge routers, subscriber edge routers and
label edge routers.
• Brouters − Brouters are specialised routers that can provide the functionalities of
bridges as well. Like a bridge, brouters help to transfer data between networks. And
like a router, they route the data within the devices of a network.
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3. Firewall
A Firewall is a network security device that
monitors and filters incoming and outgoing
network traffic based on an organization's
previously established security policies. At its
most basic, a firewall is essentially the barrier
that sits between a private internal network
and the public Internet.
There are three basic types of firewalls that are
used by companies to protect their data &
devices to keep destructive elements out of network, viz. Packet Filters, Stateful Inspection
and Proxy Server Firewalls. Let us give you a brief introduction about each of these.
• Packet Filters
Packet Filter Firewall controls the network access by analyzing the outgoing and incoming
packets. It lets a packet pass or block its way by comparing it with pre-established criteria like
allowed IP addresses, packet type, port number, etc. Packet filtering technique is suitable for
small networks but gets complex when implemented to larger networks. It is to be noted that
these types of firewalls cannot prevent all types of attacks. They can neither tackle the attacks
that use application layers vulnerabilities nor can fight against spoofing attacks.
• Stateful Inspection
Stateful Packet Inspection (SPI), which is also sometimes called dynamic packet filtering, is a
powerful firewall architecture which examines traffic streams from end to end. These smart
and fast firewalls use an intelligent way to ward off the unauthorized traffic by analyzing the
packet headers and inspecting the state of the packets along with providing proxy services.
These firewalls works at the network layer in the OSI model and are more secured than the
basic packet filtering firewalls.
• Proxy Server Firewalls
Also called the application level gateways, Proxy Server Firewalls are the most secured type of
firewalls that effectively protect the network resources by filtering messages at the
application layer. Proxy firewalls mask your IP address and limit traffic types. They provide a
complete and protocol-aware security analysis for the protocols they support. Proxy Servers
offers the best Internet experience and results in the network performance improvements.
4. Switch
Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the OSI model.
They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send, receive or forward data
packets or data frames over the network.
A switch has many ports, to which several network devices can be plugged in including
i. Computers (desktops, laptops)
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ii. Servers (file servers, web servers, email servers)

iii. Printers (network printers)
iv. VoIP phones (Voice over Internet Protocol)
v. Network-attached storage (NAS) devices
vi. Wireless access points (WAPs)
vii. Security cameras (IP cameras)
viii. Networked appliances (smart TVs, streaming devices)
ix. Networked peripherals (scanners, fax machines)
x. Networked IoT devices (smart home devices, sensors)
xi. Networked gaming consoles
xii. Virtualization hosts (VMware, Hyper-V hosts)
xiii. Video conferencing systems
xiv. Digital signage displays
xv. Network switches (for network expansion or redundancy) .
When a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination
address, performs necessary checks and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).

Features of Switches
• A switch operates in the layer 2, i.e. data link layer of the OSI model.
• It is an intelligent network device that can be conceived as a multiport network bridge.
• It uses MAC addresses (addresses of medium access control sublayer) to send data
packets to selected destination ports.
• It uses packet switching technique to receive and forward data packets from the
source to the destination device.
• It is supports unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many) and broadcast (one-to-all)
communications.
• Transmission mode is full duplex, i.e. communication in the channel occurs in both the
directions at the same time. Due to this, collisions do not occur.
• Switches are active devices, equipped with network software and network
management capabilities.
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• Switches can perform some error checking before forwarding data to the destined
port.
• The number of ports is higher – 24/48.

Types of Switches
There are variety of switches that can be broadly categorised into 4 types –

• Unmanaged Switch − These are inexpensive switches commonly used in home

networks and small businesses. They can be set up by simply plugging in to the
network, after which they instantly start operating. When more devices needs to be
added, more switches are simply added by this plug and play method. They are
referred to as u managed since they do not require to be configured or monitored.
• Managed Switch − These are costly switches that are used in organisations with large
and complex networks, since they can be customized to augment the functionalities of
a standard switch. The augmented features may be QoS (Quality of Service) like higher
security levels, better precision control and complete network management. Despite
their cost, they are preferred in growing organizations due to their scalability and
flexibility. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used for configuring
managed switches.
• LAN Switch − Local Area Network (LAN) switches connects devices in the internal LAN
of an organization. They are also referred as Ethernet switches or data switches. These
switches are particularly helpful in reducing network congestion or bottlenecks. They
allocate bandwidth in a manner so that there is no overlapping of data packets in a
network.
• PoE Switch − Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE Gogabit Ethernets.
PoE technology combine data and power transmission over the same cable so that
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devices connected to it can receive both electricity as well as data over the same line.
PoE switches offer greater flexibility and simplifies the cabling connections
5. Network Interface card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware component without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is a circuit board installed in a computer that provides a
dedicated network connection to the computer. It is also called network interface controller,
network adapter or LAN adapter.
Purpose
NIC allows both wired and wireless communications.
NIC allows communications between computers connected via local area network (LAN) as
well as communications over large-scale network through Internet Protocol (IP).
NIC is both a physical layer and a data link layer device, i.e. it provides the necessary hardware
circuitry so that the physical layer processes and some data link layer processes can run on it.

Internal Network Cards

In internal networks cards, motherboard has a slot for the network card where it can be
inserted. It requires network cables to provide network access. Internal network cards are of
two types. The first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection, while the
second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).
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External Network Cards

In desktops and laptops that do not have an internal
NIC, external NICs are used. External network cards
are of two types: Wireless and USB based. Wireless
network card needs to be inserted into the
motherboard, however no network cable is required
to connect to the network. They are useful while
traveling or accessing a wireless signal.
6. Wireless Access Point
A wireless access point (WAP), or more generally just access point (AP), is a networking
hardware device that allows other Wi-Fi devices to connect to a wired network. As a
standalone device, the AP may have a wired connection to
a router, but, in a wireless router, it can also be an integral
component of the router itself. An AP connects directly to a
wired local area network, typically Ethernet, and the AP then
provides wireless connections using wireless LAN technology,
typically Wi-Fi, for other devices to use that wired
connection. APs support the connection of multiple wireless
devices through their one wired connection.
7. Network Cabinet
A network Cabinet is an enclosure with a built-in rack for
holding and organizing patch panels, switches, routers,
servers, and any other networking equipment within a wiring
closet. Open-frame that have mounting rails usually two or
four without side enclosures, door, The height of cabinets is
usually measured standardized units represented by Letter U
each (U) unit is equal to 44.45 mm-(1.75 inches)– high;
Data/Server Cabinets are available from 2U to 58U.
8. Patch panel
A patch panel in a local area network (LAN) is a mounted hardware assembly that contains
ports that are used to connect and manage incoming and outgoing LAN cables. A patch panel
provides a way to keep large numbers of cables organized, enabling flexible connectivity into
network hardware located in a data center or an access or wiring closet. A patch panel uses a
patch cord, a sort of jumper cable, to create each interconnection between the terminated
patch panel and the network device, such as an Ethernet switch, router or firewall. The patch
panel makes it easy to rearrange circuits and devices by moving the patch cables between
network devices. Enterprises and other organizations often place patch panels in wiring
closets, which are small rooms where networking and other electrical connections are made.
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9. Cable manager/Cable duct

A rigid metal duct through which insulated electric
conductors are run, Cable management
both supports and contains cables during
installation, and makes subsequent maintenance or
changes to the cable system easier. Products such as
cable trays, cable ladders, and cable baskets are used
to support a cable through cabling route. Cable
managers own following functions – organizing and protecting running cables, reducing
crosstalk and signal interface, facilitating airflow and cooling, and ensuring a clutter-free data
center
10. Keystone Jack module/Modular jack
A keystone jack is a standardized plug in package for
mounting low voltage electrical. It is commonly referred to
as a module which is used to connect in to various
keystone wall plates, surface mount boxes and patch
panels. Keystone jacks are used in the wiring system of
LAN and Ethernet connections. They are called keystone
jacks because the jack looks similar to an architectural
keystone, just like the standard RJ-11 wall jack that is used
to connect telephones, fax machines and dial-up systems

11. Faceplate
Faceplate is a cabling fixture attached to a wall in a work area for
connecting computers to the network. Also called a faceplate. They are the
ideal solution wherever back-box depth is a problem. Face plates present
outlet modules where PCs, phones & other devices will be connected.
12. Pattress box
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Patress box is the container for the space behind electrical fittings
such as power outlet sockets, light switches, or fixed light fixtures.
Pattresses may be designed for either surface mounting (with cabling
running along the wall surface) or for embedding in the wall or
skirting board.
13. Cable Trunking
Cable trunking is an enclosure used to keep your cabling tidy and hidden way. The tough
white plastic hollow casing of the cable trunk is used in cable management, organizing all the
cabling you have running about the workplace. Two types of Trunking are metttalic ie
Aluminium, Stainless Steel, galvanised steel and other metals and plastic i.e. PVC and other
plastic trunking.
14. Media converter
A media converter is a networking device that
connects two different media, like Ethernet copper and
Ethernet fiber.

15. Fiber Tray

A fiber tray, also known as a fiber splice tray or
fiber management tray, is a component used in
fiber optic cable management systems. Its primary
purpose is to provide a organized and protective
environment for fiber optic cable splicing,
termination, and storage.
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b) Software protocols and network operating systems

Protocol
A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted
between different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to
communicate with each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes,
structure or design. Network protocols are the reason you can easily communicate with
people all over the world, and thus play a critical role in modern digital communications. Each
protocol specifies how to handle one aspect of communication
A protocol can specify
– Low-level details such as voltage and frequency
– High-level details such as format visible to a user
Two Key Properties That Protocols Specify
I Syntax
– Format of each message
– Representation of data items
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– Encoding of bits in electromagnetic signals

II Semantics
– Meaning of each message
– Procedures used to exchange messages
– Actions to take when an error occurs
Common protocols
1. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
ARP translates IP addresses to MAC addresses and vice versa so LAN endpoints can
communicate with one another. ARP is necessary because IP and MAC addresses are different
lengths. Below is a breakdown of the various address lengths:
IP version 4 (IPv4) addresses are 32 bits long. Eg: 192.168.1.205
IPv6 addresses are 128 bits in length. E.g.: 00-01-00-01-29-F3-0A-8E-DC-4A-3E-D4-77-BE
MAC addresses -- a device's physical hardware number -- are 12 hexadecimal digits split into
six pairs. eg 48-E2-44-B1-EB-4B
Translations between these addresses must occur for proper device communication. ARP isn't
required every time devices attempt to communicate because the LAN's host stores the
translated addresses in its ARP cache.
2. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
BGP makes the internet work. This routing protocol controls how packets pass through
routers in an autonomous system (AS) -- one or multiple networks run by a single organization
or provider -- and connect to different networks. BGP can connect endpoints on a LAN to one
another, and it can connect endpoints in different LANs to one another over the internet.
External BGP directs network traffic from various ASes to the internet and vice versa. Internal
BGP directs network traffic between endpoints within a single AS.
3. Domain name system (DNS)
DNS is a database that includes a website's domain name and its corresponding IP addresses.
People use a domain name to access a website, while devices use an IP address to locate a
website. DNS translates the domain name into IP addresses, and these translations are
included within the DNS. Servers can cache DNS data, which is required to access the
websites. DNS also includes the DNS protocol, which is within the IP suite and details the
specifications DNS uses to translate and communicate.DNS is important because it can
provide users with information quickly and enable access to remote hosts and resources
across the internet.
4. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
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DHCP assigns IP addresses to network endpoints so they can communicate with other
network endpoints over IP. Whenever a device joins a network with a DHCP server for the
first time, DHCP automatically assigns it a new IP address and continues to do so each time a
device moves locations on the network. When a device connects to a network, a DHCP
handshake takes place. In this handshake process, the device and DHCP server communicate
using the following steps:
The device establishes a connection.
The server receives the connection and provides available IP addresses.
The device requests an IP address.
The server confirms the address to complete the process.

5. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is a client-server protocol, with which a client requests a file and the server supplies it.
FTP runs over TCP/IP -- a suite of communications protocols -- and requires a command
channel and a data channel to communicate and exchange files, respectively. Clients request
files through the command channel and receive access to download, edit and copy the file,
among other actions, through the data channel. FTP has grown less popular as most systems
began to use HTTP for file sharing. However, FTP is a common network protocol for more
private file sharing, such as in banking.
6. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Like FTP, HTTP is a file sharing protocol that runs over TCP/IP. But HTTP primarily works over
web browsers and is commonly recognizable for most users. When a user enters a website
domain and aims to access it, HTTP provides the access. HTTP connects to the domain's server
and requests the site's HTML, which is the code that structures and displays the page's design.
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Another form of HTTP is HTTPS, which stands for HTTP over Secure Sockets Layer or HTTP
Secure. HTTPS can encrypt a user's HTTP requests and webpages. This provides more security
to users and can prevent common cybersecurity threats, such as man-in-the-middle attacks.
7. Internet Protocol (IP)
IP functions similarly to a postal service. When users send and receive data from their device,
the data gets spliced into packets. Packets are like letters with two IP addresses: one for the
sender and one for the recipient. After the packet leaves the sender, it goes to a gateway, like
a post office, that directs it in the proper direction. Packets continue to travel through
gateways until they reach their destinations. IP is commonly paired with TCP to form TCP/IP,
the overall internet protocol suite. Together, IP sends packets to their destinations, and TCP
arranges the packets in the correct order, as IP sometimes sends packets out of order to
ensure the packets travel the fastest ways.
8. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF works with IP to send packets to their destinations. IP aims to send packets on the
quickest route possible, which OSPF is designed to accomplish. OSPF opens the shortest, or
quickest, path first for packets. It also updates routing tables -- a set of rules that control
where packets travel -- and alerts routers of changes to the routing table or network when a
change occurs. OSPF is similar to and supports Routing Information Protocol, which directs
traffic based on the number of hops it must take along a route, and it has also replaced RIP in
many networks. OSPF was developed as a more streamlined and scalable alternative to RIP.
For example, RIP sends updated routing tables out every 30 seconds, while OSPF sends
updates only when necessary and makes updates to the particular part of the table where the
change occurred
9. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is the most popular email protocol, is part of the TCP/IP suite and controls how email
clients send users' email messages. Email servers use SMTP to send email messages from the
client to the email server to the receiving email server. However, SMTP doesn't control how
email clients receive messages -- just how clients send messages. That said, SMTP requires
other protocols to ensure email messages are sent and received properly. SMTP can work
with Post Office Protocol 3 or Internet Message Access Protocol, which control how an email
server receives email messages.
10. Telnet
Telnet is designed for remote connectivity, and it establishes connections between a remote
endpoint and a host machine to enable a remote session. Telnet prompts the user at the
remote endpoint to log on. Once the user is authenticated, Telnet gives the endpoint access
to network resources and data at the host computer. Telnet has existed since the 1960s and
was arguably the first draft of the modern internet. However, Telnet lacks sophisticated
security protections required for modern communications and technology, so it isn't
commonly used anymore.
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11. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is the other half of TCP/IP and arranges packets in order so IP can deliver them.
Specifically, TCP numbers individual packets because IP can send packets to their destinations
through different routes and get them out of order, so TCP amends this before IP delivers the
packets. TCP also detects errors in the sending process -- including if any packets are missing
based on TCP's numbered system -- and requires IP to retransmit those packets before IP
delivers the data to its destination. Through this process, the TCP/IP suite controls
communication across the internet.
12. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
UDP is an alternative to TCP and also works with IP to transmit time-sensitive data. UDP
enables low-latency data transmissions between internet applications, making it ideal for VoIP
or other audio and video requirements.Unlike TCP, UDP doesn't wait for all packets to arrive
or organize the packets. Instead, UDP transmits all packets even if some haven't arrived.UDP
solely transmits packets, while TCP transmits, organizes and ensures the packets arrive. While
UDP works more quickly than TCP, it's also less reliable.

Network Operating systems

A network operating system (NOS) is an operating system that is designed to manage and
coordinate network resources and provide services to clients in a networked environment.
Here are some brief notes on network operating systems: A network operating system (NOS)
is specialized software that facilitates communication, resource sharing, and coordination
among multiple computers in a network.
Functions:
- Network Resource Management: NOS manages network resources such as printers, files,
and applications, making them accessible to users across the network.
 23

- User Authentication: It provides mechanisms to authenticate users and control their access
to network resources.
3. Characteristics:
- Distributed Processing: NOS enables distributed processing, allowing multiple computers
to work together seamlessly.
- Concurrency: It supports concurrent access to resources, allowing multiple users to use the
network simultaneously.
- Scalability: NOS is designed to scale with the growth of the network, accommodating an
increasing number of users and devices.
4. Examples of NOS:
- Novell NetWare: A pioneering NOS known for its early dominance in the market, providing
file and print services.
- Microsoft Windows Server: Windows Server editions act as network operating systems,
offering a range of networking services.
- Linux/Unix: These operating systems can function as network operating systems, providing
robust networking capabilities.
5. Services Provided:
- File and Print Services: NOS facilitates the sharing of files and printers across the network.
- Security Services: Authentication, authorization, and encryption services help secure
network resources.
- Directory Services: Many NOS include directory services for centralized management of
user accounts and network resources.
c) Transmission Media
There are three types of transmission media namely Copper media, optical media and
wireless media.
i) Copper media
a) Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is used to transmit electrical signals, such as radio frequency (RF) signals, video
signals, and data signals.
A coaxial cable consists of four main parts:
- A central/copper conductor, which is typically a solid or stranded copper wire.
-A plastic insulator, which is a dielectric material that separates the central conductor from
the outer shield.
 24

- Braided copper shielding, which is a braided or foil conductor that surrounds the insulator.
- Outer jacket, which is a non-conducting outer layer that protects the cable from damage.

The Woven copper braid or metallic foil:

– Acts as the second wire in the circuit
– Acts as a shield for the inner conductor.
– Reduces the amount of outside electro-magnetic interference.
– Comprises half the electric circuit
Advantages:
-Coaxial cable can transmit high-frequency signals with low loss.
-The outer shield of coaxial cable helps to protect the signal from interference.
-Coaxial cable is relatively durable and can withstand exposure to the elements.
-Less expensive than fiber
Disadvantages:
- Coaxial cable also has some disadvantages, such as:
- Coaxial cable is larger and heavier than some other types of cables, such as twisted-pair
cable.
 25

- Coaxial cable can be more expensive than some other types of cables.
Applications:
Coaxial cable is used in a variety of applications, including:
-Cable television, Satellite television, Broadband internet, Radio communications, Computer
networks and Medical imaging.
b) Twisted Pair cables
Twisted pair cables are the workhorses of the networking world, carrying everything from
phone calls to internet data.
They are insulated copper wires twisted together in pairs.
Each pair acts as a single circuit, reducing interference from other pairs and external sources.
Advantages of Twisted pairs:
Affordable and easy to install.
Durable and reliable.
Supports high data rates with higher categories.
Disadvantages
Susceptible to interference in high-noise environments (UTP).
Limited range compared to fiber optic cables.
Come in two main types:
i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): More affordable, suitable for most home and office
networks. (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6)

• Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of

networks.
• TIA/EIA-568-A contains specifications governing cable performance.
• RJ-45 connector
• When communication occurs, the signal that is transmitted by the source needs to be
understood by the destination.
• The transmitted signal needs to be properly received by the circuit connection
designed to receive signals.
 26

• The transmit pin of the source needs to ultimately connect to the receiving pin of the
destination.
ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Offers extra protection against interference, used in industrial
or high-noise environments.

• Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation,

and twisting of wires.
– Each pair of wires is wrapped in metallic foil.
– The four pairs of wires are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.
• A new hybrid of UTP with traditional STP is Screened UTP (ScTP), also known as Foil
Twisted Pair (FTP).
– ScTP is essentially UTP wrapped in a metallic foil shield, or screen.Each twisted pair
transmits data differentially, using the difference in voltage between the wires. This helps
cancel out noise and improves signal integrity.
Different categories (Cat5e, Cat6, etc.) offer varying bandwidths and transmission speeds. •
Greater protection from all types of external and internal interference than UTP.
– Reduces electrical noise within the cable such as pair to pair coupling and crosstalk.
– Reduces electronic noise from outside the cable, for example electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
• More expensive and difficult to install than UTP.
• Needs to be grounded at both ends
• Limited range compared to fiber optic cables.
Based on the pinout configuration use, three types of UTP/STP cables can be made each used
to connect different types of devices.
 27

• The cable that connects from the switch port to the computer NIC port is called a
straight-through cable.
• The cable that connects from one switch port to another switch port is called a
crossover cable.
• The cable that connects the RJ-45 adapter on the com port of the computer to the
console port of the router or switch is called a rollover cable.

ii Optical Media
The electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is the incredible range of all types of electromagnetic
radiation, encompassing everything from radio waves to gamma rays. Imagine it as a giant
rainbow, but instead of colors, it has different types of energy based on wavelength and
frequency. Here's a quick overview:
What it is:
All forms of electromagnetic radiation, which carries energy through space without needing
matter.
Organized by wavelength (distance between peaks) or frequency (number of peaks passing a
point per second).
Spans a vast range, from extremely long radio waves (kilometers) to tiny gamma rays (smaller
than atoms).
Key regions:
Radio waves: Longest wavelengths, used for radio, TV, cell phones.
Microwaves: Heat food, Wi-Fi, satellite communication.
Infrared (IR): Night-vision goggles, remote controls, thermal imaging.
Visible light: The rainbow we see, essential for vision and plants.
Ultraviolet (UV): Sunburns, tanning beds, sterilizing equipment.
X-rays: Medical imaging, security scanners, astronomy.
Gamma rays: Highly energetic, used in cancer treatment, astronomy.
Applications:
Communication: Radio, TV, internet, cell phones.
Medicine: X-rays, radiation therapy, medical imaging.
Science: Studying objects in space, understanding the universe.
Security: Airport scanners, baggage checks.
Heating: Microwaves, ovens.
 28

Fiber Optic Cable

• The core is the light transmission element at the center of the optical fiber. All the
light signals travel through the core.
• Cladding is also made of silica but with a lower index of refraction than the core. Light
rays traveling through the fiber core reflect off this core-to-cladding interface as they move
through the fiber by total internal reflection.
• Surrounding the cladding is a buffer material that is usually plastic. The buffer material
helps shield the core and cladding from damage.
• The strength material surrounds the buffer, preventing the fiber cable from being
stretched when installers pull it. The material used is often Kevlar, the same material used to
produce bulletproof vests.
• The outer jacket surrounds the cable to protect the fiber against abrasion, solvents,
and other contaminants.
 29

There are 2 types of fiber optic cables: Single mode and multimode.

Higher
•
bandwidth.
If the diameter of the core of the fiber is large enough so that there are many paths
that light can take through the fiber, the fiber is called “multimode” fiber.
• Single-mode fiber has a much smaller core that only allows light rays to travel along
one mode inside the fiber.
• Every fiber-optic cable used for networking consists of two glass fibers encased in
separate sheaths.
• One fiber carries transmitted data from device A to device B.
• The second fiber carries data from device B to device A.
• This provides a full-duplex communication link.
• Typically, these two fiber cables will be in a single outer jacket until they reach the
point at which connectors are attached.
 30

iii. Wireless media

Wireless media transmits data and information without physical cables, relying instead on
electromagnetic waves.
Data travels through the air (or other mediums like water) using electromagnetic waves of
various frequencies (e.g., radio, microwave, infrared).
Offers mobility and flexibility compared to wired media.
Examples: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks, GPS.

Advantages:
Mobility and flexibility: Devices can connect without cables, enabling movement and diverse
setups.
Easy installation: No need for complex cabling infrastructure.
Scalability: Networks can easily expand without physical wiring limitations.

Disadvantages:
Security: Signals can be intercepted more easily than wired connections.
Interference: Other devices or environmental factors can disrupt signal quality.
Range limitations: Signal strength degrades with distance, impacting coverage.
Latency: Data transfer can be slower compared to wired connections.

Applications:
Home and office networks: Wi-Fi for internet access, device connectivity.
Mobile communication: Cell phones, tablets, laptops.
Wireless sensors: Industrial automation, environmental monitoring.
Satellite communication: Global connectivity for remote areas.
Wireless devices:

• Access point (AP) is commonly installed to act as a central hub for the WLAN
"infrastructure mode".
• The AP is hard wired to the cabled LAN to provide Internet access and connectivity to
the wired network. APs are equipped with antennae and provide wireless connectivity over a
specified area referred to as a cell.
• Depending on the structural composition of the location in which the AP is installed
and the size and gain of the antennae, the size of the cell could greatly vary.
• Most commonly, the range will be from 91.44 to 152.4 meters (300 to 500 feet).
 31

• When a client is activated within the WLAN, it will start "listening" for a compatible
device with which to "associate".
• This is referred to as "scanning" and may be active or passive.
• Active scanning causes a probe request to be sent from the wireless node seeking to
join the network.
• The probe request will contain the Service Set Identifier (SSID) of the network it wishes
to join.
• When an AP with the same SSID is found, the AP will issue a probe response.
• The authentication and association steps are completed.

1.2.2 Network Topologies:

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the
network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.
A) Point-to-Point Topology
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers,
servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one
host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple intermediate
devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if they
are connected directly.
B) Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus topology
may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus
topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the
issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect
the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices
 32

stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction
and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.
Advantages and disadvantages of Bus Topology

Advantages Disadvantages
It is very simple to install. It is very difficult to troubleshoot.
It uses less cable than other topologies. It provides slow data transfer speed.
It is relatively inexpensive. A single fault can bring the entire network down.

C) Star Topology
All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a
point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and
hub. The hub device can be a hub, switch, router or a repeater.

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all
other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place through only the hub. Star
topology is not expensive as to connect one more host, only one cable is required and
configuration is simple
 33

Advantages Disadvantages
It is easy to install. It uses more cables than other
topologies.
Relocating of computers is easier than other If the centralized device fails, it
topologies. brings the entire network down.
Since each computer uses its own separate cable, a The total installation cost is higher
fault in cable does affect other computers of the than the other topologies.
network.
Troubleshooting is relatively easy. Use the twisted pair cable which is
prone to break.
It provides higher data transfer speed. Too many cables make the
network messy.

D) Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a
circular network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host
which is not adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one
more host in the existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Advantages Disadvantages
It does not uses terminators. It uses more cables.
It is relatively easy to troubleshoot. It is too expensive.
Since data flows only in one direction, there is A single break in the cable can bring the
no collision in the network. entire network down.

E) Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology has hosts
in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-
to-point connection to few hosts only.
 34

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-
point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the network. Thus
for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the most reliable network
structure among all network topologies.
Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
F) Tree Topology
Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in
use presently. This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus
topology. This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in
LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-
layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which
works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core
layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighbouring hosts have point-to-point connection between them. Similar to the Bus
topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even though it is not the
single point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the
network into unreachable segment.
 35

G) Daisy Chain

This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts are
connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts.Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are
connected then it represents Ring topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure splits the
network into two segments. Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts.

H) Hybrid Topology

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may
contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected
by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology
networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology

1.3 Networking Models and Standards

Network models provide a conceptual framework for understanding how data flows across
networks, while standards ensure interoperability between different devices and equipment.
Here's a quick breakdown:
Network Models:
OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection): A 7-layer model outlining distinct functions like
physical transmission, data addressing, and encryption. Widely used as a reference, though
not directly implemented in most networks.
 36

1. Physical layer
The first layer is the physical layer. It uses the bits and signals to communicate.
This is the only layer that is truly connected to the network in the sense that it is
the only layer concerned with how to interpret the voltage on the wire- the 1s and
Os. This layer is responsible for understanding the electrical rules associated
with devices and for determining what kind of medium is actually being used
(cables, wires, connectors, and other mechanical distinctions.)
It is important to note that while the OSI model doesn't define the media used,
the physical layer is concerned with all aspects with all aspects of transmitting
and receiving bits on the network.
2. Data link Layer
The second layer is data link layer. It is responsible for the creation and
interpretation of different frame types based on the actual physical network being
used. This layer is also responsible for interpreting what it receives from the
physical layer. Using low – level error detection and correction algorithms to
determine when information needs to be re-sent. Network protocols including the
TCP /IP protocol suite, don't define physical standards at the physical or datalink
layer, but instead are written to make use of any standards that may
currently be in use.
3. The Network layer
The third layer of OSI model is the Network layer. It is mostly associated with the
movement of data by moans of addressing and routing. It directs the flow of data
from a source to a destination, despite the fact that the machine might not be
connected to the same physical wire or segment, by finding a path or route from
a machine to another. It is necessary; this layer can break data into smaller
chunks for transmission. This is sometimes necessary while transferring data
from one type of physical network to another network. This layer is also
 37

responsible for reassembling those smaller into the original data after the data
has reach edits destination.
To restate : The network layer involves communication with devices on logically
separate networks connected to form internet works can be large and can be
constructed of different types of networks, the network layer utilizes routing
algorithms that can be used to guide packets from their source to their
destination network.
Network Connectivity Devices / 47
A key element of the network layer is that each network in the internetwork is
assigned a network address and they are used to route packets constitute the
topics of address and switching.
4. The Transport layer
The fourth layer is the transport layer. It is primarily responsible for guaranteeing
delivery of packets transmitted by the network layer, although it doesn't always
have to do so. Depending on the protocol being used, delivery of the packets
may or may not be guaranteed. When the transport layer is responsible for
guaranteeing the delivery of packets, it does so through various means of error
control, including verification of sequence members for packets and otherprotocol-
dependant mechanism.
5. The session layer
The fifth layer is session layer-it is responsible for managing connections
between two machines during the course of communication between- them. This
layer determines whether it has received all information for the session and
whether it can stop receiving or transmitting data packets. This layer also has
built-in error correction and recovery methods.
6. The presentation layer
The sixth layer Is the Presentation layer. it is primarily concerned with the
conversion of data formats, in the form of packets, from one, machine to
another. One common example is the sending of data from a machine that uses
the ASCII format for characters to a, machine that uses the, EBCDIC format for
characters, typically of IBM mainframes.
The presentation layer is responsible for picking up differences such as these
and translating them to compatible formats. Both EBCDIC and ASCII are
standards for translating characters to hexadecimal code. Letters, numbers; and
symbols in one format which must be translated when communicating with
machines using a different format. This is the responsibility of the presentation
layer.
7. The Application layer
The seventh layer of the QSI model is the application layer. It acts as the arbiter
or translator between user's application and the network. Applications that want
to utilise the network to transfer messages must be written to conform to
networking APIs supported by machine’s networking components, such as
windows sockets and NetBIOS. After the application makes an API call, the
application layer determines which machine it wants to communicate with,
 38

whether a session should be set up between the communicating machines, and

whether the delivery pf packets needs to be guaranteed.

The TCP/IP MODEL

The TCP/IP model is a four-layer model that defines the architecture of the internet. Each
layer performs specific functions and interacts with the layers above and below it. The four
layers are: the application layer, Transport, internet and the Network access layer.
 39

TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): A 4-layer model focusing on

practical functionality in the internet. More commonly used in actual network
implementations.
Key Differences Between the OSI & TCP/IP:

Network Standards:
A networking standard is a document that's been developed to provide technical
requirements, specifications, and guidelines that must be employed consistently to ensure
devices, equipment, and software which govern networking are fit for their intended purpose.
➢ Standards ensure quality, safety, and efficiency.
➢ Define how network devices communicate and interact.
Developed by organizations like IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and
IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force).
Examples: Wi-Fi standards (802.11x), Ethernet standards, IP addressing (IPv4, IPv6).
Benefits of Standards:
1. Ensures compatibility between devices from different vendors.
2. Simplifies network design and management.
3. Promotes innovation and competition in the industry.
 40

Examples of Standard Organizations:

➢ ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
➢ W3C (World Wide Web Consortium)
➢ IEEE: Develops a wide range of standards, including those for networking, Wi-
Fi, and Ethernet.
➢ IETF: Responsible for standards related to the internet, including IP addressing,
routing, and security protocols.
➢ ITU-T: Focuses on telecommunication standards, including protocols for voice
and data communication.
 41

TOPIC 2. PHYSICAL LAYER

2.1 Analog and Digital Data:
Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and signaling
mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which actually deals with
the physical connectivity of two different stations. This layer defines the hardware
equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary signals etc.
Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over frames to
physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary data.
The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.
Signals
When data is sent over physical medium, it needs to be first converted into electromagnetic
signals. Data itself can be analog such as human voice, or digital such as file on the disk. Both
analog and digital data can be represented in digital or analog signals.
Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses. Digital signals
are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by continuous
electromagnetic waves.
Transmission Impairment
When signals travel through the medium they tend to deteriorate. This may have many
reasons as given:
1. Attenuation
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently strong.When
the signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker.As it covers distance, it loses
strength.
2. Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of dispersion
depends upon the frequency used.
3. Delay distortion
Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal speed and
frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches destination in arbitrary
fashion. In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier than the previously
sent ones.
 42

4. Noise
Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in signal,
which may distort the actual information being carried. Noise can be characterized in one of
the following class:
a) Thermal Noise
Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce noise in the media.
Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
b) Intermodulation
When multiple frequencies share a medium, their interference can cause noise in the
medium. Intermodulation noise occurs if two different frequencies are sharing a medium and
one of them has excessive strength or the component itself is not functioning properly, then
the resultant frequency may not be delivered as expected.
c) Crosstalk
This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the media. This is because signal
in one medium affects the signal of second medium.
d) Impulse
This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as lightening, electricity, short-
circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is mostly affected by this sort of noise.
Channel Capacity
The speed of transmission of information is said to be the channel capacity. We count it as
data rate in digital world. It depends on numerous factors such as:

➢ Bandwidth: The physical limitation of underlying media.

➢ Error-rate: Incorrect reception of information because of noise.
➢ Encoding: The number of levels used for signaling.
Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium. This
technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the streams
and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes information from
the medium and distributes to different destinations.
Switching
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards destination
which are not directly connected. Networks have interconnecting devices, which receives
data from directly connected sources, stores data, analyze it and then forwards to the next
interconnecting device closest to the destination.
 43

Switching can be categorized as:

Circuit Switching:
➢ Imagine a dedicated phone line - a specific pathway kept open for the entire duration
of a call. This is circuit switching.
➢ A dedicated path is established between sender and receiver before data
transmission.
➢ Entire message is sent as one chunk.
➢ Offers guaranteed bandwidth but inefficient for short bursts of data.
➢ Used in traditional phone networks and sometimes for leased lines.

Message Switching:
➢ Think of email servers - messages are stored and forwarded instead of a direct
connection.
➢ No dedicated path, messages are queued and sent individually.
➢ More efficient for bursty data, but adds delay due to storage and forwarding.
➢ Used in early email systems and some specialized applications.
Packet Switching:
➢ Like sending a letter with multiple pages - the message is broken into smaller packets,
sent independently, and reassembled at the receiver.
➢ No dedicated path, packets take the most efficient route.
➢ Very efficient for bursty data and diverse traffic types.
➢ Used in the internet, most modern networks, and wireless communication.
2.3 Multiplexing Techniques:
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can
be simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity
medium into low capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.
Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and
light (optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
a) Frequency Division Multiplexing
 44

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the
spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel.
Each user can use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All
channels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are
separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is not used by either channel.

b) Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In TDM
the shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit
data within the provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to
time slot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be transmitted in given time slot.

TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely
synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.

When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer provides media to channel
A on the other end.As soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel
B. On the other end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media
to channel B. Signals from different channels travel the path in interleaved manner.
 45

c) Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing
technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals.

d) Code Division Multiplexing

Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division
Multiplexing. FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full
bandwidth and transmit signals all the time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal codes
to spread signals.

Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes
independently, inside the whole bandwidth. The receiver knows in advance the chip code
signal it has to receive.
TOPIC 3. DATA LINK LAYER
Data Link Layer is second layer of OSI Layered Model. This layer is one of the most
complicated layers and has complex functionalities and liabilities. Data link layer hides the
details of underlying hardware and represents itself to upper layer as the medium to
communicate.
Data link layer works between two hosts which are directly connected in some sense. This
direct connection could be point to point or broadcast. Systems on broadcast network are
said to be on same link. The work of data link layer tends to get more complex when it is
dealing with multiple hosts on single collision domain.
Data link layer is responsible for converting data stream to signals bit by bit and to send that
over the underlying hardware. At the receiving end, Data link layer picks up data from
hardware which are in the form of electrical signals, assembles them in a recognizable frame
format, and hands over to upper layer.
Data link layer has two sub-layers:
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➢ Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
➢ Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media
Functionality of Data-link Layer
Data link layer does many tasks on behalf of upper layer. These are:
1. Framing
Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into Frames.Then, it
sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data link layer picks up signals
from hardware and assembles them into frames.
2. Addressing
Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism. Hardware address is
assumed to be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of manufacturing.
3. Synchronization
When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in order to
transfer to take place.
4. Error Control
Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the bits are flipped.These
errors are detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also provides error reporting
mechanism to the sender.

5. Flow Control
Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures flow
control that enables both machine to exchange data on same speed.
6. Multi-Access
When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of collision.
Data-link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD to equip capability of accessing a
shared media among multiple Systems.
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TOPIC 4: NETWORK LAYER

Layer-3 in the OSI model is called Network layer. Network layer manages options pertaining to
host and network addressing, managing sub-networks, and internetworking.
Network layer takes the responsibility for routing packets from source to destination within or
outside a subnet. Two different subnet may have different addressing schemes or non-
compatible addressing types. Same with protocols, two different subnet may be operating on
different protocols which are not compatible with each other. Network layer has the
responsibility to route the packets from source to destination, mapping different addressing
schemes and protocols.
Layer-3 Functionalities
Devices which work on Network Layer mainly focus on routing. Routing may include various
tasks aimed to achieve a single goal. These can be:

• Addressing devices and networks.

• Populating routing tables or static routes.
• Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to quality
of service constraints set for those packets.
• Internetworking between two different subnets.
• Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.
• Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.
Network Layer Features
With its standard functionalities, Layer 3 can provide various features as:
Quality of service management
Load balancing and link management
Security
Interrelation of different protocols and subnets with different schema.
Different logical network design over the physical network design.
L3 VPN and tunnels can be used to provide end to end dedicated connectivity.
Internet protocol is widely respected and deployed Network Layer protocol which helps to
communicate end to end devices over the internet. It comes in two flavors. IPv4 which has
ruled the world for decades but now is running out of address space. IPv6 is created to
replace IPv4 and hopefully mitigates limitations of IPv4 too.
Network Addressing
Layer 3 network addressing is one of the major tasks of Network Layer. Network Addresses
are always logical i.e. these are software based addresses which can be changed by
appropriate configurations. A network address always points to host / node / server or it can
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represent a whole network. Network address is always configured on network interface card
and is generally mapped by system with the MAC address (hardware address or layer-2
address) of the machine for Layer-2 communication.

There are different kinds of network addresses in existence:

• IP: The dominant network protocol globally, used for the internet, most local
networks, and various devices.
• IPX: A legacy protocol primarily used in older Novell NetWare networks and some
niche applications.
• AppleTalk: A nearly obsolete protocol mainly associated with older Macintosh
networks.
IP addressing provides mechanism to differentiate between hosts and network. Because IP
addresses are assigned in hierarchical manner, a host always resides under a specific
network.The host which needs to communicate outside its subnet, needs to know destination
network address, where the packet/data is to be sent.

Hosts in different subnet need a mechanism to locate each other. This task can be done by
DNS. DNS is a server which provides Layer-3 address of remote host mapped with its domain
name or FQDN. When a host acquires the Layer-3 Address (IP Address) of the remote host, it
forwards all its packet to its gateway. A gateway is a router equipped with all the information
which leads to route packets to the destination host.
4.1: Logical Addressing:
Every computer in a network has an IP address by which it can be uniquely identified and
addressed. An IP address is Layer-3 (Network Layer) logical address. This address may change
every time a computer restarts. A computer can have one IP at one instance of time and
another IP at some different time.
i) Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
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While communicating, a host needs Layer-2 (MAC) address of the destination machine which
belongs to the same broadcast domain or network. A MAC address is physically burnt into the
Network Interface Card (NIC) of a machine and it never changes.

On the other hand, IP address on the public domain is rarely changed. If the NIC is changed in
case of some fault, the MAC address also changes. This way, for Layer-2 communication to
take place, a mapping between the two is required. To know the MAC address of remote host
on a broadcast domain, a computer wishing to initiate communication sends out an ARP
broadcast message asking, “Who has this IP address?” Because it is a broadcast, all hosts on
the network segment (broadcast domain) receive this packet and process it. ARP packet
contains the IP address of destination host, the sending host wishes to talk to. When a host
receives an ARP packet destined to it, it replies back with its own MAC address.
Once the host gets destination MAC address, it can communicate with remote host using
Layer-2 link protocol. This MAC to IP mapping is saved into ARP cache of both sending and
receiving hosts. Next time, if they require to communicate, they can directly refer to their
respective ARP cache.
Reverse ARP is a mechanism where host knows the MAC address of remote host but requires
to know IP address to communicate.
ii) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
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ICMP is network diagnostic and error reporting protocol. ICMP belongs to IP protocol suite
and uses IP as carrier protocol. After constructing ICMP packet, it is encapsulated in IP packet.
Because IP itself is a best-effort non-reliable protocol, so is ICMP.
Any feedback about network is sent back to the originating host. If some error in the network
occurs, it is reported by means of ICMP. ICMP contains dozens of diagnostic and error
reporting messages.
ICMP-echo and ICMP-echo-reply are the most commonly used ICMP messages to check the
reachability of end-to-end hosts. When a host receives an ICMP-echo request, it is bound to
send back an ICMP-echo-reply. If there is any problem in the transit network, the ICMP will
report that problem.
iii) Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)
IPv4 is 32-bit addressing scheme used as TCP/IP host addressing mechanism. IP addressing
enables every host on the TCP/IP network to be uniquely identifiable.
IPv4 provides hierarchical addressing scheme which enables it to divide the network into sub-
networks, each with well-defined number of hosts. IP addresses are divided into many
categories:
Class A - it uses first octet for network addresses and last three octets for host addressing
Class B - it uses first two octets for network addresses and last two for host addressing
Class C - it uses first three octets for network addresses and last one for host addressing
Class D - it provides flat IP addressing scheme in contrast to hierarchical structure for above
three.
Class E - It is used as experimental.

IPv4 also has well-defined address spaces to be used as private addresses (not routable on
internet), and public addresses (provided by ISPs and are routable on internet).
Though IP is not reliable one; it provides ‘Best-Effort-Delivery’ mechanism.
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iv) Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses gave birth to a next generation Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6
addresses its nodes with 128-bit wide address providing plenty of address space for future to
be used on entire planet or beyond.IPv6 has introduced Anycast addressing but has removed
the concept of broadcasting. IPv6 enables devices to self-acquire an IPv6 address and
communicate within that subnet. This auto-configuration removes the dependability of
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. This way, even if the DHCP server on
that subnet is down, the hosts can communicate with each other. IPv6 provides new feature
of IPv6 mobility. Mobile IPv6 equipped machines can roam around without the need of
changing their IP addresses. IPv6 is still in transition phase and is expected to replace IPv4
completely in coming years. At present, there are few networks which are running on IPv6
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TOPIC 5. TRANSPORT LAYER

Next Layer in OSI Model is recognized as Transport Layer (Layer-4). All modules and
procedures pertaining to transportation of data or data stream are categorized into this layer.
As all other layers, this layer communicates with its peer Transport layer of the remote host.
Transport layer offers peer-to-peer and end-to-end connection between two processes on
remote hosts. Transport layer takes data from upper layer (i.e. Application layer) and then
breaks it into smaller size segments, numbers each byte, and hands over to lower layer
(Network Layer) for delivery.
Functions

• This Layer is the first one which breaks the information data, supplied by Application
layer in to smaller units called segments. It numbers every byte in the segment and
maintains their accounting.
• This layer ensures that data must be received in the same sequence in which it was
sent.
• This layer provides end-to-end delivery of data between hosts which may or may not
belong to the same subnet.
• All server processes intend to communicate over the network are equipped with well-
known Transport Service Access Points (TSAPs) also known as port numbers.
End-to-End Communication
A process on one host identifies its peer host on remote network by means of TSAPs, also
known as Port numbers. TSAPs are very well defined and a process which is trying to
communicate with its peer knows this in advance.
Transmission Control Protocol
The transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the most important protocols of Internet
Protocols suite. It is most widely used protocol for data transmission in communication
network such as internet.

Features
TCP is reliable protocol. That is, the receiver always sends either positive or negative
acknowledgement about the data packet to the sender, so that the sender always has bright
clue about whether the data packet is reached the destination or it needs to resend it.

• TCP ensures that the data reaches intended destination in the same order it was sent.
• TCP is connection oriented. TCP requires that connection between two remote points
be established before sending actual data.
• TCP provides error-checking and recovery mechanism.
• TCP provides end-to-end communication.
• TCP provides flow control and quality of service.
• TCP operates in Client/Server point-to-point mode.
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• TCP provides full duplex server, i.e. it can perform roles of both receiver and sender.
TCP Header
The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.

Source Port (16-bits) - It identifies source port of the application process on the sending
device.
Destination Port (16-bits) - It identifies destination port of the application process on the
receiving device.
Sequence Number (32-bits) - Sequence number of data bytes of a segment in a session.
Acknowledgement Number (32-bits) - When ACK flag is set, this number contains the next
sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement of the previous
data received.

Data Offset (4-bits) - This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words) and the
offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.
Reserved (3-bits) - Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.
Flags (1-bit each)
NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit Congestion Notification signaling process.
CWR - When a host receives packet with ECE bit set, it sets Congestion Windows Reduced to
acknowledge that ECE received.
ECE -It has two meanings:
If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that the IP packet has its CE (congestion experience)
bit set.
If SYN bit is set to 1, ECE means that the device is ECT capable.
URG - It indicates that Urgent Pointer field has significant data and should be processed.
 54

ACK - It indicates that Acknowledgement field has significance. If ACK is cleared to 0, it

indicates that packet does not contain any acknowledgement.
PSH - When set, it is a request to the receiving station to PUSH data (as soon as it comes) to
the receiving application without buffering it.
RST - Reset flag has the following features:
It is used to refuse an incoming connection.
It is used to reject a segment.
It is used to restart a connection.
SYN - This flag is used to set up a connection between hosts.
FIN - This flag is used to release a connection and no more data is exchanged thereafter.
Because packets with SYN and FIN flags have sequence numbers, they are processed in
correct order.
Windows Size - This field is used for flow control between two stations and indicates the
amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how much data is the
receiver expecting.
Checksum - This field contains the checksum of Header, Data and Pseudo Headers.
Urgent Pointer - It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
Options - It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regular header. Option
field is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data less than 32-bit, padding is
used to cover the remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.
UDP protocol
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a transport layer protocol within the Internet Protocol Suite
(TCP/IP).
It provides a connectionless, unreliable datagram-based service for transferring data between
applications on networks.
Unlike TCP, UDP doesn't establish a connection before sending data and doesn't guarantee
delivery or order of data packets.
Key Characteristics:
Connectionless: No handshaking or connection setup required, enabling faster
communication.
Unreliable: Doesn't guarantee delivery, order, or error-free data.
Fast: Lower overhead compared to TCP due to simpler structure.
Low latency: Suitable for real-time applications where timely delivery is crucial, even if some
packets are lost.
 55

Simple: Smaller header size compared to TCP, offering better efficiency for small data
transmissions.
Applications:
Real-time streaming: Video conferencing, online gaming, live audio/video.
DNS lookups: Quick responses for website address translations.
Simple data transfers: Small data packets without high reliability requirements.
Broadcast and multicast applications: Sending data to multiple recipients efficiently.
Connection establishment, data transfer, and termination
Flow control and error recovery mechanisms
TCP Vs UDP
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TOPIC 6: APPLICATION LAYER

Application layer is the top most layer in OSI and TCP/IP layered model. This layer exists in
both layered Models because of its significance, of interacting with user and user applications.
This layer is for applications which are involved in communication system.
A user may or may not directly interacts with the applications. Application layer is where the
actual communication is initiated and reflects. Because this layer is on the top of the layer
stack, it does not serve any other layers. Application layer takes the help of Transport and all
layers below it to communicate or transfer its data to the remote host.
When an application layer protocol wants to communicate with its peer application layer
protocol on remote host, it hands over the data or information to the Transport layer. The
transport layer does the rest with the help of all the layers below it.

There’is an ambiguity in understanding Application Layer and its protocol. Not every user
application can be put into Application Layer. except those applications which interact with
the communication system. For example, designing software or text-editor cannot be
considered as application layer programs.
On the other hand, when we use a Web Browser, which is actually using Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) to interact with the network. HTTP is Application Layer protocol.
Another example is File Transfer Protocol, which helps a user to transfer text based or binary
files across the network. A user can use this protocol in either GUI based software like FileZilla
or CuteFTP and the same user can use FTP in Command Line mode.
Hence, irrespective of which software you use, it is the protocol which is considered at
Application Layer used by that software. DNS is a protocol which helps user application
protocols such as HTTP to accomplish its work.
Error Detection & Correction
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There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc., which may help data to get corrupted
during transmission. The upper layers work on some generalized view of network architecture
and are not aware of actual hardware data processing. Hence, the upper layers expect error-
free transmission between the systems. Most of the applications would not function
expectedly if they receive erroneous data. Applications such as voice and video may not be
that affected and with some errors they may still function well.
Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit streams)
are transmitted with certain level of accuracy. But to understand how errors is controlled, it is
essential to know what types of errors may occur.
Types of Errors
There may be three types of errors

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

Error detection
Error correction
Definition: Identifies the presence of errors in data during transmission or storage.
Importance:Ensures data integrity and prevents misinterpretations or malfunctions.
Methods:
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• Parity Check: Uses extra bits to ensure even or odd number of 1s in a data unit. Simple
but detects only single-bit errors.
• Checksum: Combines data bits into a single value recalculated at the receiver and
compared to the transmitted value. Detects various error patterns.
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) More complex mathematical calculation for high
detection accuracy, even for multiple-bit errors.
Error Correction:
Definition: Not only identifies but also corrects detected errors.
Importance: Recovers original data, crucial for sensitive information or critical applications.
Methods:
Hamming Code: Adds extra bits for error detection and correction of single-bit errors.
Reed-Solomon Code: More complex, corrects multiple-bit errors within a limited range.
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ): Receiver requests retransmission of corrupted data
packets. Suitable for reliable but slower communication.
Key Differences:
Focus: Error detection identifies, while error correction both identifies and fixes.
Complexity: Error detection is generally simpler and less computationally expensive.
Applications: Error detection is used in wider scenarios, while error correction is mainly
applied when data integrity is critical.
END
Additional Resources:
Textbooks: "Computer Networks" by Andrew Tanenbaum, "Computer Networking: A Top-
Down Approach" by James F. Kurose and K.W. Ross
Online tutorials and courses: Coursera, Udemy, edX
Network simulation tools: GNS3, Packet Tracer