Computer

Graphics
Handbook

Dr. Vishwas Raval

Assistant Professor, CSE
Faculty of Technology & Engineering
The M S University of Baroda

Bharat Publications, Vadodara

Computer Graphics Handbook
By - Dr. Vishwas Raval

Publishers
BHARAT PUBLICATIONS
16-B, Gokuldham Society,
G.I.D.C. Road, Manjalpur,
Vadodara

ISBN : 978-93-92795-05-3

First Edition

Price: ₹ 240.00

Printers
NATRAJ OFFSET
KajiMiya’s Tekaro, Behind Narayan Kunj
Outside Shahpur Darwaja, Ahmedabad
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I bow down myself in the lotus feet of the omnipotent, the omnipresent, God
and thank God for making me able to do something good for the society. I am grateful to my
Guru and father-like Doctor Uncle whose blessings have always been with me in every
footsteps of my life. Today, whatever I am is their Divine Grace only.

I am thankful to my parents and parents-in-law, for, they have always been my motivation
to do good for the society. Especially, my father who has always dreamt of his son doing
great and noble! I owe a lot to my lovely wife and daughter as I could not give enough time
to them in this duration of writing. Without their generous and selfless support, this work
would not have been possible.

Most importantly, this work would not have been possible without the references and
resources I used and mentioned in the reference chapter. I am wholeheartedly thankful to all
of them who contributed in creating such extremely useful resources which have helped me
to carry out this work.

Finally, I thank my colleagues in the department whose support and guidance helped me to
move ahead. I am thankful to all my friends, well-wishers, who directly or indirectly
supported me throughout this period in all aspects.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
_______________________________________________________

1 Introduction to Computer Graphics 1

2 Raster Algorithms 27

3 2D Transformations 69

4 2D Viewing & Clipping 101

5 3D Transformations & Viewing 123

6 3D Object Representations 153

7 Visible Surface Detection 169

8 Basics of Image Processing 179

9 Image Processing with Python and Open CV 199

10 References 209
 1. INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER GRAPHICS

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Graphics are defined as any sketch or a drawing or a special network that pictorially
represents some meaningful information. Computer Graphics is used where a set of images
needs to be manipulated or the creation of the image in the form of pixels and is drawn on
the computer. Computer Graphics can be used in digital photography, film, entertainment,
electronic gadgets, and all other core technologies which are required. It is a vast subject
and area in the field of computer science. Computer Graphics can be used in UI design,
rendering, geometric objects, animation, and many more. In most areas, computer graphics
is an abbreviation of CG. There are several tools used for the implementation of Computer
Graphics. The basic is the <graphics.h> header file in Turbo-C, Unity for advanced and
even OpenGL can be used for its Implementation.
Computer Graphics refers to several things like the manipulation and the representation of
the image or the data in a graphical manner, various technology is required for the creation
and manipulation, digital synthesis and its manipulation etc.
There are basically two types of graphics in computers:
Raster Graphics: In raster, graphics pixels are used for an image to be drawn. It is also
known as a bitmap image in which a sequence of images is into smaller pixels. Basically, a
bitmap indicates a large number of pixels together.
Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, mathematical formulae are used to draw different
types of shapes, lines, objects, and so on.

1. APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Computer graphics deals with creation, manipulation and storage of different type of
images and objects.
1. Computer Art: Using computer graphics, we can create fine and commercial art
which include animation packages, paint packages. These packages provide
facilities for designing object shapes and specifying object motion. Cartoon
drawing, paintings, logo design can also be done.
2. Computer Aided Drawing: Designing of buildings, automobile, aircraft can be
done with the help of computer aided drawing. Tthis helps in providing minute
details to the drawing and producing more accurate and sharp drawings with better
specifications.
3. Presentation Graphics: For the preparation of reports or summarizing the
financial, statistical, mathematical, scientific, economic data for research reports,
managerial reports, creation of bar graphs, pie charts, time chart, can be done using
the tools present in computer graphics.
4. Entertainment: Computer graphics finds a major part of its utility in the movie
industry and game industry. It is used for creating motion pictures, music video,
television shows, cartoon animation films. In the game industry where focus and
interactivity are the key players. Computer graphics helps in providing such
features in the efficient way.
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 5. Education: Computer generated models are extremely useful for teaching huge
number of concepts and fundamentals in an easy to understand and learn manner.
Using computer graphics, many educational models can be created through which
more interest can be generated among the students regarding the subject.
6. Training: Specialized system like simulators can be used for training the
candidates in a way that can be grasped in a short span of time with better
understanding. Creation of training modules using computer graphics is simple and
very useful.
7. Graphic operations: A general purpose graphics package provides user with varity
of function for creating and manipulating pictures. The basic building blocks for
pictures are referred to as output primitives. They includes character, string, and
geometry entities such as point, straight lines, curved lines, filled areas and shapes
defined with arrays of color points. Input functions are used for control & process
the various input device such as mouse, tablet etc. Control operations are used for
controlling and housekeeping tasks such as clearing display screen etc. All such
inbuilt function which we can use for our purpose are known as graphics function.
2. SOFTWARE STANDARD AND GRAPHICS PACKAGES
Primary goal of standardize graphics software is portability, so that it can be used in any
hardware systems & avoid rewriting of software program for different system. Some of
these standards are discussed below:
1. Graphical Kernel System (GKS): This system was adopted as a first graphics
software standard by the international standard organization (ISO) and various
national standard organizations including ANSI. GKS was originally designed as
the two dimensional graphics package and later extension was developed for three
dimensions.
2. PHIGS (Programmer’s Hierarchical Interactive Graphic Standard): PHIGS is
extension of GKS. Increased capability for object modeling, color specifications,
surface rendering, and picture manipulation are provided in PHIGS. Extension of
PHIGS called “PHIGS+” was developed to provide three dimensional surface
shading capabilities not available in PHIGS.
2.1 Graphics Packages:
There are mainly two types of graphics packages:
1. General programming package: A general programming package provides an
extensive set of graphics function that can be used in high level programming
language such as C or FORTRAN. It includes basic drawing element shape like
line, curves, polygon, color of element transformation etc. Example: − GL
(Graphics Library), Open CV etc.
2. Special-purpose application package: Special−purpose application package are
customized for particular applications which implements required facility and
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 provides interface so that user need not to worry about how it will work
(programming). User can simply use it by interfacing with application. Example:
CAD, medical and business systems.

3. OUTPUT PRIMITIVES: POINTS AND LINES

1. Point plotting is done by converting a single coordinate position furnished by an
application program into appropriate operations for the output device in use.
2. Line drawing is done by calculating intermediate positions along the line path
between two specified end point positions.
3. The output device is then directed to fill in those positions between the endpoints
with some color.
4. For some devices, such as a pen plotter or random scan display, a straight line can
be drawn smoothly from one end point together.
5. Digital devices display a straight line segment by plotting discrete points between
the two end points.
6. Discrete coordinate positions along the line path are calculated from the equation of
the line.
7. For a raster video display, the line intensity is loaded in frame buffer at the
corresponding pixel positions.
8. Reading from the frame buffer, the video controller then plots the screen pixels.
9. Screen locations are referenced with integer values, so plotted positions may only
approximate actual line positions between two specified end points.
10. For example line position of (12.36, 23.87) would be converted to pixel position
(12,24).
11. This rounding of coordinate values to integers causes lines to be displayed with a
stair step appearance (“the jaggies”), as represented in following figure.

Stairstep effect
12. The stair step shape is noticeable in low resolution system, and we can improve
their appearance somewhat by displaying them on high resolution system.

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 13. More effective techniques for smoothing raster lines are based on adjusting pixel
intensities along the line paths.
14. For raster graphics device algorithms discuss in next chapter, object positions are
specified directly in integer device coordinates.
15. To load the specified color into the frame buffer at a particular position, we will
assume that we have available low−level procedure of the form setpixel(x,y).
16. Similarly for retrieve the current frame buffer intensity we assume to have
procedure getpixel(x,y).
4. INPUT DEVICES
The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the computer.
The data can be in the form of text, graphics and sound. Output devices display data from
the memory of the computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line, polygon, and other
objects.

Basic components of Computer Graphics

These Devices include:
1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Trackball
4. Spaceball
5. Joystick
6. Light Pen
7. Digitizer
8. Touch Panels
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 9. Voice Recognition
10. Image Scanner
1. Keyboard:

Keyboard
The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing the
set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY
keyboard. The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also
available.
Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
Function Keys: F1 F2 F3 F9.
Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry of
numeric data.
Function of Keyboard: Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD (Computer Aided
Drafting). Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry,
Menu selection or graphics functions, etc. Special purpose keyboards are available having
buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real
numbers. Buttons and switches are used to enter predefined function values.
2. Mouse:

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 Mouse

A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a small
palm size box. There are two or three pressing switches on the top. The movement of the
mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the cursor and the movement
along the y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the cursor on the screen. The mouse
cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they are used along with a keyboard.
3. Trackball

Trackball

It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or laptop

computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by moving fingers
on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
4. Space ball:

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It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions whereas trackball can move in
two directions only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge is applied
with pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball has a diameter
around 7.5 cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-third of the ball is an
inside box, the rest is outside. It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object. It is
also used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality. It is applicable in CAD
applications. Animation is also done using spaceball. It is used in the area of simulation
and modeling too.
5. Joystick:
A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a monitor
screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as it’s both lower and upper ends as
shown in figure.

The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be changed in all four
directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of the mouse. It is mainly used in
Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
6. Light Pen:
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed menu
item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system
placed in a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen, and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the
corresponding signals to the CPU.

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Light Pens can be used as input coordinate positions by providing necessary arrangements.
If background color or intensity, a light pen can be used as a locator. It is used as a standard
pick device with many graphics system. It can be used as stroke input devices. It can be
used as valuators.
7. Digitizers:

The digitizer is an operator input device, which contains a large, smooth board (the
appearance is similar to the mechanical drawing board) & an electronic tracking device,
which can be changed over the surface to follow existing lines. The electronic tracking
device contains a switch for the user to record the desired x & y coordinate positions. The
coordinates can be entered into the computer memory or stored or an off-line storage
medium such as magnetic tape.
8. Touch Panels:
Touch Panels is a type of display screen that has a touch-sensitive transparent panel
covering the screen. A touch screen registers input when a finger or other object comes in
contact with the screen. When the wave signals are interrupted by some contact with the
screen that location is recorded. Touch screens have long been used in military
applications.
9. Voice Systems (Voice Recognition):
Voice Recognition is one of the newest, most complex input techniques used to interact
with the computer. The user inputs data by speaking into a microphone. The simplest form
of voice recognition is a one-word command spoken by one person. Each command is
isolated with pauses between the words. Voice Recognition is used in some graphics
workstations as input devices to accept voice commands. The voice-system input can be
used to initiate graphics operations or to enter data. These systems operate by matching an
input against a predefined dictionary of words and phrases.
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10. Image Scanner
The data or text is written on paper. The paper is fed to scanner. The paper written
information is converted into electronic format which is stored in the computer in image
format. The input documents can contain text, handwritten material, pictures etc. By
storing the document in a computer document became safe for longer period of time. The
document will be permanently stored for the future. We can edit and print the document
whenever needed. Scanning can be of the black and white or colored picture. On stored
picture 2D or 3D rotations, scaling and other operations can also be applied.
5. OUTPUT DEVICES
1. Printers:
A printer is a peripheral device which is used to represent the graphics or text on paper.
The quality is measured by its resolution. The resolution of any printer is measured in dot
per inch (dpi). The printer usually works with the computer and connected via a cable. In
present, many digital device support printer features so that we can use Bluetooth, WiFi,
and cloud technology to print.
Some types of printers are:
1.1 Impact Printers
1.2 Non-impact Printers

Classification of Printers
1.1 Impact Printers
In impact printers, there is a physical contact established between the print head, ribbon,
ink-cartridge and paper. The printers hit print head on an ink-filled ribbon than the letters
get printed on the paper. Impact printers work like a typewriter. These printers have three
types:

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Types of Impact Printers:
1.1.1 Daisy Wheel Printers:

Daisy wheel printer

By these, we can print only one character at a time. The head of this printer looks like a
daisy flower, with the printing arms that appear like petals of a flower; that’s why it is
called “Daisy printer.” It can print approx. 90 characters per second. Daisy wheel printers
are used to print the professional quality document. It is also called “Letter Quality
Printer.”
Advantages:
● More reliable
● Better printing Quality
Disadvantages:
● Slow than Dot Matrix
● More Expensive
● Noisy in operation
1.1.2 Drum Printers:
It has a shape like a drum, so it is called “Drum Printer.” This type of printer contains
many characters that are printed on the drum. The surface of the drum is break down into
the number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to 132 characters. A drum will have 132 tracks.
The number of tracks is divided according to the width of the paper. It can print approx.
150-2500 lines per minute.

Drum Printers
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Advantages:
● High Speed
● Low Cost
Disadvantages:
● Poor Printing Quality
● Noisy in Operation
1.1.3 Dot Matrix Printer:
It is also known as the “Impact Matrix Printer.” Dot Matrix Printer can print only one
character at a time. The dot matrix printer uses print heads consisting of 9 to 24 pins. These
pins are used to produce a pattern of dots on the paper to create a separate character. Dot-
matrix printer can print any shapes of character, special character, graphs, and charts.

Dot matrix printer

Advantages:
● Low Printing Cost
● Large print size
● Long Life
Disadvantages:
● Slow speed
● Low Resolution
1.2 Non-impact Printers
In Non-impact printers, there is no physical contact between the print head or paper head.
A non-impact printer prints a complete page at a time. The Non-impact printers spray ink
on the paper through nozzles to form the letters and patterns. The printers that print the
letters without the ribbon and on papers are called Non-impact printer. Non-impact printers
are also known as “Page Printer.”
These printers have two types:
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1.2.1 Inkjet Printer:
It is also called “Deskjet Printer.” It is a Non-impact printer in which the letters and
graphics are printed by spraying a drop of ink on the paper with nozzle head. A Color
inkjet printer has four ink nozzles, sapphire, red, yellow, and black, so it is also called
CMYK printer. We can produce any color by using these four colors. The prints and
graphics of this printer are very clear. These printers are generally used for home purposes.

Deskjet printer
Advantages:
● High-Quality Printout
● Low noise
● High Resolution
Disadvantages:
● Less Durability of the print head
● Not suitable for high volume printing
● Cartridges replacement is expensive
1.2.2 Laser Printer:
It is also called “Page Printer” because a laser printer process and store the whole page
before printing it. The laser printer is used to produce high-quality images and text. It is
used with personal computers generally. The laser printers are mostly preferred to print a
large amount of content on paper.

Laser printer

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Advantages:
● High Resolution
● High printing Speed
● Low printing Cost
Disadvantages:
● Costly than an inkjet printer
● Larger and heavier than an inkjet printer
2. Plotters:
A plotter is a special type of output device. It is used to print large graphs, large designs on
large papers. For Example, Construction maps, engineering drawings, architectural plans,
and business charts etc. It is similar to a printer, but it is used to print vector graphics.
Following are the types of Plotter:
2.1 Flatbed Plotter:
In a flatbed plotter, the paper is kept in a stationary position on a table or a tray. A flatbed
plotter has more than one pen and a holder. The pen rotates on the paper upside-down and
right-left by a motor. Every pen has a different color ink, which is used to draw the
multicolor design. We can quickly draw Cars, Ships, Airplanes, Dress design, road and
highway blueprints, etc. using such printers.

Flatbed plotter
Advantages:
● Larger size paper can be used
● Drawing Quality is similar to an expert
Disadvantages:
● Slower than printers
● More Expensive than printers
● Do not produce high-Quality text printouts
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2.2 Drum Plotter:
It is also called “Roller plotter.” There is a drum in this plotter. We can apply the paper on
the drum. When the plotter starts, these drums moves back and forth, and the image is
drawn. Drum plotter has more than one pen and penholders. The pens easily moves right to
left and left to right. The movement of pens and drums are controlled by graph plotting
program. It is used in industry to produce large drawings (up to A0).

Drum plotter
Advantages:
● Draw Larger Size image
● We can print unlimited length of the image
Disadvantages:
● Very costly
6. VISUAL DISPLAY DEVICES
The primary output device in a graphics system is a video monitor. Although many
technologies exist, but the operations of most video monitors are based on the standard
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) design.
1. Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)
A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are produced
when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface. It modulates, accelerates, and
deflects electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. Most desktop computer
displays make use of CRT for image displaying purposes.

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 Typical CRT Structure
Construction of a CRT:
1. The primary components are the heated metal cathode and a control grid.
2. The heat is supplied to the cathode by passing current through the filament.
3. This way the electrons get heated up and start getting ejected out of the cathode
filament.
4. This stream of negatively charged electrons is accelerated towards the phosphor
screen by supplying a high positive voltage.
5. This acceleration is generally produced by means of an accelerating anode.
6. The Focusing System is used to force the electron beam to converge to small spot
on the screen.
7. If there will not be any focusing system, the electrons will be scattered because of
their own repulsions and hence we won’t get a sharp image of the object.
8. This focusing can be either by means of electrostatic fields or magnetic fields.
The electron beam (cathode rays) passes through a highly positively charged metal cylinder
that forms an electrostatic lens. This electrostatic lens focuses the cathode rays to the center
of the screen in the same way like an optical lens focuses the beam of light. Two pairs of
parallel plates are mounted inside the CRT. From these two pairs, one pair is mounted on
the top and bottom of the CRT tube, and the other pair on the two opposite sides. The
magnetic field produced by both these pairs is such that a force is generated on the electron
beam in a direction which is perpendicular to both the direction of magnetic field, and to
the direction of flow of the beam. One pair is mounted horizontally and the other vertically.
Different kinds of phosphors are used in a CRT. The difference is based upon the time for
how long the phosphor continues to emit light after the electron beam disappears. This

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property of staying electron on screen is referred to as Persistence. The number of points
displayed on a CRT is referred to as resolutions (eg. 1024x768).
2. Raster-Scan
In this system, a beam of an electron is moved across the screen. It moves from top to
bottom considering one row at a time. As the beam of electron moves through each row, its
intensity is alternatively turned on and off which helps to create a pattern of spots that are
illuminated. When each scan of the line is refreshed it returns to the left side of the screen.
This motion is known as Horizontal retrace. As a particular frame ends, the beam of
electron moves to the left top corner of the screen to move to another frame. This motion is
referred to as Vertical retrace. Each complete scanning of a screen is normally called a
frame. The frame rate, normally 24 fps, is rate at which frames are sent for display. The
Refresh rate of your display refers to how many times per second the display is able to draw
a new image. This is measured in Hertz (Hz). For example, if your display has a refresh rate
of 144Hz, it is refreshing the image 144 times per second.

Raster Scan Displays

Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the frame buffer. This frame buffer
stores the intensity values for all the screen points. Each screen point is called a pixel
(picture element or pixel). In black and white systems, the frame buffer storing the values
of the pixels is called a bitmap. Each entry in the bitmap is a 1-bit data which determines
the on (1) and off (0) of the intensity of the pixel.
In color systems, the frame buffer storing the values of the pixels is called a pixmap
(Though nowadays many graphics libraries refere it as bitmap only). Each entry in the
pixmap occupies a number of bits to represent the color of the pixel. For a true color
display, the number of bits for each entry is 24 (8 bits per red/green/blue channel, each
channel 28 =256 levels of intensity value, ie. 256 voltage settings for each of the
red/green/blue electron guns).
Aspect ratio is number of pixels in vertical direction to number of pixels in horizontal
direction. A flicker is the appearance of flashing or unsteadiness in an image on a display

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screen. This issue can occur when the video refresh rate is too low, other video related
issues, and in some cases hardware issues with the monitor. Commonly, when this issue
occurs, users will experience more eyestrain.
3. Random-Scan (Vector Display) or Stroke-Writing or Calligraphic displays:
The CRT's electron beam is directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to be
drawn. The picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing commands in a refresh
display file or a refresh buffer in memory.

Random Scanning Displays

Random-scan generally have higher resolution than raster systems and can produce smooth
line drawings, however it cannot display realistic shaded scenes.
4. Color CRT Monitors:
The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphorus with different colors.
There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with a CRT are:
● Beam Penetration Method
● Shadow-Mask Method
4.1 Beam Penetration Method:

Beam Penetration Model Structure

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The Beam-Penetration method are used with random-scan monitors. In this method, the
CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphorus, red and green and the displayed color
depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphorus layers. This method
produces four colors only, red, green, orange and yellow. A beam of slow electrons excites
the outer red layer only; hence screen shows red color only. A beam of high-speed
electrons excites the inner green layer and the screen shows a green color.
Advantages:
● Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
● Only four colors are possible
● Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.
4.2 Shadow-Mask Method:
Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they produce a
much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration method. It is used in the majority of
color TV sets and monitors.

Shadow Mask Method

Construction:
A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphorus colored with red, blue and green dots at each pixel
position emitting red, green and blue light. This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for
each color dot and a shadow mask grid just behind the phosphor coated screen. Shadow
mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.
The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously. The 3
electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains
a sequence of holes aligned with the phosphor- dot patterns. When the three beams pass
through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dotted triangle, which occurs as a small
color spot on the screen. The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each

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electron beam can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the
shadow mask.
Advantages:
● Realistic image
● Million different colors to be generated
● Shadow scenes are possible
Disadvantages:
● Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
● Relatively poor resolution
● Convergence Problem
5. Direct View Storage Tubes:
DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on the CRT
screen. The term "storage tube" refers to the ability of the screen to retain the image which
has been projected against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image constantly.

DVST Structure
There are two guns used in DVST: Primary guns are used to store the picture patter and the
Flood gun or Secondary gun are used to maintain picture display.
Advantages:
● No refreshing is needed.
● High Resolution
● Cost is very less
Disadvantages:
● It is not possible to erase the selected part of a picture.

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 ● It is not suitable for dynamic graphics applications.
● If a part of picture is to modify, then time is consumed.
6. Flat Panel Display:
The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement compared to CRT. For example, Small T.V. monitor, calculator,
pocket video games, laptop computers, an advertisement board in elevator. There are three
types of displays: Plasma, LEDs and LCDs.
6.1 Plasma Panel Display:
Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array of small
lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature.

A Plasma Panel Display

The essential components of the plasma-panel display are as follows:
Cathode consists of wires and delivers negative voltage to gas cells. The voltage is released
along with the negative axis. Anode also consists of wires and delivers positive voltage.
The voltage is supplied along positive axis. Fluorescent cells consist of small pockets of
gas liquids. When the voltage is applied to this liquid (neon gas), it emits light. The Glass
Plates plates act as capacitors. Till the voltages are applied, the cell glows continuously.
The gas will be slower when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal
and vertical wires. The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts. Plasma display
does not require refreshing. Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.
Each cell of plasma has two states and hence the cell is said to be stable. Displayable point
in plasma panel is made by the crossing of the horizontal and vertical grid. The resolution
of the plasma panel can be up to 512 * 512 pixels.
Advantages:
● High Resolution
● Large screen size is also possible.
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 ● Less volume
● Less weight
● Flicker Free Display
Disadvantages:
● Poor Resolution
● Wiring requirement anode and the cathode is complex.
● Its addressing is also complex.
6.2 Emissive Display (LED-Light Emitting Diode)
The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Examples are
Plasma Panel discussed above, thin film electroluminescent display and LED (Light
Emitting Diodes). In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in
the display and picture definition is stored in a refresh buffer. Data is read from the refresh
buffer and converted to voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light
pattern in the display.

LED Displays
6.3 Non-Emissive Display (LCD-Liquid Crystal Display)
The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD (Liquid Crystal Device). Liquid Crystal
Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing polarized light from the
surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal material that transmits
the light.
LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is the right angle
to each other and liquid is filled between plates. One glass plate consisting of rows of
conductors arranged in vertical direction and another glass plate is consisting of a row of

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23
conductors arranged in horizontal direction. The pixel position is determined by the
intersection of the vertical & horizontal conductors. This position is an active part of the
screen. Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy
degree Celsius. It is flat and requires very little power to operate.

Modern LCD Displays

Advantages:
● Low power consumption.
● Small Size
● Low Cost
Disadvantages:
● LCDs are temperature-dependent (0-70°C)
● LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
● LCDs have no color capability.
● The resolution is not as good as that of a CRT.

7. FRAME BUFFER
In the previous sections, we talked about images displayed via memory to various types of
displays. So how is the image stored inside computer memory? The answer is Frame
Buffer. Frame buffer is an important component of computer graphics. There is a display
controller that retrieves the contents from the frame buffer and displays the image
accordingly. It is a large contiguous piece of memory where the image is stored as a pattern
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24
of bits. Actually, a frame buffer is a portion of Random access Memory (RAM). However,
Modern video cards contain frame buffer circuitry in their cores.
As we know that computers understand only the binary language and everything is stored in
the form of bits even if it is an image. At a minimum, there is one memory bit for each
pixel. This is called the bit plane. That is the number of bits required to store the image
equal to the number of pixels. Amount of frame buffer memory required depends on the
resolution of the screen. One memory bit can have 2 possible states. A single bit plane will
give a black and white display. That is, zero is for black and one is for white. Now, suppose
you want to draw a straight line then put the values for those pixels as one and the
remaining will be stored as zero.

Image in the form of Pattern of bits Pixels in 8X8 Screen

Suppose, we want to change the image then we only need to modify the contents of the
frame buffer to represent new patterns of pixels with multiple colors. Colors are
incorporated using additional bit planes. That is for colors, we need to store more
information per pixel. Therefore, there will be more bits corresponding to each pixel
location on the screen. These are called additional bit planes. Suppose we have 3 bits per
pixel. Hence, we can have 23 combinations with 8 possible values in each bitplane. That is,
we can interpret 8 intensity levels.

3 bit planes for 8 colors

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25
 Color R G B
Black 0 0 0
Red 1 0 0
Green 0 1 0
Blue 0 0 1
Yellow 1 1 0
Cyan 0 1 1
Magenta 1 0 1
White 1 1 1
With n bit planes a total of 2n intensity levels are possible. The memory required by the
frame buffer depends on the Total number of bit planes/number of colors/total intensity
levels and the Resolution of the screen.
Memory required by frame buffer=n x resolution
Example: There is a system with resolution 640 X 480. Tell the size of the frame
buffer to store 12 bits per pixel?
Resolution = 640 X 480
Number of bits/pixel = N = 12
Required Frame Buffer Memory = N X Resolution
= 12 X 640 X 480
Memory in bytes = 12 x 640 X 480 / 8
= 460800 Bytes
Memory in KB = 460800/1024
= 450 KB

EXERCISE
1. What is computer graphics? Why do we study it? What are the different applications of
computer graphics in various domains?
2. What are the display devices? Explain them in details. Which output device can give
clearer picture?
3. Write a short note on different output devices.
4. List various input devices and explain them in details.
5. Calculate the size of frame buffer to store 16 bits per pixel if the screen resolution is
1280X960.

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 2. RASTER ALGORITHMS

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27
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28
1. SCAN CONVERSION
It is a process of representing graphics objects as a collection of pixels. The graphics
objects are continuous whereas the pixels used are discrete. Each pixel can have either on
or off state. The process of converting pixel into objects is also called as rasterization.
The circuitry of the video display device of the computer is capable of converting binary
values (0, 1) into a pixel on or off. Pixel off is represented by value 0 and on is represented
using value 1. Using this ability computer represents graphics picture with discrete dots.
Any model of graphics can be reproduced with a dense matrix of dots or points. Graphics
objects are perceived as collection of points, lines, circles, ellipses and polygons. For
generating graphical object, many algorithms have been developed which will be discussed
in this chapter. The advantages of developing algorithms for scan conversion are they can
generate graphics objects at a faster rate, memory can be used efficiently and a higher level
of graphical objects can be developed. Examples of objects which can be scan converted
are point, line, sector, arc, ellipse, rectangle, polygon, characters, filled Regions etc.

2. LINE
A line connects two points. It is a basic element in graphics. To draw a line, you need two
points between which you can draw a line. In the following three algorithms, we refer the
one point of line as X0,Y0 and the second point of line as X1,Y1.
2.1 DDA Algorithm
Digital Differential Analyzer DDA algorithm is the simplest line generation algorithm
given below:

1. Get the input of two end points (X0,Y0) and (X1,Y1).

2. Calculate the difference between two end points.
Δx = X1 - X0
Δy = Y1 - Y0
3. Based on the calculated difference in step-2, you need to identify the number of steps to
put pixel. If |Δx| > |Δy|, then you need more steps in x coordinate; otherwise in y
coordinate.
if (|Δx| > |Δy|)
Steps = |Δx|;
else
Steps = |Δy|;
4. Calculate the increment in x coordinate and y coordinate.
Xincrement = Δx / Steps;

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29
 Yincrement = Δy / Steps;
5. Put the pixel by successfully incrementing x and y coordinates accordingly and
complete the drawing of the line.
for(int v=0; v < Steps; v++)
{
Xk+1 = Xk + Xincrement
Yk+1 = Yk + Yincrement
putpixel(Round(x), Round(y));
}

Advantages:
● It is a simple algorithm to implement.
● It is a faster algorithm than the direct line equation.
● We cannot use the multiplication method in Digital Differential Analyzer.
● Digital Differential Analyzer algorithm tells us about the overflow of the point
when the point changes its location.
Disadvantages:
● The floating-point arithmetic implementation of the Digital Differential Analyzer is
time-consuming.
● The method of round-off is also time-consuming.
● Sometimes the point position is not accurate.
Example: Calculate the points between the points (5, 6) and (13, 10).
Solution:
Step-01:
(X0, Y0) = (5, 6)
(Xn, Yn) = (13, 10)
Step-02: Calculate ΔX, ΔY and M from the given input.
ΔX = Xn – X0 = 13 – 5 = 8
ΔY =Yn – Y0 = 10 – 6 = 4
M = ΔY / ΔX = 4 / 8 = 0.50
Step-03: Calculate the steps.
As |ΔX| > |ΔY| = 8 > 4, so Steps = |ΔX| = 8

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30
 Step-04:
Xincr= ΔX/Steps
Yincr= ΔY/Steps

Xk+1 Yk+1 Round off (Xk+1, Yk+1)

5 6 (5, 6)
6 6.5 (6, 7)
7 7 (7, 7)
8 7.5 (8, 8)
9 8 (9, 8)
10 8.5 (10, 9)
11 9 (11, 9)
12 9.5 (12, 10)
13 10 (13, 10)

2.2 Bresenham Line Drawing Algorithm

Suppose we have to draw a line with coordinates (x1, y1) and (x2, y2). To draw the line
using Bresenham's line drawing algorithm, first of all, calculate the slope of the line from
the given coordinates by using,
m = Δy/Δx where, Δx = x2 - x1 Δy = y2 - y1
There can be three values of slope (m) i.e. m < 1 or m > 1 or m = 1. On the basis of the
value of the slope, the decision parameter is calculated which gives the decision about the

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31
selection of the next pixel point which has the least distance from the true line. We'll derive
the decision parameter Pk for slope (m < 1), to understand it better.

2.2.1 Derivation of the decision parameter Pk (m < 1)

Let us consider a straight line passing through a point A(xk + 1, y),
Where, xk+1 = xk + 1 and y satisfies the equation of the line i.e.
y = m (xk + 1) + b ------(1)
The next pixel on the line will be either to yk + 1 or yk, vertically, because Δy < Δx.
If we choose the top pixel, the points in d2 region,
xk+1 = xk + 1 and y k+1 = yk + 1
If we choose bottom pixel, the points in d1 region,
xk+1 = xk + 1 and y k+1 = yk
So from the figure given,
d2 = (yk + 1) – y = yk + 1 – m (xk + 1) – b
d1 = y – yk = m (xk + 1) + b - yk
Now, we calculate the values of d1 – d2
d1 – d2 = m (xk + 1) + b - yk - yk - 1 + m (xk + 1) + b ----(2)
putting m = Δy/Δx
d1 – d2 = 2Δy (xk + 1) / Δx + 2b - 2yk - 1
To remove Δx from denominator, multiply Δx on both sides;
Δx (d1 – d2) = Δx (2Δy (xk + 1) / Δx + 2b – 2yk – 1)
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32
Let Pk = Δx (d1 – d2), thus introducing the decision variable
Pk = 2Δy xk – 2Δx yk + c where c = 2Δy + Δx (2b – 1)
Let us calculate next decision variable:
Pk+1 = 2Δy xk+1 – 2Δx yk+1 + c
Now, solve the difference Pk+1 - Pk
Pk+1 - Pk = 2Δy xk+1 – 2Δx yk+1 + c – (2Δy xk – 2Δx yk + c)
= 2Δy xk+1 – 2Δx yk+1 – 2Δy xk – 2Δx yk
Since xk+1 = xk + 1 always,
Pk+1 – Pk = 2Δy (xk + 1) – 2Δx yk+1 – 2Δy xk – 2Δx yk
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy – 2Δx (yk+1 – yk)
Now, If Pk < 0 i.e. d1<d2 (because Δx is considered as absolute) then,
yk+1 = yk (We will choose the nearest yk pixel)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy – 2Δx (yk – yk)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy
Now, If Pk > 0 i.e. d1>d2 Then,
yk+1 = yk + 1(We will choose the nearest yk + 1 pixel)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy - 2Δx (yk + 1 - yk)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy - 2Δx
Now, we will use Pk to get initial parameter P0 using (x1,y1)
P0 = 2Δy x1 – 2Δx y1 + 2Δy + Δx (2b – 1)
put b = y1 - m x1 where m = Δy/Δx
Hence, P0 = 2Δy x1 – 2Δx y1 + 2Δy + Δx (2(y1 – Δy x1/Δx) – 1 )
Solving this we get,
P0 = 2Δy – Δx

Algorithm (m < 1)
Starting coordinates = (X0, Y0)
Ending coordinates = (Xn, Yn)
1. Calculate Δx and Δy from the given input. These parameters are calculated as,
Δx = Xn – X0
Δy =Yn – Y0

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33
2. Calculate the decision parameter Pk using P0 = 2|Δy| – |Δx|
3. Suppose the current point is (Xk, Yk) and the next point is (Xk+1, Yk+1). Find the next
point depending on the value of decision parameter P k. Follow the below two cases:
xk+1 = xk + 1
If Pk < 0 Then,
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy
yk+1 = yk
else
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δy - 2Δx
yk+1 = yk + 1
4. Keep repeating Step-03 until the end point is reached or number of iterations equals to
(Δx-1) times.

2.2.2 Derivation of the decision parameter Pk (m > 1)

If the slope of line is greater than 1 (m>1) then our Y coordinate will always be
incremented and we have to choose between xk or xk+1.
So, our Line equation will be:
yk+1 = mx+b
Solving it for x, we get x=(yk+1 - b)/m
Now, In this case our d1 will be the distance between intersection point x and pixel xk,
d1 = x - xk = (yk+1 - b)/m - xk
Similarly, d2 will be the distance between intersection point x and pixel xk+1
d2 = xk+1 - x
d2 = xk+1 - (yk+1 - b)/m
As y is always incremented, so yk+1 will always be yk+1 and xk+1 is next x pixel so we can
write it as x=xk+1.
Now, we calculate the values of d1 – d2
d1 - d2 = (yk + 1 - b)/m - xk – [xk + 1 - (yk + 1 - b)/m]
= (yk + 1 - b)/m - xk – xk - 1 + (yk + 1 - b)/m
= 2(yk + 1 - b)/m - 2xk - 1
= 2Δx(yk + 1 - b)/ Δy - 2xk - 1
To remove Δy from denominator, multiply Δy on both sides;
Δy (d1 - d2) = 2Δx yk + 2Δx - 2Δx b - 2Δy xk - Δy

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34
Let Pk = Δy(d1 – d2), thus introducing the decision variable
Pk = 2Δx yk - 2Δy xk + c where c = 2Δx (1 - b) - Δy which is constant
Now our next parameter will be
Pk+1 = 2Δx yk+1 - 2Δy xk+1 + c
Subtracting Pk from Pk+1
Pk+1 - Pk = 2Δx(yk+1 - yk) - 2Δy (xk+1 - xk) + c - c
Since, yk+1 will always be yk + 1
Pk+1 - Pk = 2Δx(yk + 1 - yk) - 2Δy (xk+1 - xk)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx - 2dy (xk+1 - xk)
Now, If Pk < 0 i.e. d1<d2 (because Δx is considered as absolute) then,
xk+1 = xk (We will choose the nearest xk pixel)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx – 2Δy (xk – xk)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx
Now, If Pk > 0 i.e. d1>d2 Then,
xk+1 = xk + 1(We will choose the nearest yk + 1 pixel)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx - 2Δy (xk + 1 - xk)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx - 2Δy
Now, we will use Pk to get initial parameter P0 using (x1,y1)
P0 = 2Δx y1 - 2Δy x1 + 2Δx - 2Δx b - Δy
By using y1=m x1 + b
P0 = 2Δx y1 - 2Δy x1 + 2Δx - 2Δx(y1 - mx1) - Δy
P0 = 2Δx y1 - 2Δy x1 + 2Δx - 2Δx y1 + 2Δy x1 - Δy (using m=Δy/Δx)
P0 = 2Δx-Δy

Algorithm (m > 1)
Starting coordinates = (X0, Y0)
Ending coordinates = (Xn, Yn)
1. Calculate Δx and Δy from the given input. These parameters are calculated as,
Δx = Xn – X0
Δy =Yn – Y0

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35
2. Calculate the decision parameter Pk using P0 = 2|Δx| – |Δy|
3. Suppose the current point is (Xk, Yk) and the next point is (Xk+1, Yk+1). Find the next
point depending on the value of decision parameter P k. Follow the below two cases:
yk+1 = yk + 1
If Pk < 0 Then,
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx
xk+1 = xk
else
Pk+1 = Pk + 2Δx - 2Δy
xk+1 = xk + 1
4. Keep repeating Step-03 until the end point is reached or number of iterations equals to
(Δy-1) times.

Advantages:
● It is easy to implement, fast and incremental.
● The points generated by this algorithm are more accurate than DDA Algorithm.
● It uses fixed points only.
Disadvantages:
● Though it improves the accuracy of generated points but still the resulted line is not
smooth.
● This algorithm is for the basic line drawing and cannot handle jaggies.
Example: Calculate the points between the coordinates (9, 18) and (14, 22).
Solution:
Starting coordinates = (X0, Y0) = (9, 18)
Ending coordinates = (Xn, Yn) = (14, 22)
Step-01: Calculate ΔX and ΔY from the given input.
ΔX = Xn – X0 = 14 – 9 = 5
ΔY =Yn – Y0 = 22 – 18 = 4
Step-02: Calculate the decision parameter.
Pk = 2|ΔY| – |ΔX| = 2 x 4 – 5 = 3
So, decision parameter Pk = 3
Step-03: As Pk >= 0, so case-02 is satisfied. Thus,

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36
 Pk+1 = Pk + 2|ΔY| – 2|ΔX| = 3 + (2 x 4) – (2 x 5) = 1
Xk+1 = Xk + 1 = 9 + 1 = 10
Yk+1 = Yk + 1 = 18 + 1 = 19
Similarly, Step-03 is executed until the end point is reached or number of iterations equals
to 4 times. (Number of iterations = ΔX – 1 = 5 – 1 = 4)

Pk+1 Xk+1 Yk+1

3 9 18
1 10 19
-1 11 20
7 12 20
5 13 21
3 14 22

2.3 Midpoint Line Drawing Algorithm

The Mid-Point line plotting algorithm follows the bisection method to divide the line into
equal partitions. Using this, we can draw a line with close approximation between two
points. As usual, we will have to find the next pixel position of X and Y coordinates
depending the decision parameter using slope of the line. So, let's consider case for line
with slop < 1.
2.3.1 Derivation of the decision parameter Pk (for m<1)
Below are some assumptions to keep algorithm simple:
1. We draw line from left to right.
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37
 2. x1 < x2 and y1< y2
3. Slope of the line is between 0 and 1. We draw a line from lower left to upper right.
In Mid-Point algorithm we do following:
1. Find middle of two possible next points. Middle of B'(X k + 1, Yk) and AB'(Xk + 1,
Yk + 1) is M(Xk+1, Yk + (1/2)).
2. If M is above the line, it means Q is near to B', then choose B' as next point.
3. If M is below the line, it means Q is near to AB', then choose AB' as next point

Case 1 (Pk < 0)

Case 2 (Pk >= 0)

Let us consider a line y = mx + B.
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38
We can re-write the equation as :
y = (Δy/Δx)x + B or
(Δy)x - y(Δx) + BΔx = 0
Let F(x, y) = (Δy)x - y(Δx) + BΔx -----(1)
So comparing it with ax + by + c.
a = Δy
b = -Δx
c = BΔx
We are given two end points of a line (under the assumptions we made in the begining)
1. For all points (x,y) on the line, the solution to F(x, y) is 0.
2. For all points (x,y) above the line, F(x, y) result in a negative number i.e. here, if for
point M, we are getting < 0 value means the point M is above the line passing
through Q. Hence, the point Q is near to B' i.e. yk.
3. For all points (x,y) below the line, F(x, y) result in a positive number i.e. here, if for
point M, we are getting > 0 value means the point M is below the line passing
through Q. Hence, the point Q is near to AB i.e. yk+1.

This relationship is used to determine the relative position of M.

M = (Xk + 1, Yk + (1/2))
Putting these into line equation, our decision parameter Pk is,
Pk = F(Xk + 1, Yk + (1/2)) = a(Xk + 1) + b(Yk + (1/2)) + c
Pk+1 = F(Xk+1 + 1, Yk+1 + (1/2)) = a(Xk+1 + 1) + b(Yk+1 + (1/2)) + c
Pk+1 – Pk = a(Xk+1 + 1) - a(Xk + 1) + b(Yk+1 + (1/2)) - b(Yk + (1/2)) + c-c
Pk+1 = Pk + a(Xk+1 + 1- Xk - 1) + b(Yk+1 + (1/2)- Yk - (1/2))
= Pk + a(Xk+1 - Xk)+ b(Yk+1 - Yk)
but, Xk+1= Xk + 1 always. Hence,
Pk+1 = Pk + a(Xk + 1 - Xk)+ b(Yk+1 - Yk)
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39
 = Pk + a + b(Yk+1 - Yk)
Case 1 (Pk <0): It means line of M is above Q line. Hence, equation of M gives < 0 values
and Q is near to current Yk. So Yk is not incremented and B' is chosen. So, putting Yk+1= Yk
Pk+1 = Pk + a + b(Yk - Yk)
= Pk + a
= Pk + Δy (as a = Δy, b = -Δx)
Case 2 (Pk >=0): It means line of M is below Q line. Hence, equation of M gives > 0 values
and Q is near to Yk+1. So Yk is incremented by 1 and AB' is chosen. So, putting Yk+1= Yk +
1
Pk+1 = Pk + a + b(Yk + 1 - Yk)
= Pk + a + b
= Pk + Δy - Δx (as a = Δy, b = -Δx)
Calculation For initial value of decision parameter P 0:
P0 = F(X1 + 1 , Y1 + (1/2))
= a(X1 + 1) + b(Y1 + (1/2)) +c
= aX1 + bY1 + c + a + (b/2)
= F(X1,Y1) + a + (b/2)
= a + (b/2) (as F(X1, Y1) = 0 )
= Δy – (Δx/2) (as a = Δy, b = -Δx)

Algorithm (m < 1)
1. Input (X1,Y1) and (X2,Y2)
2. Δy = Y2- Y1 Δx = X2 - X1
3. Calculate initial value of decision parameter using P 0 = Δy - (Δx/2)
x = X1 , y = Y1
4. Suppose the current point is (Xk, Yk) and the next point is (Xk+1, Yk+1). Find the next
point depending on the value of decision parameter Pk. Follow the below two cases:
xk+1 = xk+1
if (Pk < 0)
Pk+1 = Pk + Δy
else
Pk+1 = Pk + Δy - Δx
yk+1 = yk + 1
5. Repeat step 4 until xk+1 = X2 and/or yk+1 = Y2

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40
2.3.2 Derivation of the decision parameter P k (for m > 1)
This algorithm can be derived using reflection property of line and coordinate.

Let us consider a line y = mx + B.

We can re-write the equation as :
y = (Δy/Δx)x + B or
-(Δy)x + y(Δx) - BΔx = 0
Let F(x, y) = -(Δy)x + y(Δx) - BΔx -----(1)
So comparing it with ax + by + c.
a = -Δy
b = Δx
c = -BΔx
This relationship is used to determine the relative position of M.
M = (Xk + (1/2), Yk + 1)
Putting these into line equation, our decision parameter Pk is,
Pk = F(Xk + (1/2), Yk + 1) = a(Xk + (1/2)) + b(Yk + 1) + c
Pk+1 = F(Xk+1 + (1/2), Yk+1 + 1) = a(Xk+1 + (1/2)) + b(Yk+1 + 1) + c
Pk+1 – Pk = a(Xk+1 + (1/2)) - a(Xk + (1/2)) + b(Yk+1 + 1) - b(Yk + 1) + c - c
Pk+1 = Pk + a(Xk+1 + (1/2) - Xk - (1/2)) + b(Yk+1 + 1 - Yk - 1)
= Pk + a(Xk+1 - Xk) + b(Yk+1 - Yk)
but, Yk+1= Yk+1 always. Hence,
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41
Pk+1 = Pk + a(Xk+1 - Xk) + b(Yk + 1 - Yk)
= Pk + a(Xk+1 - Xk) + b
Case 1 (Pk <0): It means Q line is on left side of line of M. Hence, equation of M gives < 0
values and Q is near to current Xk. So Xk is not incremented, putting Xk+1= Xk
Pk+1 = Pk + a(Xk - Xk) + b
= Pk + b
= Pk + Δx (as a = -Δy, b = Δx)
Case 2 (Pk >=0): It means Q line is on right side of line of M. Hence, equation of M gives >
0 values and Q is near to Xk+1. So Xk+1= Xk + 1
Pk+1 = Pk + a(Xk + 1 - Xk) + b
= Pk + a + b
= Pk + Δx -Δy (as a = -Δy, b = Δx)
Calculation For initial value of decision parameter P 0:
P0 = F(X1 + (1/2), Y1 + 1)
= a(X1 + (1/2)) + b(Y1 + 1) +c
= aX1 + bY1 + c + (a/2) + b
= F(X1,Y1) + (a/2) + b
= (a/2) + b (as F(X1, Y1) = 0 )
= Δx – (Δy/2). (as a = -Δy, b = Δx)

Algorithm (m > 1)
1. Input (X1,Y1) and (X2,Y2)
2. Δy = Y2- Y1 Δx = X2 - X1
3. Calculate initial value of decision parameter P 0 = Δx - (Δy/2)
x = X1 , y = Y1
4. Suppose the current point is (Xk, Yk) and the next point is (Xk+1, Yk+1). Find the next
point depending on the value of decision parameter P k. Follow the below two cases.
yk+1 = yk+1
if (Pk < 0)
Pk+1 = Pk + Δx
else
Pk+1 = Pk + Δx - Δy
xk+1 = xk + 1
5. Repeat step 4 until xk+1 = X2 and/or yk+1 = Y2

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42
Advantages:
● Accuracy of finding points is a key feature of this algorithm.
● It is simple to implement and uses basic arithmetic operations.
● It takes less time for computation.
● The resulted line is smooth as compared to other line drawing algorithms.
Disadvantages:
● This algorithm may not be an ideal choice for complex graphics and images.
● In terms of accuracy of finding points, improvement is still needed.
● There is no any remarkable improvement made by this algorithm.
Example: Calculate the points between the coordinates (20,10) and (30,18).
Solution:
Starting coordinates = (X0, Y0) = (20, 10)
Ending coordinates = (Xn, Yn) = (30, 18)
Step-01: Calculate ΔX and ΔY from the given input.
ΔX = Xn – X0 = 30 – 20 = 10
ΔY =Yn – Y0 = 18 – 10 = 8
Step-02: Calculate P0 as-
P0 = ΔY – ΔX/2 = 8 – 10/2 = 3
Step-03: As P0 >= 0, so case-02 is satisfied.
Thus,
Xk+1 = Xk + 1 = 20 + 1 = 21
Yk+1 = Yk + 1 = 10 + 1 = 11
Pk+1 = Pk + ΔY – ΔX = 3 + 8 - 10 = 1
As Pk >= 0, so case-02 is satisfied.
Xk+1 = Xk + 1 = 21 + 1 = 22
Yk+1 = Yk + 1 = 11 + 1 = 12
Pk+1 = Pk + ΔY – ΔX = 1 + 8 - 10 = -1
As Pk < 0, so case-01 is satisfied.
Xk+1 = Xk + 1 = 22 + 1 = 23
Yk+1 = Yk = 12
Pk+1 = Pk + ΔY = -1 + 8 = 7
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Similarly, Step-03 is executed until the end point is reached.
Pk+1 Xk+1 Yk+1
3 20 10
1 21 11
-1 22 12
7 23 12
5 24 13
3 25 14
1 26 15
-1 27 15
7 28 16
5 29 17
3 30 18

3. CIRCLE

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44
A circle is defined as a set of points that are the same distance from a common point. The
common point is known as the centre and the distance from the centre of the circle to any
point on its circumference is called the radius. It is an eight-way symmetric figure which
can be divided into four quadrants and each quadrant has two octants. This symmetry helps
in drawing a circle on a computer by knowing points of any one octant.
There are two methods to define a circle in computer graphics:
1. Direct or Polynomial Method: In this method, a circle is defined with the help of a
polynomial equation i.e.
(x - xc)2 + (y - yc)2 = r2
Where, (xc, yc) are coordinates of circle and r is radius of circle.
For each value of x, value of y can be calculated using,
y = yc ± √r2 – (x - xc)2
This is a very ineffective method because for each point value of xc, x and r are squared and
then subtracted and then the square root is calculated, which leads to high time complexity.
2. Polar coordinates Method: In this method, the coordinates are converted into polar
coordinates. The coordinates are thus given by:
x = r cosθ
y = r sinθ
where r = radius and θ = current angle

For the first octant i.e. from θ = 00 to θ = 450, the values of x and y are calculated using
above equations. Simultaneously, all the points for the rest of the octants can be calculated
using the eight-way symmetry property of the circle. Thus, the plotting of the circle is
carried out.
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45
3.1 Midpoint Circle Algorithm
The mid-point circle drawing algorithm is used to calculate all the perimeter points of a
circle. Similar to mid-point line algorithm, this algorithm also calculates the mid-point
between the two pixels which helps in calculating the decision parameter. The value of the
decision parameter will decide which pixel should be chosen for drawing the circle. This
algorithm only calculates the points for one octant and the points for other octants are
generated using the eight-way symmetry for the circle. The algorithm works in the
following way: Suppose a mid-point with coordinates (x', y') is put in the general equation
of the circle x2 + y2 - r2 gives following three values:
● If it is 0 then the given point lies on the circle boundary and any pixel can be
chosen.
● If it is < 0 then the given point lies inside the circle boundary and the upper pixel
can be chosen.
● If it is > 0 then the given point lies outside the circle boundary and the lower pixel is
chosen.

Derivation of the decision parameter P k

Let there be two pixels: One pixel which is outside (N), and the other pixel which is inside
(S) the circle boundary,
Let their coordinates be N(xk + 1, yk) and S(xk + 1, yk - 1)
Then, the co-ordinates of mid-point be
MP = [((xk + 1 + xk + 1)/2) , ((yk + yk - 1)/2)]
= (xk + 1 , yk - (1/2))
Now, put MP in the equation of circle x2 + y2 - r2 = 0
(xk + 1)2 + (yk - (1/2))2 - r2
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46
Using the mid-point as the decision parameter,
Pk = (xk + 1)2 + (yk - (1/2))2 - r2 -----(1)
Let us define the successive decision parameter, Pk+1:
Pk+1 = (xk+1 + 1)2 + (yk+1 - (1/2))2 - r2 -----(2)
Subtracting eq.(1) from eq.(2);
Pk+1- Pk = (xk+1 + 1)2 + (yk+1 - (1/2))2- r2 - [ (xk + 1)2 + (yk - (1/2))2 - r2]
Now put xk+1 = xk + 1
Pk+1- Pk = (xk+1 + 1)2 + (yk+1 -(1/2))2 - r2 - [ (xk + 1)2 + (yk - (1/2))2 - r2 ]
= (xk + 2)2 - (xk + 1)2 + (yk+1 - (1/2))2- (yk - (1/2))2
= (xk)2 + 4 xk + 4 - (xk)2 - 2xk - 1 + (yk+1)2 - yk+1 + (1/4) - (yk)2 + yk - (1/4)
Pk+1= Pk + 2xk +3 + (yk+1)2 - (yk)2 – (yk+1 – yk)
If Pk < 0, it means Mid point is inside circle and yk coordinate is closer to circle boundary.
Hence, yk+1 = yk (choose point N)
Pk+1= Pk+ 2xk + 3
If Pk >= 0, it means Mid point is outside circle and yk - 1 coordinate is closer to circle
boundary. Hence, yk+1 = yk - 1 (choose point S)
Pk+1 = Pk + 2xk - 2yk + 5
Let us calculate the initial decision parameter (P 0) where the initial points will be defined as
(0, r) [which is the first point to be plotted of the first octant].
On putting these coordinates in eq. (1) in place of xk and yk, we get:
P0= ( 0 + 1 )2 + ( r - (1/2) )2 - r2
P0 = 5/4 - r which can be taken as 1 - r for Integer arithmetic

Algorithm
Centre point of Circle = (Xc, Yc)
Radius of Circle = r
1. Assign the starting point coordinates (X0, Y0) as X0 = 0 Y0 = r
2. Calculate the value for initial decision parameter P0 = 1 - r
3. Suppose the current point is (Xk, Yk) and the next point is (Xk+1, Yk+1). Find the next
point of the first octant depending on the value of decision parameter P k. Follow the
below two cases:
If Pk < 0

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 yk+1 = yk
Pk+1= Pk+ 2xk + 3
If Pk > 0
yk+1 = yk - 1
Pk+1 = Pk + 2xk - 2yk + 5
4. If the given centre point (Xc, Yc) is not (0, 0), then do the following and plot the point-
Xplot = Xc + Xk+1
Yplot = Yc + Yk+1
5. Keep repeating Step-03 and Step-04 until Xplot < Yplot.
6. Step-05 generates all the points for one octant.
To find the points for other seven octants, follow the eight symmetry property of circle.

Advantages:
● It is a powerful and efficient algorithm.
● The entire algorithm is based on the simple equation of circle X2 + Y2 = r2.
● It is easy to implement from the programmer’s perspective.
● This algorithm is used to generate curves on raster displays.
Disadvantages:
● Accuracy of the generating points is an issue in this algorithm.
● The circle generated by this algorithm is not smooth.
● The time consumption of this algorithm is high.
Example 1: Given the centre point coordinates (0, 0) and radius 10, generate all the
points to form a circle.
Solution:
Centre Coordinates of Circle (X0, Y0) = (0, 0)
Radius of Circle = 10
Step-01:
Assign the starting point coordinates (X0, Y0) as-
X0 = 0
Y0 = r = 10
Step-02:

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 Calculate the value of initial decision parameter P 0 as-
P0 = 1 – r
P0 = 1 – 10 = -9
Step-03:
As Pinitial < 0, so case-01 is satisfied.
Thus,
Xk+1 = Xk + 1 = 0 + 1 = 1
Yk+1 = Yk = 10
Pk+1 = Pk + 2 x Xk+1 + 3 = -9 + (2 x 1) + 3 = -4
Step-04: This step is not applicable here as the given centre point coordinates is (0, 0).
Step-05: Step-03 is executed similarly until Xk+1 >= Yk+1 as follows:
Pk+1 (Xk+1, Yk+1)
(0, 10)
-9 (1, 10)
-4 (2, 10)
3 (3, 9)
-4 (4, 8)
7 (5, 7)
8 (6, 6)
Algorithm calculates all the points of octant-1 and terminates. Now, the points of octant-2
are obtained using the mirror effect by swapping X and Y coordinates.
Octant-1 Points Octant-2 Points
(0, 10) (6, 6)
(1, 10) (7, 5)
(2, 10) (8, 4)
(3, 9) (9, 3)
(4, 8) (10, 2)
(5, 7) (10, 1)
(6, 6) (10, 0)
Now, the points for rest of the part are generated by following the signs of other quadrants.
The other points can also be generated by calculating each octant separately. Here, all the
points have been generated with respect to quadrant-1.

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 Quadrant-1 (X,Y) Quadrant-2 (-X,Y) Quadrant-3 (-X,-Y) Quadrant-4 (X,-Y)
(0, 10) (0, 10) (0, -10) (0, -10)
(1, 10) (-1, 10) (-1, -10) (1, -10)
(2, 10) (-2, 10) (-2, -10) (2, -10)
(3, 9) (-3, 9) (-3, -9) (3, -9)
(4, 8) (-4, 8) (-4, -8) (4, -8)
(5, 7) (-5, 7) (-5, -7) (5, -7)
(6, 6) (-6, 6) (-6, -6) (6, -6)
(6, 6) (-6, 6) (-6, -6) (6, -6)
(7, 5) (-7, 5) (-7, -5) (7, -5)
(8, 4) (-8, 4) (-8, -4) (8, -4)
(9, 3) (-9, 3) (-9, -3) (9, -3)
(10, 2) (-10, 2) (-10, -2) (10, -2)
(10, 1) (-10, 1) (-10, -1) (10, -1)
(10, 0) (-10, 0) (-10, 0) (10, 0)
Example 2: Given the centre point coordinates (4, 4) and radius 10, generate all the
points to form a circle.
Solution:
Centre Coordinates of Circle (X0, Y0) = (4, 4)
Radius of Circle = 10
As stated in the algorithm, We first calculate the points assuming the centre coordinates is
(0, 0). At the end, we translate the circle. Step-01, Step-02 and Step-03 are already
completed in Problem-01. Now, we find the values of Xplot and Yplot using the formula
given in Step-04 of the main algorithm.
The following table shows the generation of points for Quadrant-1-
Xplot = Xc + Xk+1 = 4 + Xk+1
Yplot = Yc + Yk+1 = 4 + Yk+1
(Xk+1, Yk+1) (Xplot, Yplot)
(0, 10) (4, 14)
(1, 10) (5, 14)
(2, 10) (6, 14)
(3, 9) (7, 13)
(4, 9) (8, 13)
(5, 7) (9, 11)
(6, 6) (10, 10)
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 (7, 5) (11, 9)
(8, 6) (12, 10)
(8, 4) (12, 8)
(9, 3) (13, 7)
(10, 2) (14, 6)
(10, 1) (14, 5)
(10, 0) (14, 4)
The following table shows the points for all the quadrants:
Quadrant-1 (X,Y) Quadrant-2 (-X,Y) Quadrant-3 (-X,-Y) Quadrant-4 (X,-Y)
(4, 14) (-4, 14) (-4, -14) (4, 14)
(5, 14) (-5, 14) (-5, -14) (5, 14)
(6, 14) (-6, 14) (-6, -14) (6, 14)
(7, 13) (-7, 13) (-7, -13) (7, 13)
(8, 13) (-8, 13) (-8, -13) (8, 13)
(9, 11) (-9, 11) (-9, -11) (9, 11)
(10, 10) (-10, 10) (-10, -10) (10, 10)
(11, 9) (-11, 9) (-11, -9) (11, 9)
(12, 10) (-12, 10) (-12, -10) (12, 10)
(12, 8) (-12, 8) (-12, -8) (12, 8)
(13, 7) (-13, 7) (-13, -7) (13, 7)
(14, 6) (-14, 6) (-14, -6) (14, 6)
(14, 5) (-14, 5) (-14, -5) (14, 5)
(14, 4) (-14, 4) (-14, -4) (14, 4)

4. ELLIPSE
Ellipse is defined as the geometric figure which is the set of all points on a plane whose
distance from two fixed points known as the foci remains constant. It consists of two axes:
major and minor axes where the major axis is the longest diameter and minor axis is the
shortest diameter. Unlike circle, the ellipse has four-way symmetry property which means
that only the quadrants are symmetric while the octants are not. Here, we will calculate the
points for one quadrant while the points for the remaining three can be calculated using the
symmetry of points.
4.1 Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
In computer graphics, the mid-point ellipse algorithm is an incremental method of drawing
an ellipse. It is very similar to the mid-point algorithm used in the generation of a circle.
The mid-point ellipse drawing algorithm is used to calculate all the perimeter points of an
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51
ellipse. In this algorithm, the mid-point between the two pixels is calculated which helps in
calculating the decision parameter. The value of the decision parameter determines whether
the mid-point lies inside, outside, or on the ellipse boundary and the then position of the
mid-point helps in drawing the ellipse.
ry2 x2 + rx2 y2 - rx2 ry2 = 0 -----(1)
where, ry : semi-minor axis and rx : semi-major axis
In the ellipse each quadrant is divided into two regions, R1 and R2 respectively. We know
that the slope of an ellipse is given by:
m =dy / dx = - (2 ry2 x /2 rx2 y) = -1
The region R1 has the value of slope as m < -1 while R2 has the value of slope as m > -1.
The starting point for R1 will be (0, ry) and for R2, the ending points of R1 will become the
starting points of R2 when the slope becomes greater than -1. That's why we need to keep
on checking the value of slope while plotting the points for R1 to know whether we have
reached R2 or not.

We will do the derivation for each region:

Derivation of the decision parameter P1 k for Region-1
Let us consider two pixels: one which is outside (A) and the other which is inside (B)
respectively.
Let their coordinates be A(xk + 1, yk ) and B(xk + 1, yk - 1)
Value for their mid-point will be:
Mp= [ ((xk + 1 + xk + 1)/2) ,((yk + yk - 1)/2) ]
= (xk + 1 , yk - (1/2))
Putting Mp in eqn (1):

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ry2 (xk + 1)2 + rx2 (yk - (1/2))2 - rx2 ry2
Let us define this statement as our decision variable:
P1k= ry2 (xk + 1)2 + rx2 (yk - (1/2))2 - rx2 ry2 -----(2)
Successive parameter can be defined as:
P1k+1 = ry2 (xk+1 + 1)2 + rx2 (yk+1 - (1/2))2- rx2 ry2 -----(3)
Now, subtract eqn (2) from eqn (3);
P1k+1 - P1k = [ry2 (xk+1 + 1)2 + rx2 (yk+1 - (1/2))2- rx2 ry2 ] - [ ry2 (xk + 1)2+ rx2(yk - (1/2))2-
rx2 ry2]
= ry2 [(xk+1 + 1)2 - (xk + 1)2] + rx2 [(yk+1 - (1/2))2 - (yk - (1/2))2]
As the x-coordinate remains same in both the pixels, put xk+1 = xk + 1
P1k+1- P1k= ry2 [(xk + 1 + 1)2 - (xk + 1)2] + rx2 [(yk+1 - (1/2))2 - (yk - (1/2))2]
= ry2 [2xk + 3] + rx2 [(yk+1)2 - yk+1 - (yk)2 + yk]
P1k+1 = P1k + ry2 [2xk + 3] + rx2 [(yk+1)2 - yk+1 - (yk)2 + yk]
If P1k < 0, it means Mid point is inside ellipse and yk coordinate is closer to circle boundary.
Hence, yk+1 = yk (Choose point A)
P1k+1 = P1k+ ry2(3 + 2xk)
If P1k >= 0, it means Mid point is outside ellipse and yk - 1 coordinate is closer to circle
boundary. Hence, yk+1 = yk - 1 (Choose point B)
P1k+1 = P1k + ry2(3 + 2xk) + 2rx2(1 - yk)
Initial Decision Parameter
Put initial point(0,ry) in eq.(2)
P10= ry2 (0 + 1)2 + rx2( ry - (1/2))2 - rx2 ry2
P10 = ry2 + (rx2/4) - rx2 ry

Derivation of the decision parameter P2 k for Region-2

Let us consider two pixels: one which is outside(P) and the other which is inside(Q)
respectively.
Let their coordinates be P(xk + 1, yk - 1) and Q(xk, yk - 1)
Value for their mid-point will be:
Mp= [((xk + 1 + xk)/2), ((yk - 1 + yk - 1)/2)]
= (xk + (1/2), yk - 1)
Putting Mp in eq.(1):
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53
ry2 (xk + (1/2))2 + rx2 (yk - 1)2- rx2 ry2
Let us define this statement as our decision variable:
P2k = ry2 (xk + (1/2))2 + rx2 (yk - 1)2 - rx2 ry2 ----(4)
Successive parameter can be defined as:
P2k+1= ry2 (xk+1 + (1/2))2 + rx2 (yk+1 - 1)2 - rx2 ry2 ----(5)
Now, subtract eq.(4) from eq.(5);
P2k+1- P2k = [ry2 (xk+1 + (1/2))2 + rx2 (yk+1 - 1)2- rx2ry2] - [ry2 (xk + (1/2))2+ rx2 (yk - 1)2 -
rx2 ry2]
= ry2 [(xk+1 + (1/2))2 - (xk + (1/2))2 ] + rx2 [(yk+1 - 1)2 - (yk - 1)2]
As the y-coordinate remains same in both the pixels, put yk+1 = yk - 1
By simplifying the equation we get,
P2k+1- P2k = ry2 [(xk+1)2 + xk+1 - (xk)2 - xk]+ rx2 [3 - 2yk]
P2k+1 = P2k + ry2 [(xk+1)2 + xk+1 - (xk)2 - xk]+ rx2 [3 - 2yk]
If P2k <= 0, it means Mid point is inside ellipse and xk + 1 coordinate is closer to circle
boundary. Hence, xk+1= xk + 1 (Choose point P)
P2k+1 = P2k+ 2ry2(1 + xk) + rx2(3 - 2yk)
If P2k > 0, it means Mid point is outside ellipse and xk coordinate is closer to circle
boundary. Hence, xk+1= xk (Choose point Q)
P2k+1 = P2k + rx2(3 - 2yk)
Initial Decision Parameter:
Putting the ending point of region R1
Where, m > -1 i.e. (x, y) in eq.(4)
P20 = ry2 (x + (1/2))2 + rx2 (y-1)2 - rx2 ry2
The algorithm containing both region formula is given on the next page:

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54
Algorithm
1. Declare rx, ry, x, y, m, dx, dy, P1k, P2k.
2. Initialize initial point of region1 as x=0, y = ry
3. Calculate P10= ry2 + rx2 / 4 - rx2ry
dx = 2 ry2 x
dy = 2 rx2 y
4. Update values of dx and dy after each iteration.
5. Repeat steps while (2ry2x < 2rx2y) (or dx < dy):
xk = xk+1 ;
if(P1k < 0)
P1k+1 = P1k+ ry2(3 + 2xk)
else
P1k+1 = P1k + ry2(3 + 2xk) + 2rx2(1 - yk)
yk = yk - 1
6. When 2ry2x >= 2rx2 y (or dx ≥ dy), plot region 2:
7. Calculate P20 = ry2(x + (1/2))2 + rx2(y - 1)2- rx2ry2
8. Repeat till (yk > 0)
yk = yk-1
If (P2k > 0)
P2k+1 = P2k + rx2(3 - 2yk)
else
xk = xk+1
P2k+1= P2k+ 2ry2(1 + xk) + rx2(3 - 2yk)

Example: Given the centre point coordinates (0, 0) and major axis rx = 4 and minor
axis ry = 2, generate all the points to form a circle.
Solution:
Centre Coordinates of Circle (X0, Y0) = (0, 0)
Major Axis rx= 4
Minor Axis ry= 2
Starting with (0,2)

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Calculate P10 = ry2 + (rx2 / 4) - rx2ry
= 4 - 16(2) + 16/4 = -24
P1k+1 Xk+1 Yk+1 ry2 x rx2y
0 2 4(0) = 0 16(2) = 32
-24 1 2 4 32
-4 2 2 8 32
24 3 1 12 16
60 4 0 16 0
Here, ry2x > rx2y. So R1 ends.
Now, to calculate P20 = ry2 (x + (1/2))2 + rx2 (y-1)2 - rx2 ry2, we will have to use the last
coordinates which were part of region R1, here (3,1). Putting them into P20, we get P20=-15
P2k+1 Xk+1 Yk+1
3 1
-15 4 0
As we have reached to Yk+1 to 0, means we have reached to (rx, 0). So region R2 ends here.
Finally points for all the four quadrants are as under:
Quadrant-1 (X,Y) Quadrant-2 (-X,Y) Quadrant-3 (-X,-Y) Quadrant-4 (X,-Y)
(0, 2) (0, 2) (0, -2) (0, -2)
(1, 2) (-1, 2) (-1, -2) (1, -2)
(2, 2) (-2, 2) (-2, -2) (2, -2)
(3, 1) (-3, 1) (-3, -1) (3, -1)
(4, 0) (-4, 0) (-4, 0) (4, 0)

5. CHARACTER GENERATION
The design style for a set of characters is called a Typeface or Font. There are three
methods of character generation.
5.1 Stroke Method
Stroke method is based on natural method of text written by human being. In this method
fonts are generated in the form of line, circles and ellipse.

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56
Line drawing algorithm DDA follows this method for line drawing. This method uses small
line segments to generate a character. The small series of line segments are drawn like a
stroke of pen to form a character. We can build our own stroke method character generator
by calls to the line drawing algorithm. Here it is necessary to decide which line segments
are needed for each character and then drawing these segments using line drawing
algorithm.
5.2 Bitmap Method
Bitmap method is a called dot-matrix method as the name suggests this method uses array
of bits for generating a character. These dots are the points for array whose size is fixed. In
bit matrix method, when the dots are stored in the form of array, the value 1 in array
represent the characters. It means where the dots appear we represent that position with
numerical value 1 and the value where dots are not present is represented by 0 in array. It is
also called dot matrix because in this method characters are represented by an array of dots
in the matrix form. It is a two dimensional array having columns and rows. A 5x7 array is
commonly used to represent characters. However 7x9 and 9x13 arrays are also used. Higher
resolution devices such as inkjet printer or laser printer may use character arrays that are
over 100x100.

5.3 Starbust Method

In this method a fix pattern of line segments are used to generate characters. Out of these 24
line segments, segments which are required to be displayed for particular character are
highlighted. This method of character generation is called starbust method because of its
characteristic appearance.
The starbust patterns for characters A and M is given below. The patterns for particular
characters are stored in the form of 24 bit code, each bit representing one line segment. The
bit is set to one to highlight the line segment; otherwise it is set to zero. For example, 24-bit
code for Character A is 1000 0111 0011 1100 0000 1100 and for character M is 1100 1111
0011 0000 1100 0000.
This method of character generation has some disadvantages. As the 24-bits are required to
represent a character, more memory is required. It requires code conversion software to
display character from its 24- bitcode. Also, character quality is poor and is worst for curve
shaped characters.

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57
 Starburst method with 24 line segments generating characters A and M

6. ANTI ALIASING TECHNIQUES

In the line drawing algorithms, we have seen that all rasterized locations do not match with
the true coordinates and we have to select the optimum raster locations to represent a
straight line. This problem is severe in low resolution screens. In such screens, line or
object appears like a stair-step, as shown in the figure below. Such stair-steps are called
jaggies. They do not give a smooth line or curve or object. This effect of getting jaggies,
due to alias pixels, is known as aliasing. It is dominant for lines having gentle and sharp
slopes. Anti-aliasing is a technique used by users to get rid of jaggies that form on the
screen.

Jagged lines
Anti-aliasing tries to smooth out the shape and produce perfect rounded and smooth edges.

Anti-Aliasing techniques were developed to combat the effects of aliasing. There are many
anti-aliasing algorithms divided into following two broad categories.

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6.1 Spatial anti-aliasing
To understand how spatial anti-aliasing works, you need to know a couple things about
display resolution. Display resolution refers to the number of pixels your monitor uses to
create an image. A good monitor should have a display resolution of at least 1920 x 1080
(1900 pixels on the horizontal axis and 1080 pixels on the vertical axis), but lots of
monitors these days have resolutions that are even higher. Higher resolutions yield better
images because they utilize more pixels. With more pixels, we get a larger variety of colors
in the image, and more colors means more detail in the pixel world i.e. image.
Now let's understand how spatial anti-alising works. You have an image at a lower
resolution that’s full of jaggies. The image is rendered at a higher resolution. At the high
resolution, color samples are taken of the excess pixels (new pixels that weren’t present in
the low-resolution image). The high-resolution image is shrunk down to the original
resolution, and each pixel receives a new color that’s averaged from the sampled pixels.
Essentially, a low-resolution image gets the color accuracy of a high-resolution image. The
new colors help the pixels blend together better and the jaggies become less visible.

Following are the spatial anti-aliasing techniques.

Supersampling anti-aliasing (SSAA) is one of the most effective spatial methods. It’s also
known as “full-scene anti-aliasing" (FSAA). When a GPU is rendering an image on your
display, it makes a distinction between two different objects: a polygon and a texture. First,
the GPU draws the polygon: the general shape or outline of an in-game object. Then, the
GPU fills in the polygon with a texture
In multisample anti-aliasing (MSAA), only the edges of the polygons are smoothed out -
MSAA does not smooth out the textures. This cuts down on processing power a little bit
(but not a lot). MSAA is a popular anti-aliasing method among PC gamers. It’s effective,
but keep in mind that you might still get pixelated textures.
NVIDIA and AMD developed a new type of spatial anti-aliasing method. CSAA (coverage
sampling anti-aliasing) was created by NVIDIA, while EQAA (enhanced quality anti-
aliasing) was created by AMD. They have different names, but they each work in roughly
the same way.

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In area sampling, the image can be calculated by considering the intensities over a
particular region. Prefiltering methods treat a pixel as an area, and compute pixel colors
based on the overlap of the scene's objects with a pixel's area. These techniques compute
the shades of gray based on how much of a pixel's area is covered by a object.
For example, a modification to Bresenham's algorithm was developed by Pitteway and
Watkinson. In this algorithm, each pixel is given an intensity depending on the area of
overlap of the pixels and the line. So, due to the blurring effect along the line edges, the
effect of antialiasing is not very prominent, although it still exists. Prefiltering thus amounts
to sampling the shape of the object very densely within a pixel region. For shapes other
than polygons, this can be very computationally intensive.

Area sampling

Prefiltering
6.2 Post-process anti-aliasing (Supersampling Technique)
In post-process anti-aliasing, each pixel is slightly blurred after it’s rendered. The GPU
determines where the edge of a polygon is by comparing the color contrast between each
two pixels. Two similar pixels indicate that they’re part of the same polygon. The pixels are
blurred in proportion to their contrast.
Blurring is an effective method for anti-aliasing because it eliminates the stark contrast
between awkwardly aligned pixels that are causing jaggies. The downside of the post-
process method is that it might make your images appear too blurry. The blurriness is more
noticeable in games that have very detailed textures and dynamic lighting features. But
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what’s great about post-process anti-aliasing is that it’s very fast and requires much less
processing power than the spatial method.
NVIDIA developed MLAA (morphological anti-aliasing) and AMD developed FXAA (fast
approximate anti-aliasing) post-processing methods that work in a very similar fashion.
Both methods work in the same way as described above.
Temporal anti-aliasing (TXAA) is a film style technique that seeks to maintain a very
smooth level of motion as you move through a virtual environment. TXAA is a very
complex method that utilizes both supersampling and blurring to create sharp graphics and
graceful motion. Another method, Subpixel morphological anti-aliasing (SMAA) is widely
used in the PC gaming world.
7. AREA FILLING (POLYGON FILLING ALGORITHM)
Figures on a computer screen can be drawn using polygons and polygons can be created
using any of the line drawing algorithms. For filling polygons with particular colors, you
need to determine the pixels falling on the border of the polygon and those which fall inside
the polygon. To fill these figures with color, there are two famous algorithms for this
purpose: Scanline fill and Boundary fill algorithms.
7.1 Scanline Polygon Filling
Scanline filling is basically filling up of polygons using horizontal lines or scanlines. The
purpose of this algorithm is to fill (color) the interior pixels of a polygon given only the
vertices of the figure. To understand Scanline, think of the image being drawn by a single
pen starting from bottom left, continuing to the right, plotting only points where there is a
point present in the image, and when the line is complete, start from the next line and
continue. This algorithm works by intersecting scanline with polygon edges and fills the
polygon between pairs of intersections. With reference to the figure given bewlo, following
special cases of polygon vertices are considered if the scanline passes though vertex:
1. If both lines intersecting at the vertex are on the same side (either above or below) of
the scanline, consider it as two points. (Here, lines passing through B, C, D and F)
2. If lines intersecting at the vertex are at opposite sides of the scanline, consider it as only
one point. (Here, lines passing through A, E)

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Here, coherence property is used for calculating next pixel on the scan line. Following
figure explains the same.

Slope of the edge can be given by

Change in y coordinates between the two scan lines will be 1. So given the current x-
intercept, the next x-intercept coordinate xk+1 = xk + (1/m).

Algorithm
1. Find out the Ymin and Ymax from the given polygon.

2. ScanLine intersects with each edge of the polygon from Y min to Ymax. Name each
intersection point of the polygon. As per the figure shown above, they are named as p 0,
p1, p2, p3.
3. Sort the intersection point in the increasing order of X coordinate i.e. p0p1, p1p2
and p2p3.
4. Fill all those pair of coordinates that are inside polygons and ignore the alternate pairs.

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7.2 Inside-Outside Test for Scanlines
While filling an object, we often need to identify whether particular point is inside the
object or outside it. This method is also known as counting number method. There are two
methods by which we can identify whether particular point is inside an object or outside.
1. Odd-Even Rule

In this technique, we count the edge crossing along the line from any point (x, y) to infinity,
on both the sides. If the number of intersections is odd on each side of the point, then the
point (x,y) is an interior point; and if the number of interactions is even, then the
point (x,y) is an exterior point. In the above figure, we can see that from the point (x, y) the
number of intersections point on the left side is 5 and on the right side is 3. On both the
sides, the number of intersection points are odd, so the point is considered within the object.
The same special cases are considered if the scanline passes though vertex:
1. If both lines intersecting at the vertex are on the same side (either above or below)
of the scanline, consider it as two points.
2. If lines intersecting at the vertex are at opposite sides of the scanline, consider it as
only one point.
2. Nonzero Winding Number Rule

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This method is also used with the simple polygons to test the given point is interior or not.
In this method, first of all, give directions to all the edges of the polygon. Draw a scan line
from the point to be tested towards the left most of X direction.
1. Give the value 1 to all the edges which are going to upward direction and all other -
1 as direction values.
2. Check the edge direction values from which the scan line is passing and sum up
them.
3. If the total sum of this direction value is non-zero, then this point to be tested is
an interior point, otherwise it is an exterior point.
In the above figure, we sum up the direction values from the line through which the scan
line is passing then the total is 1 – 1 + 1 = 1 which is non-zero. So the point is said to be an
interior point.
7.3 Boundary Fill Algorithm
The boundary fill algorithm works as per its name. This algorithm picks a point inside an
object and starts to fill until it hits the boundary of the object. The color of the boundary
and the color that we fill-in should be different for this algorithm to work. In this algorithm,
we assume that color of the boundary is same for the entire object. The boundary fill
algorithm can be implemented by 4-connected pixels or 8-connected pixels.
4-Connected and 8-Connected Pixels
In this technique 4-connected pixels are used as shown in the figure. We are putting the
pixels above, below, to the right, and to the left side of the current pixels and this process
continues until we find a boundary with different color. In 8-connected pixels, addition to
4-connected pixels, we are also putting pixels in diagonals so that entire area of the current
pixel is covered. This process again continues until we find a boundary with different color.
Both approaches are shown in figure below:

4-Connected Pixel 8-Connected Pixels

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Algorithm (4-Connected)
void boundaryFill4(int x, int y, int fill_color,int boundary_color)
{
if(getpixel(x, y) != boundary_color && getpixel(x, y) != fill_color)
{
putpixel(x, y, fill_color);
boundaryFill4(x + 1, y, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill4(x - 1, y, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill4(x, y + 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill4(x, y - 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
}
}

Algorithm (8-Connected)
void boundaryFill8(int x, int y, int fill_color,int boundary_color)
{
if(getpixel(x, y) != boundary_color && getpixel(x, y) != fill_color)
{
putpixel(x, y, fill_color);
boundaryFill8(x + 1, y, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x - 1, y, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x, y + 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x, y - 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x - 1, y - 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x + 1, y + 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x - 1, y + 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
boundaryFill8(x + 1, y - 1, fill_color, boundary_color);
}
}

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4-connected pixels Vs 8-connected pixels
Let us consider the following figure with the boundary color as LIGHT and the fill color as
DARK. The 4-connected method fails to fill this figure completely as shown on top right
side. This figure will be efficiently filled using the 8-connected technique as it is shown on
bottom right.

7.4 Flood Fill Algorithm

Sometimes we come across an object where we want to fill the area and its boundary with
different colors. We can paint such objects with a specified interior color instead of
searching for particular boundary color as in boundary filling algorithm. Instead of relying
on the boundary of the object, it relies on the fill color. In other words, it replaces the
interior color of the object with the fill color. When no more pixels of the original interior
color exist, the algorithm is completed. This algorithm relies on the Four-connect or Eight-
connect method of filling in the pixels. It looks for 4 or 8 adjacent pixels that are a part of
the interior as under:

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Algorithm (4-Connected)
1. Initialize the value of seed point seedx, seedy, fcolor and dcol.
2. Define the boundary values of the polygon.
3. Check if the current seed point is of default color, then repeat the steps 4 and 5 till
the boundary pixels reached.
If getpixel(x, y) = dcol then repeat step 4 and 5
4. Change the default color with the fill color at the seed point.
setPixel(seedx, seedy, fcol)
5. Recursively follow the procedure with four neighborhood points.
FloodFill (seedx – 1, seedy, fcol, dcol)
FloodFill (seedx + 1, seedy, fcol, dcol)
FloodFill (seedx, seedy - 1, fcol, dcol)
FloodFill (seedx, seedy + 1, fcol, dcol)

EXERCISE
1. Calculate the points between the starting point (5, 6) and ending point (8, 12). Apply
the Digital Differential Analyzer algorithm to plot a line.
2. Calculate the points between the starting coordinates (20, 10) and ending coordinates
(30, 18) using Bresanham's Algorithm.
3. Calculate the points between the starting coordinates (5, 9) and ending coordinates (12,
16) using Miidpoint line algorithm.
4. Derive Midpoint Circle algorithm from starting point (r,0).
5. Derive Midpoint Ellipse algorithm with starting point (0, r y) for Region R1 and starting
point (rx,0) for Region R2.
6. Derive Midpoint Ellipse algorithm with starting point (r x,0) and ending point (x,y) of
region R1. The starting point of region R2 will be ending point (x,y) of R1 and ending
point of region R2 will be (0, ry).
7. Differentiate the effect of 4-connected and 8-connected pixels in flood fill and boundary
fill algorithms.
8. Derive 8-Connected Flood Fill Algorithm.

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 3. 2D TRANSFORMATIONS

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70
1. WHAT IS TRANSFORMATION?
In computer graphics sometimes objects need to be manipulated. That is, we may want to
reposition them or rotate them or resize them. We can achieve this with the help of basic
transformations. Transformation refers to the mathematical operations or rules that are
applied on a graphical image consisting of the number of lines, circles, and ellipses to
change its size, shape, or orientation. It can also reposition the image on the screen.
Transformations play a very crucial role in computer graphics. There are various types of
transformations in computer graphics through which an image can be processed, edited ad
altered. Some basic and most commonly used types of these transformations are:

2. TRANSLATION
Repositioning along a straight line path from one location to another are called 2D
translation. That is, we translate a two-dimensional point by adding translation distances, Tx
and Ty to the original coordinate position (x, y) to move the point to a new position (x’, y’).
Consider a point object O has to be moved from one position to another in a 2D plane.
Let-
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
 New coordinates of the object O after translation = (X new, Ynew)
 Translation vector or Shift vector = (T x, Ty)
Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty)
 Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate has to be moved.
 Ty defines the distance the Yold coordinate has to be moved.
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This translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates to the old coordinates of
the object as
 Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes translation towards X axis)
 Ynew = Yold + Ty (This denotes translation towards Y axis)
 If Tx is positive, object will move in right direction
 If Tx is negative, object will move towards left
 If Ty is positive object will move upwards
 if Ty is negative , object will move downwards.
In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as

Translation Matrix
 The homogeneous coordinates representation of (X, Y) is (X, Y, 1).
 Through this representation, all the transformations can be performed using matrix /
vector multiplications.
We will discuss about homogenous representation in section 7.1. The above translation
matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as in homogeneous coordinates

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 Translation Matrix using homogenous coordinates
Suppose there is a point (3, 4) and we add translation vector (2, 3). Then the new point will
be (3+2, 4+3) i.e.(5, 7). 2D Translation is a rigid-body transformation that moves objects
without deformation. To translate a Line we translate line endpoints one by one. However,
Polygons are translated by adding the translation vector to the coordinate position of each
vertex and we redraw the polygon.
Example 1: Translate a line AB A(4,5), B(6,8) 2 units in x direction and 3 units in y
direction.
Solution:
Given : x1 = 4 , y1 = 5 , x2 = 6 , y2 = 8, tx = 2 , ty = 3

Original line
x1′ = x1+tx = 4+2 = 6
y1′ = y1+ty = 5+3 = 8
x2′ = x2+tx = 6+2 = 8
y2′ = y2+ty = 8+3 = 11
New coordinates after translation, A’B’ A'(6, 8) , B'(8, 11)

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 Line after translation
Example 2: Given a circle C with radius 10 and center coordinates (1, 4). Apply the
translation with distance 5 towards X axis and 1 towards Y axis. Obtain the new
coordinates of C without changing its radius.
Solution:
Given that
 Old center coordinates of C = (Xold, Yold) = (1, 4)
 Translation vector = (Tx, Ty) = (5, 1)
Let the new center coordinates of C = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the translation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Tx = 1 + 5 = 6
 Ynew = Yold + Ty = 4 + 1 = 5
Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).
Using matrix, the operation can be performed as under:

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3. ROTATION
Consider a point object O has to be rotated from one angle to another in a 2D plane. Let, the
initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold), initial angle of the object O with respect to
origin = Φ, Rotation angle = θ and the new coordinates of the object O after rotation =
(Xnew, Ynew)
Two types of Rotations are Possible:
1. Anticlockwise Rotation
2. Clockwise Rotation

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Using standard trigonometric the original coordinate of point O(X,Y) can be represented as,
x = r cosϕ......(1)
y = r sinϕ........(2)

Same way we can represent the point O’(X′,Y′) as,

x′ = r cos(ϕ+θ) = r cosϕ cosθ − r sinϕ sinθ.......(3)
y′ = r sin(ϕ+θ) = r cosϕ sinθ + r sinϕ cosθ........(4)

Substituting equation 1 & 2 in 3 & 4 respectively, we will get

x′ = x cosθ − y sinθ
y′ = x sinθ + y cosθ
Representing the above equation in matrix form,

Using homogenous coordinates, it can be represented as

For, anti-clockwise Rotation, the angle is positive while for clockwise Rotation angle is
negative. So, for clockwise rotations, θ can be replaced by -θ and the matrix becomes,

When the object is rotated, then every point of the object is rotated by the same angle.
Straight Line is rotated by the endpoints with the same angle and redrawing the line
between new endpoints. Polygon is rotated by shifting every vertex using the same
rotational angle. Ellipse rotation can be obtained by rotating major and minor axis of an
ellipse by the desired angle.
3.1 Rotation about an arbitrary point
If we want to rotate an object or point about an arbitrary point, first of all, translate the point
about which we want to rotate to the origin. Then rotate point or object about the origin,
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and at the end, again translate it to the original place. This way we will get rotation about an
arbitrary point. For example, the point (x, y) is to be rotated and (xc yc) is an arbitrary point
about which anti-clockwise rotation is done
Step1: Translate point (xc yc) to origin

Step2: Rotation of (x, y) about the origin

Step3: Translation of center of rotation back to its original position

Step4: Finally, the translation of center of rotation back to its original position
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Example 1: Given a line segment with starting point as (0, 0) and ending point as (4,
4). Apply 30 degree rotation anticlockwise direction on the line segment and find out
the new coordinates of the line.
Solution:
We rotate a straight line by its end points with the same angle. Then, we redraw a line
between the new end points.
Given-
 Old ending coordinates of the line = (Xold, Yold) = (4, 4)
 Rotation angle = θ = 30º
Let new ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 4 x cos30º – 4 x sin30º
= 4 x (√3 / 2) – 4 x (1 / 2)
= 2√3 – 2
= 2(√3 – 1)
= 2(1.73 – 1)
= 1.46
Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 4 x sin30º + 4 x cos30º
= 4 x (1 / 2) + 4 x (√3 / 2)
= 2 + 2√3
= 2(1 + √3)
= 2(1 + 1.73)
= 5.46
Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).
Alternatively,
In matrix form, the new coordinates of the line after rotation may be obtained as

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Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).

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Example 2: Given a triangle with corner coordinates (0, 0), (1, 0) and (1, 1). Rotate the
triangle by 90 degree anticlockwise direction and find out the new coordinates.
Solution:
We rotate a polygon by rotating each vertex of it with the same rotation angle.
Given that
 Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (0, 0), B(1, 0), C(1, 1)
 Rotation angle = θ = 90º
For Coordinates A(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 0 x cos90º – 0 x sin90º
=0
Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 0 x sin90º + 0 x cos90º
=0
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after rotation = (0, 0).
For Coordinates B(1, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after rotation = (X new, Ynew).
Xnew= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 1 x cos90º – 0 x sin90º
=0
Ynew= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 1 x sin90º + 0 x cos90º
=1+0
=1
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after rotation = (0, 1).
For Coordinates C(1, 1)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after rotation = (X new, Ynew).
Xnew= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 1 x cos90º – 1 x sin90º
=0–1
= -1
Ynew= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 1 x sin90º + 1 x cos90º
=1+0
=1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after rotation = (-1, 1).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after rotation = A (0, 0), B(0, 1), C(-1, 1).

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4. SCALING
2D Scaling Transformation means changing the size of an object. It is a basic geometric
transformation. We can scale the object by multiplying scaling factors with coordinate
points. This Scaling Transformation is about the origin.
 Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of object.
 Scaling subjects the coordinate points of the original object to change.
 Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
 If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.

 If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.

For Example, as given in following figure, If we want to scale an object that has R (P0, Q0)
coordinate and the new coordinates of an object are R` (P1, Q1) then the equation will be-
P1 = P0. Sx
Q1 = Q0. Sy

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Consider a point object O has to be scaled in a 2D plane. Let,
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
 Scaling factor for X-axis = Sx
 Scaling factor for Y-axis = Sy
 New coordinates of the object O after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew)
This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations-
 Xnew = Xold x Sx
 Ynew = Yold x Sy
Representing it in matrix form,

There are 2 types of scaling:

1. Uniform Scaling: When both the scaling factors Sx, Sy are same. i.e. Sx=Sy. In this case
Size increases or reduces uniformly in both the directions. That is ratio of scaling of the
object remains same in both the dimensions. for example in the following figure square
remains square.
2. Differential Scaling: When both the scaling factors Sx, Sy are different. Scaling will not be
same in both x and y direction. In the following figure increase in x direction is more as
compared to y direction. Therefore square has transformed to rectangle.
For homogeneous coordinates, the above scaling matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3
matrix as-

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Example: Given a square object with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0,
0). Apply the scaling parameter 2 towards X axis and 3 towards Y axis and obtain the
new coordinates of the object.
Solution:
 Old corner coordinates of the square = A (0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
 Scaling factor along X axis = 2
 Scaling factor along Y axis = 3
For Coordinates A(0, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after scaling = (X new, Ynew).
Applying the scaling equations,
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9).
For Coordinates B(3, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after scaling = (X new, Ynew).
Applying the scaling equations,
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9).
For Coordinates C(3, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after scaling = (X new, Ynew).
Applying the scaling equations,
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after scaling = (6, 0).
For Coordinates D(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner D after scaling = (X new, Ynew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0
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Thus, New coordinates of corner D after scaling = (0, 0).

5. REFLECTION
Reflection is a transformation that produces a mirror image of an object. 2D Reflection is
performed about a line. This line can be one of the principal axis or it can be any arbitrary
line. Reflection is actually rotating an object 180 degrees about the reflection axis.
Following are the types of reflections.
 Reflection About the line y=0 i.e. x-axis
 Reflection About the line x=0 i.e. y-axis
 Reflection About the axis perpendicular to XY plane and which passes through the
coordinate origin
 Reflection About the line y=x
 Reflection About any arbitrary line y=mx+b

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As you can see, When 2D Reflection is performed about the x-axis. The object will be
reflected from the First quadrant to the Fourth quadrant or vice-versa. If the original object
is in the second quadrant final object will be in the third quadrant. It works as if the x-axis
is a mirror.
5.1 Reflection with respect to a Line y=x

We know how to perform reflection about the x-axis. So, we can derive 2D Reflection
about a line y=x by a sequence of operations.
 First, perform Clockwise rotation by 45 degrees. So that this line y=x coincides with
the x-axis.
 After that, perform Reflection about the x-axis.
 Now, send the object back to its original position. Therefore, we will perform
Counter clockwise rotation by 45 degrees.
This sequence of operations can be performed with the help of composite transformations.

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5.2 Reflection with respect to an arbitrary Line y=mx+b
We can reflect an object about any given line. We can easily derive the Reflection matrix
by performing following series of operations.
 Translate the line so that it passes through the origin: It is required that the line
should pass through the origin. As all the axis pass through the origin. We will
translate the object by the factor (0, -b), where b is the y-intercept of the line. So, it
is T(0,-b)
 Clockwise rotation: Now we have to change the orientation so that line passes
through any of the axis. We can find the angle of rotation by the relationship m =
tanƟ where m is the slope of the line. So, it is R(-Ɵ)
 Reflection about that axis: Here, we will simply reflect the object about the axis
using a standard 2D Reflection matrix.
 Counter clockwise rotation by the same angle: We will perform R(Ɵ) to change the
orientation back as it was original.
 Translate back to original position: We will translate the object with the same T(0,-
b) factor but in opposite direction i.e. T(0,b).

Example 1: There is a triangle ABC A(-1,-1) B(0,-2)C(1,-1). Reflect the image about x
axis.
Solution:
The object matrix

The Reflection matrix

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Finally, the solution matrix is,

Before Reflection After Reflection

Example 2: Find the reflection of a point A(5,9) about the line y=x+5.
Solution:
We have to follow the sequence of operations.
 Translate the line so that it passes through the origin by T(0,-5)
 This is the diagonal line y=x. Reflect on the line by y=x
 Translate the line back to original position by T(0,5)

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Object Matrix

Translation Matrix

Reflection Matrix

Translation Matrix

Finally, arrange them as O’ = T(0, 5). Ref. T(0, -5). O and solve.

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So, final answer is A'(4,10). If we plot original and final points on the graph. We get,

6. SHEAR
A transformation that distorts the shape of an object is Shear Transformation. It appears like
somebody has dragged the object in a specific direction and its layers appear to slide. For
Shear Transformation we need three parameters.
 Direction of Shear
 The magnitude of Shear or Force of Shear.
 Axis of Shear
The direction of Shear is the direction in which we apply Shear Transformation. We denote
the magnitude of shear as Shx or Shy. It is the amount of shear that we apply to the object.
The Axis of shear is the axis with respect to which we perform Shear. We can think of axis
of shear as the firm base to which the object is attached.
6.1 X-Axis Shear
X-axis Shear is given by:
x’ = x + y shx
y’= y

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  As a result of Shear, Square is converted to parallelogram.
 There is a shift in the x-direction by a factor of y.shx. While there is no change in y
coordinate.
 As we can see from the equation the shear effect also depends on the distance of the
y coordinate from the origin (y.shx). The greater the distance, the greater is the
effect of shear.
6.2 Shear with respect to line yref
We can also perform shear with respect to a line parallel to x-axis.
x’ = x + (y-yref) shx
y’= y

 Square is converted to a Shifted parallelogram.

 There is a shear effect and as well as translation (shifting of the object).
 There is a translation by the amount -shx.yref . In the above example, yref is -1. So
overall translation factor becomes positive. And we get a shift towards the right. If it
is positive. Then translation factor will be negative and we will get a shift towards
the left.
6.3 Y-Axis Shear
We can perform Shear Transformation with respect to y-axis. x coordinate value remains
unaffected.
x’ = x
y’ = y + x shy

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6.4 Shear with respect to line xref
We can perform Shear with respect to any line parallel to the y-axis. As a result, there will
be a slight shift along with the shear effect. Also, the shift will be upwards or downwards
will depend on the sign of xref (positive or negative).
x’ = x
y’ = y + (x-xref) shy

Example: Given a triangle with points (1, 1), (0, 0) and (1, 0). Apply shear parameter 2
on X axis and 2 on Y axis and find out the new coordinates of the object.
Solution:
Given that,
 Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (1, 1), B(0, 0), C(1, 0)
 Shearing parameter towards X direction (Shx) = 2
 Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shy) = 2
Shearing in X Axis:
For Coordinates A(1, 1)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
 Ynew = Yold = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (3, 1).
For Coordinates B(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
 Ynew = Yold = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (0, 0).
For Coordinates C(1, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-

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  Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 0 = 1
 Ynew = Yold = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 0).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (3, 1), B(0, 0), C(1, 0).
Shearing in Y Axis:
For Coordinates A(1, 1)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (X new, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 1
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (1, 3).
For Coordinates B(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 0
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (0, 0).
For Coordinates C(1, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 1
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 0 + 2 x 1 = 2
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 2).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Y axis = A (1, 3), B(0, 0), C(1, 2).

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7. COMPOSITE TRANSFORMATIONS
7.1 Need of homogenous coordinates
Sometimes we need to perform a sequence of transformations on an object like we need to
scale it, then translate it and then rotate it and so on. When we perform a sequence of
transformations on a single object it is called composite transformation. There can be two
approaches for performing composite transformations. The first one is that we perform the
transformation on objects one by one and calculate intermediate points. Another approach
could be that we create a composite transformation by multiplying all the transformations
and then we can directly apply it to the original coordinates and get final coordinates
directly from it. The second approach is more efficient than the first one.
However, there are two types of matrices. One is a translation which is additive and the
others are scaling and rotation that are multiplicative. We can combine the multiplicative
and additive terms for two-dimensional geometric transformations into a single matrix
representation. For that we have to convert the 2X2 matrix representations to a 3X3 matrix
so that we can represent Transformation equations of all the basic geometric
transformations in matrix form and can be performed using multiplications only. We will
express all of them i.e. translation, rotation, scaling, reflection, shearing by a 3X3 matrix.
All this is done to provide uniformity or for generalization of operations performed on the
object. These uniformly represented matrices are called homogeneous matrices. Following
are the homogeneous matrices representations for all the operations.

Translation Matrix

Rotation Matrix

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 Scaling Matrix
7.2 Object Matrix Representation
Moreover, if we are expressing transformations as a 3X3 matrix. Then we have to represent
points or coordinate positions of the object as a matrix also. Also, we know that for matrix
multiplication, the number of columns of the first matrix must be equal to the number of
rows of the second matrix. That is, it is compulsory that the object matrix must have 3 rows.
So, We represent each Cartesian coordinate position (x, y) also with the homogeneous
coordinate (xh, yh, h). Here h is any non zero value which we take as 1 for simplicity. If
there is a point (2,3) in Cartesian coordinates, we will represent it as (2,3,1) in
homogeneous coordinates.

7.3 Properties of Transformation Operations

7.3.1 Translation is additive
If we apply two successive Translations then it is Composite Translation.
P’ = { T1. ( T2 . P)}
Suppose T1 is a translation with translation factors as tx1, ty1. While, T2 is a translation
with translation factors as tx2, ty2.

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So, we can say that Composite Translations are Additive. That is moving an object 10 units
right and then moving it 5 units right is the same as moving an object 15 units right.
7.3.2 Rotation is additive
Two successive Rotations can be applied on a single object.
P’ = R1. {R2 .(P)}

Therefore we can say that two successive rotations are also additive. So, rotating an object
30 degrees anticlockwise and then rotating it again 60 degrees anticlockwise is the same as
rotating the object 90 degrees anticlockwise.
7.3.3 Scaling is multiplicative
While composite translation and composite rotation are additive, composite scaling is
Multiplicative. We can apply two successive scaling transformations on one object as
follows. Suppose we say magnify the object 2 times then magnify it 3 times. It is
equivalent to saying magnify the object 6 times.

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7.4 Composite Transformation of various Type
We can apply various types of transformations on a single object. Just keep two things in
mind as given below:
 Use 3X3 standard matrices for all the transformations and homogeneous
coordinates for the object.
 Apply the transformations from right to left according to the sequence given. (
Object matrix will be the right-most)
The first step is required because we want a uniform system for all the transformations.
While the second step is required since matrix multiplication is not commutative. Hence the
arrangement of matrices should be correct. We will understand it with an example of
Composite transformation for Scaling and Rotation each.
Example: There is a triangle ABC A ( 0 , 0 ), B ( 1, 1 ), C ( 5, 2 ). Scale the image twice
as large. Then translate it one unit to the left.
Solution:
First of all, we will make Object matrix, Scaling matrix, Translation matrix according to
the values given in the question. Since we are translating the object in left direction. So t x
will be -1.
The object matrix

The scaling matrix

The translation matrix

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Now we will multiply matrices after arranging them in sequence.
O’ = T* { S * O}

Finally, the transformed object is given below with new coordinates as A'(-1, 0), B'(1, 2)
and C'(9, 4).

Original Object Transformed Object

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7.4.1 Pivot Point (Fixed Point) Scaling
The Scaling that we were performing up till now is actually 2D Scaling about the origin.
We can also perform Fixed-Point i.e. pivot point scaling. That is scaling about a point other
than the origin. Fixed-Point Scaling can be performed easily with the help of a sequence of
operations we discussed. Suppose the Fixed-Point is (xf, yf).
1. Translate the whole object such that the fixed point coincides with the origin. That is you
have to shift each and every vertex of the object by the factor xf, yf. If we are moving it
towards the left then the sign will be negative. So, we can express it as:

2. Now, we will perform scaling about origin. And remember that origin and fixed-point
are actually same at this instant. Since we have shifted the whole object.

3. We cannot keep the object where it is. We will shift it back to its original position. If we
are moving it towards right then translation factors will be positive.

We can arrange all these matrices and then we can perform the composite transformation.
Remember to perform all the transformations from right to left. Left-most being the object
matrix. Also, remember Matrix multiplication is associative but not commutative.

Sequence of operation in fixed point scaling

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This fixed-point may be inside the object which we are going to scale. It may be outside
also. We can also derive a composite matrix by multiplying all these matrices and then we
just have to put the values in that single matrix only.
7.4.2 Pivot Point (Fixed Point) Rotation
We can generate rotation about any given point other than the origin. This is Pivot Point
Rotation. For 2D rotation, we must have an angle of rotation, the point about which rotation
is performed. We must also know the direction of rotation. Whether it is clockwise or anti-
clockwise. For anticlockwise angle is taken as positive. While for clockwise it is taken as
negative. Now, the pivot point can be the origin or some other point inside or outside the
object. If the pivot point is the origin it is simple 2D rotation. But if it is some other point.
Then it is Fixed point Rotation. We can perform Fixed point rotation with the help
of composite transformation. We will use a sequence of operations again. First, we will
move the given point to the origin. Then, we will perform a rotation about the origin.
Finally, we will shift the object back to its original position. It can be summarized as
Translate-Rotate-Translate.
1. Translate the object so that given rotation point coincides with origin. Suppose the
given point is (xr, yr). Then translation factors will be (t x, ty) = ( -xr, -yr). Since we
are moving the point downwards and right.
2. Rotate the object about origin with the given angle.
3. Translate the object back to its original position. In this case translation factors will
be positive. Since we are moving the point upwards and towards left. That is (t x, ty)
= (xr, yr).

Sequence of operations in fixed point rotation

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 EXERCISE
1. Given a square with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0). Apply the
translation with distance 1 towards X axis and 1 towards Y axis. Obtain the new
coordinates of the square.
2. Prove that 2D rotations about the origin are commutative i.e. R 1 R2=R2 R1.
3. Consider a triangle ABC A(2,2) B(3,4) C(4,2) .Scale the triangle twice as large about
the origin.
4. Given a triangle with coordinate points A (3, 4), B (6, 4), C (5, 6). Apply the reflection
on the X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis. Obtain the new coordinates of the object.
5. There is a triangle ABC A(4,6) B(2,2)C(6,2). Scale the image thrice as large about the
point (4,4).

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 4. 2D VIEWING & CLIPPING

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All objects in the real world have size. We use a unit of measure to describe both the size
of an object as well as the location of the object in the real world. For example, meters can
be used to specify both size and distance. When we want to display an image of an object
on the screen, we have to use a screen coordinate system that defines the location of the
object with reference to the relative position as in the real world. Once, the screen
coordinate system is selected, the picture is scaled down to display it on the screen.
1. WINDOWING AND CLIPPING
The world coordinate system is used to define the position of objects in the real world. This
system does not depend on the screen coordinate system, so the interval of number can be
anything (positive, negative or decimal). Sometimes the complete picture of object in the
world coordinate system is too large and complicate to clearly show on the screen hence
we need to show only some part of the object.This is carried out by windowing and
clipping. A Window is a rectangular region in the world coordinate system that
defines what is to be viewedwhere as viewport decide where it is to be viewed.

A Viewport is the section of the screen where the images encompassed by the window on
the world coordinate system will be drawn or displayed. A coordinate transformation from
world coordinate system to viewport coordinates (device coordinates) is required to display
the image on the window. The viewport uses the screen coordinate system. So, effectively,
this transformation is from the world coordinate system to the screen coordinate system.
When a window is placed on the real world scenes, only certain objects and parts of objects
can be seen. Points and lines which are outside the window are cut off from view. This
process of cutting off the parts of the image of the world is called Clipping. In clipping, we
examine each line to determine whether or not it is completely inside the window,
completely outside the window, or crosses a window boundary. If it is inside the window,
the line is displayed. If it is outside the window, the lines and points are not displayed. If a
line crosses the boundary, we must determine the point of intersection and display only the
part which lies inside the window.

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Window to Viewport Transformation is the transformation from world to device
coordinates. It is actually a combination of many transformations. It basically
involves translation, scaling, rotation transformations. It also requires methods to delete
those portions of the scene which are outside the selected display area.
1.1 Window to Viewport Transformation
As discussed above, there are two coordinate systems. One is the World Coordinate system
while other is the Device Coordinate system. Therefore, The mapping of a world coordinate
scene to device coordinate is Window to Viewport Transformation or Windowing
transformation.

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1.2 Normalized Coordinates

Viewports are defined within the unit square called normalized coordinates. Normalized
coordinates are useful for separating viewing and other transformations from specific
output device requirements so that the graphics package remains largely device-
independent.
1.3 Applications of Viewport
We can view the objects at different positions on the display area of an output device by
changing the positions of the viewport. Therefore, We can change the size and proportions
of displayed objects by varying the size of the viewport. It is also possible to determine
many viewports on different areas of display and view the same object at a different angle
in each viewport.
Zooming Effect: Zooming Effect is Successively mapping different sized windows on a
fixed size viewport. As the windows are made smaller, so we zoom-in on some part of a
scene to view details that were not visible in large windows. Also, We can obtain more
overview by zooming-out from a section of a scene with successively larger windows.

Panning Effect: Panning Effect is actually moving a fixed size window across various
objects in a scene.

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1.4 Window to viewport Transformation
A window is specified by four world coordinates, Wxmax, Wxmin, Wymax, Wymin. While, A
viewport is specified by Vxmax, Vxmin, Vymax, Vymin. Moreover, The objective of window to
viewport mapping is to convert the world coordinate (Wx,Wy) of an arbitrary point to its
corresponding normalized device coordinate (Vx,Vy).

Viewport Transformation: We need have to map a point at the position Wx, Wy in the
window into the position Vx, Vy in the viewport.
Window to Viewport Mapping: In order to maintain the same relative placement of
the point in the viewport as in window, we require

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Solving for Vx, we get

Similarly, solving for Vy, we get

Algorithm
Step1: Translate window to origin by Tx= -Wxmin Ty= -Wymin
Step2: Then, Scaling of the window to match its size to the viewport
Sx = (vxmax– vxmin) / (wxmax– wxmin)
Sy = ( vymax– vymin) / (wymax– wymin)
Step3:Again translate viewport to its correct position on screen by
Tx= Vxmin
Ty= Vymin

We can represent above three steps in matrix form as,

VT=T1 * S * T
T = Translate window to the origin
S=Scaling of the window to viewport size
T1=Translating viewport on screen.

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Example: Find normalization transformation that maps a window whose lower-left
corner is at (1,1) and upper right corner is at (3,5) onto: a)Viewport with lower-left
corner (0,0) and upper right corner (1,1) b) Viewport with lower left corner (0,0) and
upper right corner (1/2,1/2).
Solution:
Wxmin=1, Wymin=1, Wxmax=3, Wymax=5
a) Vxmin=0, Vymin=0, Vxmax=1, Vymax=1
b) Vxmin=0, Vymin=0, Vxmax=1/2 , Vymax=1/2
a) Sx = (Vxmax– Vxmin) / (Wxmax– Wxmin) , Sy = ( Vymax– Vymin) / (Wymax– Wymin)
While, Putting the values:
Sx = 1-0/3-1 = 1/2 ,
Sy=1-0/5-1 = 1/4

b) Sx = (Vxmax– Vxmin) / (Wxmax– Wxmin), Sy = ( Vymax– Vymin) / (Wymax– Wymin)

While, Putting the values:
Sx = (1/2-0)/3-1 = (1/2)/2 = 1/4
Sy=(1/2-0)/5-1 = (1/2)/4 = 1/8

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2. CLIPPING
2.1 Clipping and Clip Window
We defined what is clipping in first section. Now, we will discuss how clipping can be
performed. First of all we have to define a region, called Clip Window. Then, we will keep
all the portions or objects which are inside this window while all the things outside this
window are discarded. So clipping involves identifying which portion is outside the clip
window and discarding that outer portion. Clip window may be rectangular or any other
polygon or it may be a curve also. The following picture shows the clipping effect.

2.2 Applications of Clipping

1. We can select a part from a scene for displaying just like we use camera to click a
picture. In camera, we focus at a particular portion and then discard the things which
are out of frame.
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 2. In three-dimensional views, only some surfaces are visible and others are hidden.
We can use clipping to identify visible surfaces.
3. During the process of Rasterization, we see aliasing effect (zig-zag) in line segments
or object boundaries. We can use clipping for antialiasing.
4. Solid-modeling procedures also use Clipping.
5. We can use clipping for multiwindow environment
6. With the help of Clipping Operation, we can select a part of picture, copy, move or
delete that part. Various painting and Drawing Applications have this feature.
2.3 Approaches of Clipping
Clipping can be performed in two ways:We can perform Clipping in world coordinates
before mapping it to device coordinates so that we can save unnecessary operations. In this,
we need not to map those objects that we will ultimately discard. However, in viewport
clipping we perform clipping after mapping it to device coordinates.Various types of
Clipping are Point Clipping, Line Clipping, Polygon Clipping, Text Clipping and Curve
Clipping.
2.3.1 Point Clipping
First of all consider a point P(x, y). We can specify Edges of Clip Window by
(Xwmin,Xwmax,Ywmin,Ywmax). If following four inequalities are not satisfied, Then point is
clipped, otherwise, displayed.
Xwmin<= x<=Xwmax
Ywmin<= y<=Ywmax

2.3.2 Line Clipping

We specify a line with its end-points. There are three possible cases for a line that we need
to consider:
 First, will check if a line is completely inside the window. If it is, then we will
display it completely.
 Otherwise, we will check if a line is completely outside the window. If it is, then we
will discard that line.
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  Thirdly, if the line is neither completely inside nor completely outside i.e. it is
partially visible. It is to be clipped.
The following sections 3 and 4 discusses line clipping algorithms.
3. COHEN SUTHERLAND LINE CLIPPING ALGORITHM
Cohen Sutherland Algorithm is a line clipping algorithm that cuts lines to portions which
are within a rectangular area. It eliminates the lines from a given set of lines and rectangle
view port which belongs outside the area of interest and clip those lines which are partially
inside the viewport.In this algorithm, first of all, it is detected whether line lies inside the
screen or it is outside the screen. All lines come under any one of the following categories:
1. Visible: If a line lies within the window, i.e., both endpoints of the line lies within the
window, a line is visible and will be displayed as it is.
2. Not Visible: If a line lies outside the window it will be invisible and rejected. Such lines
will not be displayed. If any one of the following inequalities is satisfied, then the line is
considered invisible. Let A (x1,y2) and B (x2,y2) are endpoints of line and (Xwmin, Ywmin)
(Xwmax, Ywmax) are coordinates of the window.
x1>Xwmaxand x2>Xwmax and y1 >Ywmax and y2>Ywmax
x1<Xwminand x2<Xwminand y1<Ywminand y2<Ywmin
3. Clipping Case: If the line is neither visible case nor invisible case. It is considered to be
clipped case. In this, the category of a line is found based on nine regions given in figure
below. All nine regions are assigned unique codes made up of 4 bits. If both endpoints of
the line have end bits zero, then the line is considered to be visible. The allocation of bits
depends on “TBRL” (Top, Bottom, Right, Left) rule.

The center area is having the code, 0000, i.e., region 5 is considered a rectangle window.
Following figure show lines of various types.
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Algorithm
Step 1:Calculate positions of both endpoints of the line
Step 2:Perform OR operation on both of these end-points
Step 3: If the OR operation gives 0000 then
line is considered to be visible
else
Perform AND operation on both endpoints
If AND = 0000 then
the line is considered for the clipping
else AND ≠ 0000
the line is invisible
Step 4:If a line is clipped case, find an intersection with boundaries of the window using
slop equation
m=(y2-y1 )/(x2-x1)
(a) If L bit "1" line intersects with left boundary of window
yc=y1 + m(Xwmin - x1)
(b) If R bit is "1" line intersect with right boundary of window
yc=y1 + m(Xwmax - x1)
(c) If B bit is "1" line intersects with bottom boundary of window
xc=x1 + (Ywmin - y1)/m
(d) If T bit is "1" line intersects with the top boundary of window
xc=x1 + (Ywmax - y1)/m

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Special Case: Compute intersections with window boundary for lines that can’t be
classified quickly (here, line P9P10 for which the AND operation will give result 0000 yet
it is not candidate for clipping. So find out the intersections with bottom and right window
boundary. If it is not found then line is invisible.)

Example: Let R be the rectangular window whose lower left-hand corner is at L (-3, 1)
and upper right-hand corner is at R (2, 6). Find the region codes for the endpoints in
figure.

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Solution:
So, as per the region codes,
A(-4,2)→0001 F(1,2)→0000
B(-1,7)→1000 G(1,-2)→0100
C(-1,5)→0000 H(3,3)→0100
D(3,8)→1010 I(-4,7)→1001
E (-2,3)→0000 J(-2,10)→1000
We place the line segments in their appropriate categories by testing the region codes found
in the problem.
Case 1 (visible): EF since the region code for both endpoints is 0000.
Case 2 (not visible): IJ since (1001) AND (1000)=1000 (which is not 0000). GH since
(0100) AND (0100)=0100 (which is not 0000).
Case 3 (candidate for clipping): AB since (0001) AND (1000)=0000, CD since (0000)
AND (1010)=0000.
Finding intersection points for y for left and x for top boundary of AB, we get, (-3, 11/3) and
(-8/5, 6) as end points.
For CD, C is inside we have to just calculate intersection points with top boundary. By
using the formula, we get (3/5, 6)

4. LIANG-BARSKY LINE CLIPPING ALGORITHM

The algorithm was introduced by You-Dong Liang and Brian A. Barsky. It is also used for
line clipping and is a more powerful algorithm than the Cohen-Sutherland algorithm.
 We can use the parametric equation of line and inequalities.
 These are used to describe the range of windows to find out the intersection points
between the line and the clipping window.
 The parametric line is also known as “Cyrus-Beck.”
In this algorithm, we have to find the intersection point based on a time interval.
Time interval (t) can be defined as travelling time between initial position (0) to final
position (1). Sowe have,
0<t<1
We have the formula to find x and y points of the line,
x= x1 + tΔx (For point x)
y= y1 + tΔy (For point y)
To check that the point lies between the window or outside the conditions can be given as,
x1 + tΔx>= Xwmin
x1 + tΔx<= Xwmax
y1 + tΔy>= Ywmin
y1 + tΔy<= Ywmax
We can take a common expression for above four conditions. It will be,
t.pk <= qk (Here the value of k is multiple)
So,
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 t = qk / pk
p1 = -Δx q1 = x1 - Xwmin (For left boundary)
p2 = Δx q2 = Xwmax - x1 (For right boundary)
p3 = -Δy q3 = y1 - Ywmin (For bottom boundary)
p4 = Δy q4 = Ywmax – y1(For top Boundary)

Algorithm
Step 1: Set the endpoints of the line (x1, y1) and (x2 , y2).
Step 2: Calculate the value of p1, p2,p3, p4 and q1, q2, q3,q4.
Step 3: Now we calculate the value of t
t1 = 0 (For initial point)
t2 = 1 (For final point)
Step 4: Now, we have to calculate the value of pk and qk
If pk = 0then
{The line is parallel to the window}
If qk < 0then
{The line is completely outside the window}
Step 5: If we have non zero value of pk,
If pk < 0then
t1 = max (0, qk / pk)
If pk > 0then
t2 = min (1, qk / pk)
if t1 < t2
{
If t1 value is changed then
the first point is outside the window.
If t2 value is changed then
the second point is outside the window
}
else if t1 > t2then
Line is completely outside the window
Step 6: Stop.

Example:Let a rectangular window size with (5, 9). The points of the line are (4, 12)
and (8, 8). Use the Liang- Barsky algorithm to clip the line and find the intersection
point.
Solution:
The initial point of the line (p1) = (4, 12)
The ending point of the line (p2) = (8, 8)
x1 = 4, x2 = 8

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y1 = 12, y2 = 8
Xwmin = 5, Xwmax = 9
Ywmin = 5, Ywmax = 9
Step 1: We have to calculate the value of Δx and Δy
Δx = x2- x1= 8-4 = 4
Δy = y2- y1= 8-12 = -4
Step 2: Now, we will calculate,
p1 = -4 q1 = 4-5 = -1
p2 = 4 q2 = 9-4 = 5
p3 = 4 q3 = 12-5 = 7
p4 = -4 q4 = 9-12 = -3
Step 3: Now, we will calculate t 1 value,
If p1, p4 < 0 then,
t1 = max (0, qk /pk)
= max (0, q1 /p1, q4 /p4)
= max (0, 1/4, 3/4)
t1 = 3/4
If p2, p3 > 0 then,
t2 = min (1, qk /pk)
= min (1, q2 /p2, q3 /p3)
= min (1, 5/4, 7/4)
t2 = 1
Step 4: Now, we have to calculate the intersection point.
x = x1 + t1Δx= 4+ 3/4 * 4 = 7
y = y1 + t1Δy= 12+ 3/4 *(-4) = 9
The coordinates intersection point = (7, 9)

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5. POLYGON CLIPPING
Polygon clipping tells us how to clip a polygon against Clip Window. A polygon is actually
made of line segments. Therefore, we can use line clipping procedures for Polygon
Clipping. Though it may be used but it may result in unconnected line segments. So, we
need a clipping algorithm that can create a closed polygon. There are mainly two polygon
clipping algorithms available in Computer Graphics along with the Line Clipping
Algorithms.

5.1 Sutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping Algorithm

This algorithm was purposed by Sutherland and Hodgeman to determine which portions of
the polygon were visible within a window and clipping out the portions that are outside the
window.This algorithm accepts as input a series of polygon vertices, V 1, V2, …. Vn. These
vertices define polygon edges from Vi, to Vi+1 and from Vn to V1.
The algorithm clips a polygon by processing the polygon boundary as a whole against each
window edge. It means all the vertices are processed for clipping against each individual
clip boundary of clipping window one by one. Starting with the initial set of vertices, the
polygon is first clipped against left window boundary and a new set of vertices is produced.
This new set is used as input for clipping against top boundary. It produces another set of
vertices which is used against right window boundary. The output of this is given as input
to bottom window boundary and final set of vertices is produced. All the vertices are
connected and the clipped polygon is generated. During processing the pairs of
verticesfollowing four possible cases may arise.
1. If both vertices are outside then nothing is saved. (Because It means that edge is
completely outside the clip window).
2. If both vertices are inside then we will save both. (Since it means that the edge
connecting those vertices is completely inside the clip window).
3. If the first vertex is inside and the second vertex is outside then the first vertex is
saved as it is and the intersection point of that polygon edge with clip window is
saved.

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 4. If the second vertex is inside and the first vertex is outside then we will save the
second vertex. We will also save the intersection point of the polygon edge with a
clip window.

All four cases have been explained in the following figures:

Case 1 (out → in): If the starting vertex is outside the window boundary and ending vertex
is inside then we preserve or save both point of intersection of polygon edge with window
boundary and ending vertex in the output vertex list.
Case 2 (in → in):If both the starting and ending vertices are inside the window boundary
then only the ending vertex is preserved or saved in output vertex list.
Case 3 (in → out): If the starting vertex is inside the window and ending vertex is outside
then only the point of intersection of polygon edge with window boundary is saved in
output list.
Case 4 (out → out): If both the starting and ending vertices are outside the window
boundary then nothing is added or saved in the output vertex list.

Case Output
Out→In A’B [2 Vertices, Point of intersect with window and ending edge]
In→In C [1 ending vertex ]
In→Out D’ [Point of intersect with window]
Out→Out N/A [Nothing is included]

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Example: Consider the following polygon with vertices P1, P2, P3, P4, P5. Inside in a
viewing window. ApplySutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping Algorithm on this
polygon.

Clipping polygon engaged left window boundary: Here the input vertex list is P1, P2, P3,
P4 P5 and the edges are P1P2, P2P3, P3P4, P4P5 and P5P1. Now, consider all the edge
with respect to (w.r.t.) left window boundary.
Edge Type Output
P1P2 Out → In P1’P2
P2P3 In → In P3
P3P4 In → In P4
P4P5 In → In P5
P5P1 In → Out P5′

Clipping polygon engaged top window boundary: Here the input vertex list is P1′, P2, P3,
P4, P4′, P5” and the edges are P1’P2, P2P3, P3P4, P4P4′, P4’P5” and P5”P1. Now,
consider all the edge with respect to (w.r.t.) top window boundary. Here the input vertex list
is P1′, P2, P3, P4, P5, P5′ and the edges are P1’P2, P2P3, P3P4, P4P5, P5P5′ and P5’P1′.
Now, consider all the edge with respect to (w.r.t.) right window boundary. There will be no
changes because all edges lies inside the top clipping window.

Edge Type Output

P1’P2 In → In P2
P2P3 In → In P3
P3P4 In → In P4
P4P4′ In → In P4′
P4’P5” In → In P5”
P5”P1′ In → In P1′

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Clipping polygon engaged right window boundary: Here the input vertex list is P1′, P2, P3,
P4, P5, P5′ and the edges are P1’P2, P2P3, P3P4, P4P5, P5P5′ and P5’P1′. Now, consider
all the edge with respect to (w.r.t.) right window boundary. There will be no changes
because all edges lies inside the right clipping window.
Edge Type Output
P1’P2 In → In ‘P2
P2P3 In → In P3
P3P4 In → In P4
P4P5 In → In P5
P5P5′ In → In P5′
P5’P1′ In → In P1′

Clipping polygon engaged bottom window boundary: Here the input vertex list is P1′, P2,
P3, P4, P5, P5′ and the edges are P1’P2, P2P3, P3P4, P4P5 and P5P5′. Now, consider all
the edge with respect to (w.r.t.) bottom window boundary.
Edge Type Output
P1’P2 In → In P2
P2P3 In → In P3
P3P4 In → In P4
P4P5 In → Out P4′
P5P5′ Out → Out N/A
P5’P1′ Out → In P5”

Final output using Sutherland-Hodgeman Polygon Clipping Algorithm will be:

Using this algorithm, we can clip convex polygons correctly but we may get wrong results
if we process concave polygons with it. The reason behind this is that we have a set of
vertices as output and we join the last vertex with the first one to make a bounded polygon.
This may produce wrong result with unwanted edge. For this, Weiler-Atherton Algorithm
was developed which works for both types of polygons
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5.2 Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping
This Clipping procedure is suitable for Concave Polygons. The process is almost same as
Sutherland-Hodgeman algorithm except two minor changes. We process pair of vertices of
polygon either clockwise or anticlockwise and test them against the Clip window boundary
one by one. Let us assume that we are processing vertices in a clockwise direction.
1. If both vertices are outside then nothing is saved. (Because It means that edge is
completely outside the clip window).
2. If both vertices are inside then we will save both. (Since it means that the edge
connecting those vertices is completely inside the clip window).
3. If the first vertex is inside and the second vertex is outside then the first vertex is
saved as it is and the intersection point of that polygon edge with clip window is
saved. After doing so follow Window boundary in a clockwise direction.
4. If the second vertex is inside and the first vertex is outside then we will save the
second vertex. We will also save the intersection point of the polygon edge with a
clip window. After doing so, follow Polygon boundary.
Example: Consider the following polygon P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6 with edges P1P2,
P2P3, P3P4, P4P5, P5P6 and P6P1. Clip it using Weiler-Atherton Polygon Clipping.

To apply this algorithm, we see if the edge is in-out or out-in. If the edge is out-in, then we
follow side of polygon. If the edge is in-in, then we save intersecting point on window
boundary.
1. P1P2 is out-in edge, following side of polygon.
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 2. P2P3 is in-in edge, we skip this and include this edge.
3. P3P4 is in-out edge, saving intersecting point on window boundary i.e. P3′.
4. P4P5 is out-in edge, following side of polygon.
5. P5P6 is in-out edge, saving intersecting point on window boundary i.e. P5′.
6. P6P1 is out-out edge, we skip this and exclude this edge.

Here two separate polygon areas generated without any extra line connecting two polygons
as final output shown in the above figure.

EXERCISE
1. What is Clipping? What is the need of clipping? Explain different types of clipping
briefly.
2. How World coordinates are transformed to Viewport Coordinates? Derive the
equation for the same.
3. Explain the following terms:
a. Window b. Viewport
c. Zooming d. Panning

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 5. 3D TRANFORMATIONS &
VIEWING

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3D Transformations take place in a three dimensional plane.3D Transformations are
important and a bit more complex than 2D Transformations. The following sections
discusses the all types of transformations in 3D context.

1. TRANSLATION
Translation, as defined in 2D, it is moving the object by some distance. In 3D translation,
there are three Translation vectors.
Let the,
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold, Zold)
 New coordinates of the object O after translation = (X new, Ynew, Zold)
 Translation vector or Shift vector = (T x, Ty, Tz)
Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty, Tz)
 Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate has to be moved.
 Ty defines the distance the Yold coordinate has to be moved.
 Tz defines the distance the Zold coordinate has to be moved.

This translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates to the old coordinates of
the object as:
 Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes translation towards X axis)
 Ynew = Yold + Ty (This denotes translation towards Y axis)
 Znew = Zold + Tz (This denotes translation towards Z axis)
In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as-

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Example: Given a 3D object with coordinate points A(0, 3, 1), B(3, 3, 2), C(3, 0, 0),
D(0, 0, 0). Apply the translation with the distance 1 towards X axis, 1 towards Y axis
and 2 towards Z axis and obtain the new coordinates of the object.
Solution:
 Old coordinates of the object = A (0, 3, 1), B(3, 3, 2), C(3, 0, 0), D(0, 0, 0)
 Translation vector = (Tx, Ty, Tz) = (1, 1, 2)
For Coordinates A(0, 3, 1)
Applying the translation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1
 Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
 Znew = Zold + Tz = 1 + 2 = 3
Thus, New coordinates of A = (1, 4, 3).
For Coordinates B(3, 3, 2)
Applying the translation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4
 Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
 Znew = Zold + Tz = 2 + 2 = 4
Thus, New coordinates of B = (4, 4, 4).
For Coordinates C(3, 0, 0)
Applying the translation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4
 Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
 Znew = Zold + Tz = 0 + 2 = 2
Thus, New coordinates of C = (4, 1, 2).
For Coordinates D(0, 0, 0)
Applying the translation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1
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  Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
 Znew = Zold + Tz = 0 + 2 = 2
Thus, New coordinates of D = (1, 1, 2).
Thus, New coordinates of the object = A (1, 4, 3), B(4, 4, 4), C(4, 1, 2), D(1, 1, 2).

2. ROTATION
Consider a point object O has to be rotated from one angle to another in a 3D plane.
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold, Zold)
 Initial angle of the object O with respect to origin = Φ
 Rotation angle = θ
 New coordinates of the object O after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
In 3 dimensions, there are 3 possible types of rotation as under:
 X-axis Rotation
 Y-axis Rotation
 Z-axis Rotation
For X-Axis Rotation
This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations where X coordinates
remain unchanged:
 Xnew = Xold
 Ynew = Yold x cosθ – Zold x sinθ
 Znew = Yold x sinθ + Zold x cosθ

Rotation about X axis

In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as,
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For Y-Axis Rotation
This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations where Y coordinates
remain unchanged:
 Xnew = Zold x sinθ + Xold x cosθ
 Ynew = Yold
 Znew = Yold x cosθ – Xold x sinθ

Rotation about Y axis

In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as,

For Z-Axis Rotation

This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations where Z coordinates
remain unchanged:
 Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
 Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
 Znew = Zold
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 Rotation about Z axis
In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as,

Here, the order of rotation affects the final position of the object. This can be seen in the
following figure:

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Apart from this rotation with reference to axis, there are other two types of rotations for 3D
objects: one is rotation about an axis which is parallel to any one of the coordinate axis and
the other one is rotation about any arbitrary axis which is neither parallel to any of the axis
nor passing through origin.
2.1 Rotation about an Axis that is Parallel to One of the Coordinate Axis
1. Translate the object so that the rotation axis coincides with the parallel coordinate
axis.
2. Perform the specified rotation about that coinciding axis.
3. Translate the object so that the rotation axis is moved back to its original position.

2.2 Rotation about an Arbitrary Axis

To rotate an object with reference to any arbitrary axis, we will have to coincide that
arbitrary axis with z axis. For that, follow the steps given below:
1. Translate (x1, y1, z1) to the origin.
2. Rotate object with an angle of α around X axis.
3. Rotate object with an angle of β around Y axis.
4. Rotate object with an angle of  around Z axis.
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 5. Rotate object with an angle of -β around Y axis.
6. Rotate object with an angle of -α around X axis.
7. Translate the rotation axis to the original position.
The transformation equation will be as follows:

R() = T-1Rx(-α)Ry(-β)Rz()Ry(β)Rx(α)T
Step-1: Translate axis end points (x1, y1, z1) to the origin. Let's take the coordinates after
translation as (0,0,0) and (a,b,c).

Step-1
Step-2: Rotate the line with an angle of α about X axis, until it lies on the XZ plane. To do
this, get the angle  by projecting the line on YZ plane as shown in figure. By projection,
(a,b,c) will become (0,b,c) on YZ plane.  is the angle made by projected line with Z-axis
on YZ plane. Rotating the line with an angle of  will give us (a, some value, d). Taking
the projection of the line after rotation onto XZ plane will give us (a, 0, d).

Step-2
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Step-3: Rotate the projected line with an angle of β about Y axis so that it coincides with Z
axis. β is the angle made by the projected line with Z-axis on YZ plane. Here, we will have
coordinates (0, 0, l) after β rotation.

Step-3
Step-4: Rotate line with an angle of  around Z axis

Step-4
Step-5, 6, 7: Apply the reverse transformation to place the axis back in its original position

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 Step-5, 6, 7
Example 1: Given a homogeneous point (1, 2, 3). Apply rotation 90 degree towards X,
Y and Z axis and find out the new coordinate points.
Solution:
Given that,
 Old coordinates = (Xold, Yold, Zold) = (1, 2, 3)
 Rotation angle = θ = 90º
For X-Axis Rotation:
Let the new coordinates after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 1
 Ynew = Yold cosθ – Zold sinθ = 2 cos90° – 3 sin90° = 2 x 0 – 3 x 1 = -3
 Znew = Yold sinθ + Zold cosθ = 2 sin90° + 3 cos90° = 2 x 1 + 3 x 0 = 2
Thus, New coordinates after rotation = (1, -3, 2).
For Y-Axis Rotation:
Let the new coordinates after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Zold sinθ + Xold cosθ = 3 sin90° + 1 cos90° = 3 x 1 + 1 x 0 = 3
 Ynew = Yold = 2
 Znew = Yold cosθ – Xold sinθ = 2 cos90° – 1 sin90° = 2 x 0 – 1 x 1 = -1
Thus, New coordinates after rotation = (3, 2, -1).
For Z-Axis Rotation:
Let the new coordinates after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).

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Applying the rotation equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold cosθ – Yold sinθ = 1 cos90° – 2 sin90° = 1 x 0 – 2 x 1 = -2
 Ynew = Xold sinθ + Yold cosθ = 1 sin90° + 2 cos90° = 1 x 1 + 2 x 0 = 1
 Znew = Zold = 3
Thus, New coordinates after rotation = (-2, 1, 3).
Example 2: Find the new coordinates of a unit cube 90º rotated about an axis defined
by its endpoints A(2,1,0) and B(3,3,1).

Solution:
Step-1: Translate point A to the origin

Step-1

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Step-2: Rotate axis A’B’ about the x-axis by and angle , until it lies on the xz plane.

Step-2

Step-3: Rotate axis A’B’’ about the y-axis by and angle β, until it coincides with the z-axis.

Step-3
Step 4: Rotate the cube 90° about the z-axis

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Finally, the concatenated rotation matrix about the arbitrary axis AB becomes,

R() = T-1Rx(-α)Ry(-β)Rz(90)Ry(β)Rx(α)T

Multiplying R(θ) by the point matrix of the original cube as P'= R(θ)*[P]

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3. SCALING
 Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of object.
 Scaling subjects the coordinate points of the original object to change.
 Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
 If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.
 If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.
Consider a point object O has to be scaled in a 3D plane. Let the,
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold,Zold)
 Scaling factor for X-axis = Sx
 Scaling factor for Y-axis = Sy
 Scaling factor for Z-axis = Sz
 New coordinates of the object O after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations:
 Xnew = Xold x Sx
 Ynew = Yold x Sy
 Znew = Zold x Sz
In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as,

Example: Given a 3D object with coordinate points A(0, 3, 3), B(3, 3, 6), C(3, 0, 1),
D(0, 0, 0). Apply the scaling parameter 2 towards X axis, 3 towards Y axis and 3
towards Z axis and obtain the new coordinates of the object.
Solution:
Given that,
 Old coordinates of the object = A (0, 3, 3), B(3, 3, 6), C(3, 0, 1), D(0, 0, 0)
 Scaling factor along X axis = 2
 Scaling factor along Y axis = 3
 Scaling factor along Z axis = 3
For Coordinates A(0, 3, 3)
Let the new coordinates of A after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
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  Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9
 Znew = Zold x Sz = 3 x 3 = 9
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9, 9).
For Coordinates B(3, 3, 6)
Let the new coordinates of B after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9
 Znew = Zold x Sz = 6 x 3 = 18
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9, 18).
For Coordinates C(3, 0, 1)
Let the new coordinates of C after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0
 Znew = Zold x Sz = 1 x 3 = 3
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after scaling = (6, 0, 3).
For Coordinates D(0, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of D after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
 Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0
 Znew = Zold x Sz = 0 x 3 = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner D after scaling = (0, 0, 0).
4. REFLECTION
 Reflection is a kind of rotation where the angle of rotation is 180 degree.
 The reflected object is always formed on the other side of mirror.
 The size of reflected object is same as the size of original object.
Consider a point object O has to be reflected in a 3D plane. Let the,
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold, Zold)
 New coordinates of the reflected object O after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew,Znew)
In 3 dimensions, there are 3 possible types of reflection:

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 1. Reflection relative to XY plane
2. Reflection relative to YZ plane
3. Reflection relative to XZ plane
In reflection with reference to any of the plane, the third remaining coordinate becomes
negative. The following sections discuss all three types of reflections.
4.1 Reflection Relative to XY Plane
This reflection is achieved by using the following reflection equations:
 Xnew = Xold
 Ynew = Yold
 Znew = -Zold
In Matrix form, the above reflection equations may be represented as,

Reflection with respect to XY plane

4.2 Reflection Relative to YZ Plane
This reflection is achieved by using the following reflection equations:
 Xnew = -Xold
 Ynew = Yold
 Znew = Zold
In Matrix form, the above reflection equations may be represented as,

Reflection with respect to YZ plane

4.3 Reflection Relative to XZ Plane
This reflection is achieved by using the following reflection equation:
 Xnew = Xold
 Ynew = -Yold
 Znew = Zold

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In Matrix form, the above reflection equations may be represented as,

Reflection with respect to YZ plane

Example: Given a 3D triangle with coordinate points A(3, 4, 1), B(6, 4, 2), C(5, 6, 3).
Apply the reflection on the XY plane and find out the new coordinates of the object.
Solution:
Given that,
 Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (3, 4, 1), B(6, 4, 2), C(5, 6, 3)
 Reflection has to be taken on the XY plane
For Coordinates A(3, 4, 1)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (X new, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the reflection equations, we have
 Xnew = Xold = 3
 Ynew = Yold = 4
 Znew = -Zold = -1
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after reflection = (3, 4, -1).
For Coordinates B(6, 4, 2)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the reflection equations, we have
 Xnew = Xold = 6
 Ynew = Yold = 4
 Znew = -Zold = -2
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after reflection = (6, 4, -2).
For Coordinates C(5, 6, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the reflection equations, we have
 Xnew = Xold = 5
 Ynew = Yold = 6
 Znew = -Zold = -3

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Thus, New coordinates of corner C after reflection = (5, 6, -3).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after reflection = A (3, 4, -1), B(6, 4, -2), C(5, 6, -3).
5. SHEARING
In a three dimensional plane, the object size can be changed along X direction, Y direction
as well as Z direction. So, there are three types of shearing:
1. Shearing in X direction
2. Shearing in Y direction
3. Shearing in Z direction
Consider a point object O has to be sheared in a 3D plane.
Let the,
 Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold, Zold)
 Shearing parameter towards X direction = Shx
 Shearing parameter towards Y direction = Shy
 Shearing parameter towards Z direction = Shz
 New coordinates of the object O after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew)
5.1 Shearing in X Axis
Shearing in X axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
 Xnew = Xold
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold
In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as-

Shearing in X axis
5.2 Shearing in Y Axis
Shearing in Y axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold
 Ynew = Yold
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold
In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as-

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 Shearing in Y axis
5.3 Shearing in Z Axis
Shearing in Z axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold
 Znew = Zold
In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as-

Shearing in Z axis
Example: Given a 3D triangle with points (0, 0, 0), (1, 1, 2) and (1, 1, 3). Apply shear
parameter 2 on X axis, 2 on Y axis and 3 on Z axis and find out the new coordinates of
the object.
Solution:
Given that,
 Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (0, 0, 0), B(1, 1, 2), C(1, 1, 3)
 Shearing parameter towards X direction (Shx) = 2
 Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shy) = 2
 Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shz) = 3
Shearing in X Axis
For Coordinates A(0, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (X new, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 0
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 0 + 3 x 0 = 0
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Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (0, 0, 0).
For Coordinates B(1, 1, 2)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 1
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 2 + 3 x 1 = 5
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (1, 3, 5).
For Coordinates C(1, 1, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold = 1
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Xold = 3 + 3 x 1 = 6
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 3, 6).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(1, 3, 5), C(1,
3, 6).
Shearing in Y Axis
For Coordinates A(0, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (X new, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
 Ynew = Yold = 0
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold = 0 + 3 x 0 = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (0, 0, 0).
For Coordinates B(1, 1, 2)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
 Ynew = Yold = 1
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold = 2 + 3 x 1 = 5
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (3, 1, 5).

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For Coordinates C(1, 1, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
 Ynew = Yold = 1
 Znew = Zold + Shz x Yold = 3 + 3 x 1 = 6
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (3, 1, 6).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Y axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(3, 1, 5), C(3,
1, 6).
Shearing in Z Axis
For Coordinates A(0, 0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (X new, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
 Znew = Zold = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (0, 0, 0).
For Coordinates B(1, 1, 2)
Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold = 1 + 2 x 2 = 5
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold = 1 + 2 x 2 = 5
 Znew = Zold = 2
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (5, 5, 2).
For Coordinates C(1, 1, 3)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew, Znew).
Applying the shearing equations, we have-
 Xnew = Xold + Shx x Zold = 1 + 2 x 3 = 7
 Ynew = Yold + Shy x Zold = 1 + 2 x 3 = 7
 Znew = Zold = 3
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (7, 7, 3).
Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Z axis = A (0, 0, 0), B(5, 5, 2), C(7,
7, 3).

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6. 3D VIEWING
In the 2D system, we use only two coordinates X and Y, but in 3D, an extra coordinate Z is
added. 3D graphics techniques and their application are fundamental to the entertainment,
games, and computer-aided design industries. It is a continuing area of research in scientific
visualization. Furthermore, 3D graphics components are nowadays part of almost every
personal computer and they are increasingly being used by other applications.

Viewing in 3D involves the following considerations:

 We can view an object from any spatial position. e.g. front of an object, back of the
object, middle of a group of objects, inside an object etc.
 3D descriptions of objects must be projected onto the flat viewing surface of the
output device.
 The clipping boundaries enclose a volume of space.

Modelling Transformation and Viewing Transformation can be done by 3D

transformations we discussed in previous sections. The viewing-coordinate system is used
in graphics packages as a reference for specifying the observer viewing position and the
position of the projection plane to view the objects.

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Projection operations convert the viewing-coordinate description (3D) to coordinate
positions on the projection plane (2D) usually combined with clipping, visual-surface
identification, and surface rendering. Workstation transformation maps the coordinate
positions on the projection plane to the output device.
Viewing transformation conversion of object descriptions from world to viewing
coordinates is equivalent to a transformation that superimposes the viewing reference frame
onto the world frame using the basic geometric translate-rotate operations:
1. Translate the view reference point to the origin of the world-coordinate system.
2. Apply rotations to align the Xv, Yv, and Zv axes (viewing coordinate system) with
the world Xw, Yw, Zw axes, respectively.

Projection operations convert the viewing-coordinate description of 3D to coordinate

positions on the projection plane of 2D. There are 2 basic projection methods as discussed
below:
6.1 Parallel Projections
It transforms object positions to the view plane along parallel lines. A parallel projection
preserves relative proportions of objects. Accurate views of the various sides of an object
are obtained with a parallel projection but they do not represent a realistic view.

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Parallel Projection are divided into Orthographic Parallel Projection and Oblique Projection
categories:

Orthographic Parallel Projection

Orthographic parallel projections are carried out by projecting points along parallel lines
that are perpendicular to the projection plane. However, oblique projections are obtained by
projecting along parallel lines that are NOT perpendicular to the projection plane. Some
special Orthographic Parallel Projections involve plan view (Top projection), side
elevations, and isometric projections.

Top View (Plan), Front View (Elevation) and Side View of 3D object
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In oblique projection, the direction of projection is not perpendicular to the projection
plane. In oblique projection, we can view the object better than orthographic projection.
There are two types of oblique projections − Cavalier and Cabinet.
The Cavalier projection makes an angle of 45° with the projection plane. The projection of
a line perpendicular to the view plane has the same length as the original line in Cavalier
projection.
The Cabinet projection makes an angle of 63.4° with the projection plane. In Cabinet
projection, lines perpendicular to the viewing surface are projected at 50% of their actual
length. Both the projections are shown in the following figure:

Cavilier Projection Cabinet Projection

6.2 Perspective Projections
Perspective projection transforms object positions to the view plane while converging to a
centre point of projection behind the projection plane. Perspective projection produces
realistic views but does not preserve relative proportions. Projections of distant objects are
smaller than the projections of objects of the same size that are closer to the projection
plane.

Perspective Projection

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There are 3 types of perspective projections based on number of vanishing points. A
Vanishing point is the point where projection lines converge and projection gets destroyed.
Following figures explain the perspective projections based on the number of vanishing
points.
1. One point perspective projection is simple to draw.

2. Two point perspective projection gives better impression of depth.

3. Three point perspective projection is most difficult to draw.

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6.3 Isometric Projections
Orthographic projections that show more than one side of an object are called axonometric
orthographic projections. The most common axonometric projection is an isometric
projection where the projection plane intersects each coordinate axis in the model
coordinate system at an equal distance. In this projection, parallelism of lines are preserved
but angles are not preserved. The following figure shows isometric projection.

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 EXERCISE
1. Perform Rotation transformation over a cube ‘OABCDEFG’ given below and
rotate it through 45* in the anticlockwise direction about the y-axis.

2. Rotate the above cube about an axis defined by its endpoints A(2,1,0) and B(3,3,1)
by an angle of 450.
3. How does 3D Shearing differ from 2d Shearing? Explain with example.
4. Given a 3D triangle with coordinate points A(3, 4, 1), B(6, 4, 2), C(5, 6, 3). Apply
the reflection on the XZ plane and find out the new coordinates of the object.

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 6. 3D OBJECT
REPRESENTATIONS

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3D object Representation schemes are little different than those of 2D images. They are
divided into two categories as follows:
1. Boundary Representation (B-reps): It describes a three dimensional object as a set of
surfaces that separate the object interior from the environment. For example,
polygon facets and spline patches.
2. Space Partitioning representation: It describes the interior properties, by partitioning
the spatial region containing an object into a set of small, non-overlapping,
contiguous solids (usually cubes). For example, Octree Representation.
1. POLYGON SURFACES
Polygon surfaces, are boundary representations for a 3D graphics object, is a set of
polygons that enclose the object interior. They are represented in the form of vector tables.
Polygon Tables: The polygon surface is specified with a set of vertex coordinates and
associated attribute parameters. For each polygon input, the data are placed into tables,
called polygon tables, that are to be used in the subsequent processing. Polygon data tables
can be organized into two groups: Geometric tables and attribute tables.
The geometric tables contain vertex coordinates and parameters to identify the spatial
orientation of the polygon surfaces whereas the attribute tables contain attribute information
for an object such as parameters specifying the degree of transparency of the object, its
surface reflectivity, texture characteristics etc. A convenient way of storing geometric data
is to create three lists:
1. The Vertex Table: Coordinate values for each vertex in the object are stored in this
table.
2. The Edge Table: It contains pointers back into the vertex table to identify the
vertices for each polygon edge.
3. The Polygon Table: It contains pointers back into the edge table to identify the
edges for each polygon. This is shown in following figure:

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Listing the geometric data in three tables provides a convenient reference to the individual
components (vertices, edges and polygons) of each object. The object can be displayed
efficiently by using data from the edge table to draw the component lines. Extra
information can be added to the data tables for faster information extraction. For instance,
edge table can be expanded to include forward points into the polygon table so that
common edges between polygons can be identified more rapidly like given below.
E1 : V1, V2, S1
E2 : V2, V3, S1
E3 : V3, V1, S1, S2
E4 : V3, V4, S2
E5 : V4, V5, S2
E6 : V5, V1, S2
Above listing is useful for the rendering procedure that must vary surface shading smoothly
across the edges from one polygon to the next. Similarly, the vertex table can be expanded
so that vertices are cross-referenced to corresponding edges.
Additional geometric information that is stored in the data tables includes the slope for each
edge and the coordinate extends for each polygon. Using vertices as input, we can calculate
edge slopes, we can scan the coordinate values to identify the minimum and maximum x, y
and z values for individual polygons.
The more information included in the data tables, more it will be easier to check for errors.
Some of the tests that could be performed by a graphics package are:
1. That every vertex is listed as an endpoint for at least two edges.
2. That every edge is part of at least one polygon.
3. That every polygon is closed.
4. That each polygon has at least one shared edge.
5. That if the edge table contains pointers to polygons, every edge referenced by a
polygon pointer has a reciprocal pointer back to the polygon.

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2. PLANE EQUATIONS
To produce a display of a 3D object, we must process the input data representation for the
object through several procedures such as, transformation of the modelling and world
coordinate descriptions to viewing coordinates and then to device coordinates,
identification of visible surfaces (also called removal of hidden surfaces) and finally the
application of surface-rendering procedures.
For these processes, we need information about the spatial orientation of the individual
surface components of the object. This information is obtained from the vertex coordinate
value and the equations that describe the polygon planes. The equation for a plane surface is
Ax+By+Cz+D = 0 ----(1)
Where (x, y, z) is any point on the plane, and the coefficients A, B, C and D are the
constants describing the spatial properties of the plane. We can obtain the values of A, B, C
and D by solving a set of three plane equations using the coordinate values for three non
collinear points in the plane. For that, we can select three successive polygon vertices (x1,
y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2) and (x3, y3, z3) and solve the following set of simultaneous linear
plane equations for the ratios A/D, B/D and C/D.
(A/D)xk + (B/D)yk + (C/D)zk = -1, k=1,2,3 ----(2)
The solution for this set of equations can be obtained in determinant form, using Cramer’s
rule as,
1 𝑦1 𝑧1 𝑥1 1 𝑧1 𝑥1 𝑦1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑧1
𝐴 = |1 𝑦2 𝑧2| 𝐵 = |𝑥2 1 𝑧2| 𝐶 = |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| 𝐷 = |𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2| − − − −(3)
1 𝑦3 𝑧3 𝑥3 1 𝑧3 𝑥3 𝑦3 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 𝑧3
Expanding the determinants, we can write the calculations for the plane coefficients in the
following forms:
A = y1 (z2 –z3 ) + y2(z3 –z1 ) + y3 (z1 –z2 )
B = z1 (x2 -x3 ) + z2 (x3 -x1 ) + z3 (x1 -x2 )
C = x1 (y2 –y3 ) + x2 (y3 –y1 ) + x3 (y1 -y2 )
D = -x1 (y2 z3 -y3 z2 ) - x2 (y3 z1 -y1 z3 ) - x3 (y1 z2 -y2 z1) ------(4)
As vertex values and other information are entered into the polygon data structure, values
for A, B, C and D are computed for each polygon and stored with the other polygon data.
Plane equations are used also to identify the position of spatial points relative to the plane
surfaces of an object. For any given point (x, y, z) on a plane with parameters A, B, C, D,
we have,
Ax+By+Cz+D ≠ 0
We can identify the point as either inside or outside the plane surface according the sign
(negative or positive) of Ax+By+Cz+D:
1. If Ax+By+Cz+D < 0, the point (x, y, z) is inside the surface.
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 2. If Ax+By+Cz+ D > 0, the point (x, y, z) is outside the surface.
These inequality tests are valid in a right handed Cartesian system, provided the plane
parameters A, B, C and D were calculated using vertices selected in a counter clockwise
order when the viewing the surface is in an outside-to-inside direction.
3. POLYGON MESHES
A single plane surface can be specified with a function such as fill area but when object
surfaces are to be tiled, it is more convenient to specify the surface facets with a mesh
function. One type of polygon mesh function is the triangle strip. Here, in the below figure
the mesh function produces n-2 connected triangles given the coordinates for n vertices. A
triangle strip formed with 7 triangles connecting 9 vertices is shown below.

Another type of polygon mesh is a square strip which generates a mesh of (n-1) by (m-1)
quadrilaterals, given the coordinates for an n by m array of vertices. Second Figure shows
20 vertices forming a mesh of 12 quadrilaterals.

3.1 Curved Lines and Surfaces

Displays of three dimensional curved lines and surface can be generated from an input set
of mathematical functions defining the objects or from a set of user specified data points.
When functions are specified, a package can project the defining equations for a curve to
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the display plane and plot pixel positions along the path of the projected function. For
surfaces, a function is derived to produce a polygon-mesh approximation to the surface.
3.2 Spline Representations
A Spline is a flexible strip used to produce a smooth curve through a designated set of
points. Several small weights are distributed along the length of the strip to hold it in proper
position on the drafting table as the curve is generated. The Spline curve refers to any
sections' curve formed with polynomial sections satisfying specified continuity conditions
at the boundary of the pieces. A Spline surface can be described with two sets of orthogonal
spline curves. Splines are used in graphics applications to design curve and surface shapes,
to digitize drawings for computer storage, and to specify animation paths for the objects or
the camera in the scene. It is also used in CAD applications to design the automobiles
bodies, aircraft and spacecraft surfaces, and ship hulls.
3.3 Sweep Representations
Sweep representations mean sweeping a 2D surface in 3D space to create an object.
However, the objects created by this method are usually converted into polygon meshes
and/or parametric surfaces before storing. For this either translational sweep or a rotational
sweep is carried out. Following figure shows the same.

Other variations in sweep representation are:

1. We can specify special path for the sweep as some curve function.
2. We can vary the shape or size of the cross section along the sweep path.
3. We can also vary the orientation of the cross section relative to the sweep path.
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3.4 Interpolation and Approximation Splines
Spline curve can be specified by a set of coordinate positions called control points which
indicates the general shape of the curve. These control points are fitted with piecewise
continuous parametric polynomial functions in one of the two ways:
1. When polynomial sections are fitted so that the curve passes through each control
point, the resulting curve is said as an interpolated set of control points.
Interpolation curves are used to digitize drawings or to specify animation paths. A
set of six control points interpolated with piecewise continuous polynomial sections
is shown below:

2. When the polynomials are fitted to the general control point path without
necessarily passing through any control points, the resulting curve is said as
an approximated set of control points. Approximation curves are used as design
tools to structure object surfaces. A set of six control points approximated with
piecewise continuous polynomial sections is shown below:

A spline curve is designed, modified and manipulated with operations, specified above, on
the control points. The curve can be translated, rotated or scaled with transformation
applied to the control points. The convex polygon boundary that encloses a set of control
points is called the convex hull. The shape of the convex hull is to imagine a rubber band
stretched around the position of the control points so that each control point is either on the
perimeter of the hull or inside it. Such a curve is called Bezier Curve.
4. BEZIER CURVE
Bezier curves are used in computer graphics to draw shapes, for Cascaded Style Sheets
animation and in many other places.
 Bezier Curve is parametric curve defined by a set of control points.
 Two points are ends of the curve.
 Other points determine the shape of the curve.
The concept of Bezier curves was given by Pierre Bezier. The following curve is an
example of a Bezier curve.

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 Bezier Curve
Here,
1. This Bezier curve is defined by a set of control points b0, b1, b2 and b3.
2. Points b0 and b3 are ends of the curve.
3. Points b1 and b2 determine the shape of the curve.
4.1 Properties of Bezier Curves
Few important properties of a Bezier curve are:
1. Bezier curve generally follows the shape of its defining polygon. The first and last
points of the curve are coincident with the first and last points of the defining
polygon.
2. The degree of the polynomial defining the curve segment is one less than the total
number of control points.
Degree = Number of Control Points – 1
3. The order of the polynomial defining the curve segment is equal to the total number
of control points.
4. Bezier curve exhibits the variation diminishing property. It means the curve do not
oscillate about any straight line more often than the defining polygon.
5. Bezier curve is always contained within a polygon called as convex hull of its
control points shown in below figure:

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 Bezier Curve with Convex Hull
For instance, two points curve:

Three points curve:

Four points curve:

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4.2 Applications of Bezier Curves
1. Computer Graphics: Bezier curves are widely used in computer graphics to model
smooth curves. The curve is completely contained in the convex hull of its control
points. So, the points can be graphically displayed & used to manipulate the curve
intuitively.
2. Animation: Bezier curves are used to outline movement in animation applications
such as Adobe Flash and Synfig. Users outline the wanted path in Bezier curves.
The application creates the needed frames for the object to move along the path. For
3D animation, Bezier curves are often used to define 3D paths as well as 2D curves.
3. Fonts: True type fonts use composite Bezier curves composed of quadratic Bezier
curves. Modern imaging systems like Postscript, Asymptote etc. use composite
cubic Bezier curves for drawing curved shapes.
Here are some examples:

4.3 Bezier Curve Equation

A Bezier curve is parametrically represented by

Here,
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  P(t) = Any point lying on the Bezier curve
 Bi = ith control point of the Bezier curve
 t is any value between [0,1] i.e. 0 <= t <= 1
 n = degree of the curve
Cubic Bezier Curve
 Cubic Bezier curve is a Bezier curve with degree 3.
 The total number of control points in a cubic Bezier curve is 4.
The following curve is an example of a cubic Bezier curve:

Here,
 This curve is defined by 4 control points b0, b1, b2 and b3.
 The degree of this curve is 3.
 So, it is a cubic Bezier curve.
Derivation of Cubic Bezier Curve Equation
Substituting n = 3 for a cubic Bezier curve into the equation, we get:

Expanding the above equation, we get:

P (t) = B03C0 (t) + B13C1 (t) + B23C2 (t) + B33C3 (t) ...(1)

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 = (1-t)3................(2)

= 3t(1-t)2................(3)

= 3t2(1-t)2................(4)

= t3................(5)
Using (2), (3), (4) and (5) in (1), we get-

P(t) = B0(1-t)3 + B13t(1-t)2 + B23t2(1-t) + B3t3

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In general, given the coordinates of control points Pi: the first control point has
coordinates P1 = (x1, y1), the second: P2 = (x2, y2), and so on. The curve coordinates are
described by the equation that depends on the parameter value t from the interval [0,1].
The formula for a 2-points curve:

P = (1-t)P1 + tP2
For 3 control points:

P = (1−t)2P1 + 2(1−t)tP2 + t2P3

For 4 control points:

P = (1−t)3P1 + 3(1−t)2tP2 +3(1−t)t2P3 + t3P4

Using these vector equations, we can derive new corresponding coordinates x and y by
putting values of P(x,y). For instance, the 3-point curve is formed by points (x,y) calculated
as:
 x = (1−t)2x1 + 2(1−t)tx2 + t2x3
 y = (1−t)2y1 + 2(1−t)ty2 + t2y3
Instead of x1, y1, x2, y2, x3, y3, we put the coordinates of 3 control points, and then
as t moves from 0 to 1, for each value of t we will have (x,y) of the curve.
For instance, if control points are (0,0), (0.5, 1) and (1, 0), the equations become:
 x = (1−t)2 * 0 + 2(1−t)t * 0.5 + t2 * 1 = (1-t)t + t2 = t
 y = (1−t)2 * 0 + 2(1−t)t * 1 + t2 * 0 = 2(1-t)t = –2t2 + 2t
Example: Given a Bezier curve with 4 control points,B0[1 0], B1[3 3], B2[6 3], B3[8 1],
Determine any 5 points lying on the curve. Also, draw a rough sketch of the curve.
Solution:
We have-
 The given curve is defined by 4 control points.
 So, the given curve is a cubic Bezier curve.
The parametric equation for a cubic Bezier curve is-

P(t) = B0(1-t)3 + B13t(1-t)2 + B23t2(1-t) + B3t3

Substituting the control points B0, B1, B2 and B3, we get-
P(t) = [1 0](1-t)3 + [3 3]3t(1-t)2 + [6 3]3t2(1-t) + [8 1]t3 ……..(1)
Now, To get 5 points lying on the curve, assume any 5 values of t lying in the range 0 <= t
<= 1.
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Let 5 values of t are 0, 0.2, 0.5, 0.7, 1
For t = 0:
Substituting t=0 in (1), we get-
P(0) = [1 0](1-0)3 + [3 3]3(0)(1-t)2 + [6 3]3(0)2(1-0) + [8 1](0)3
= [1 0] + 0 + 0 + 0
= [1 0]
For t = 0.2:
Substituting t=0.2 in (1), we get-
P(0.2) = [1 0](1-0.2)3 + [3 3]3(0.2)(1-0.2)2 + [6 3]3(0.2)2(1-0.2) + [8 1](0.2)3
= [1 0](0.8)3 + [3 3]3(0.2)(0.8)2 + [6 3]3(0.2)2(0.8) + [8 1](0.2)3
= [1 0] x 0.512 + [3 3] x 3 x 0.2 x 0.64 + [6 3] x 3 x 0.04 x 0.8 + [8 1] x 0.008
= [0.512 0] + [1.152 1.152] + [0.576 0.288] + [0.064 0.008]
= [2.304 1.448]
For t = 0.5:
Substituting t=0.5 in (1), we get-
P(0.5) = [1 0](1-0.5)3 + [3 3]3(0.5)(1-0.5)2 + [6 3]3(0.5)2(1-0.5) + [8 1](0.5)3
= [1 0](0.5)3 + [3 3]3(0.5)(0.5)2 + [6 3]3(0.5)2(0.5) + [8 1](0.5)3
= [1 0] x 0.125 + [3 3] x 3 x 0.5 x 0.25 + [6 3] x 3 x 0.25 x 0.5 + [8 1] x 0.125
= [0.125 0] + [1.125 1.125] + [2.25 1.125] + [1 0.125]
= [4.5 2.375]
For t = 0.7:
Substituting t=0.7 in (1), we get-
P(0.7) = [1 0](1-0.7)3 + [3 3]3(0.7)(1-0.7)2 + [6 3]3(0.7)2(1-0.7) + [8 1](0.7)3
= [1 0](0.3)3 + [3 3]3(0.7)(0.3)2 + [6 3]3(0.7)2(0.3) + [8 1](0.7)3
= [1 0] x 0.027 + [3 3] x 3 x 0.7 x 0.09 + [6 3] x 3 x 0.49 x 0.3 + [8 1] x 0.343
= [0.027 0] + [0.567 0.567] + [2.646 1.323] + [2.744 0.343]
= [5.984 2.233]
For t = 1:
Substituting t=1 in (1), we get-
P(1) = [1 0](1-1)3 + [3 3]3(1)(1-1)2 + [6 3]3(1)2(1-1) + [8 1](1)3
= [1 0] x 0 + [3 3] x 3 x 1 x 0 + [6 3] x 3 x 1 x 0 + [8 1] x 1
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 = 0 + 0 + 0 + [8 1]
= [8 1]
Following is the required rough sketch of the curve-

EXERCISE
1. Given a Bezier with four control points B0[1,0], B1[2,2], B2[6,3], B3[8,2],
determine the five points that lie on the curve. Also draw the curve on the graph.
2. Derive equation for quadratic Bezier Curve.

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 7. VISIBLE SURFACE
DETECTION

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When we view a picture containing non-transparent objects and surfaces, we cannot see
those objects from view which are on the back side of objects. So, we must remove these
hidden surfaces to get a realistic screen image. The identification and removal of these
surfaces is called Hidden-surface problem. There are two approaches for removing hidden
surface problems: Object-Space method and Image-space method. The Object-space
method is implemented in physical coordinate system whereas the image-space method is
implemented in the screen coordinate system. When we want to display a 3D object on a
2D screen, we need to identify those parts of a screen that are visible from a chosen viewing
position. This chapter discusses few methods for visible surface detection, also known as,
hidden surface removal.
1. DEPTH BUFFER Z−BUFFER
This method was developed by Cutmull. It is an image-space approach. The basic idea is to
test the Z-depth of each surface to determine the closest visible surface. In this method,
each surface is processed separately one pixel position at a time across the surface. The
depth values for a pixel are compared and the closest smallest z surface determines the
color to be displayed in the frame buffer. It is applied very efficiently on surfaces of
polygon. Surfaces can be processed in any order. To override the closer polygons from the
far ones, two buffers, frame buffer and depth buffer, are used. Depth buffer is used to store
depth values for (x,y) position, as surfaces are processed 0≤depth≤1.
The frame buffer is used to store the intensity value of color value at each position (x,y).
The z-coordinates are usually normalized to the range [0, 1]. The 0 value for z-coordinate
indicates back clipping pane and 1 value for z-coordinates indicates front clipping pane.

Algorithm
1. Set the buffer values
DepthBuffer(x,y) = 0
FrameBuffer(x,y) = backgroundColor
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 2. Process each polygon One at a time
For each projected (x,y) pixel position of a polygon, calculate depth z.
If Z > DepthBuffer(x,y)
Compute surfaceColor,
set DepthBuffer(x,y) = z,
FrameBuffer(x,y) = surfaceColor(x,y)

Advantages
 It is easy to implement.
 It reduces the speed problem if implemented in hardware.
 It processes one object at a time.
Disadvantages
 It requires large memory.
 It is time consuming process.
2. SCAN-LINE METHOD
It is an image-space method to identify visible surface. This method has a depth
information for only single scan-line. In order to acquire one scan-line of depth values, we
must group and process all polygons intersecting a given scan-line at the same time before
processing the next scan-line. Two important tables, edge table and polygon table, are
maintained for this, as we discussed in chapter 6.
The Edge Table − It contains coordinate endpoints of each line in the scene, the inverse
slope of each line, and pointers into the polygon table to connect edges to surfaces.
The Polygon Table − It contains the plane coefficients, surface material properties, other
surface data, and may be pointers to the edge table.

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To facilitate the search for surfaces crossing a given scan-line, an active list of edges is
formed. The active list stores only those edges that cross the scan-line in order of increasing
x value. Also a flag is set for each surface to indicate whether a position along a scan-line is
either inside or outside the surface. Pixel positions across each scan-line are processed from
left to right. At the left intersection with a surface, the surface flag is turned on and at the
right, the flag is turned off. We only need to perform depth calculations when multiple
surfaces have their flags turned on at a certain scan-line position.

3. AREA-SUBDIVISION METHOD
The area-subdivision method takes advantage by locating those view areas that represent
part of a single surface. It divides the total viewing area into smaller and smaller rectangles
until each small area is the projection of part of a single visible surface or no surface at all.
Continue this process until the subdivisions are easily analyzed as belonging to a single
surface or until they are reduced to the size of a single pixel. An easy way to do this is to
successively divide the area into four equal parts at each step. There are four possible
relationships that a surface can have with a specified area boundary.
 Surrounding surface − One that completely encloses the area.
 Overlapping surface − One that is partly inside and partly outside the area.
 Inside surface − One that is completely inside the area.
 Outside surface − One that is completely outside the area.

The tests for determining surface visibility within an area can be stated in terms of these
four classifications. No further subdivisions of a specified area are needed if one of the
following conditions is true:
 All surfaces are outside surfaces with respect to the area.
 Only one inside, overlapping or surrounding surface is in the area.
 A surrounding surface obscures all other surfaces within the area boundaries.
4. BACK-FACE DETECTION
A fast and simple object-space method for identifying the back faces of a polyhedron is
based on the inside-outside tests. A point (x,y,z) is inside a polygon surface with plane
parameters A, B, C, and D if an inside point is along the line of sight to the surface. The
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polygon must be a back face and we are inside that face and cannot see the front of it from
our viewing position. We can simplify this test by considering the normal vector N to a
polygon surface, which has Cartesian components A,B,C. In general, if V is a vector in the
viewing direction from the eye or "camera" position, then this polygon is a back face if
V.N > 0
Furthermore, if object descriptions are converted to projection coordinates and your
viewing direction is parallel to the viewing z-axis, then
V = (0, 0, Vz) and V.N = VzC
So that we only need to consider the sign of C in the component of the normal vector N.
In a right-handed viewing system with viewing direction along the negative Zv axis, the
polygon is a back face if C < 0. Also, we cannot see any face whose normal has z
component C = 0, since our viewing direction is towards that polygon. Thus, in general, we
can label any polygon as a back face if its normal vector has a z component value,
C <= 0

Similar methods can be used in packages that employ a left-handed viewing system. In
these packages, plane parameters A, B, C and D can be calculated from polygon vertex
coordinates specified in a clockwise direction unlike the counter clockwise direction used in
a right handed system.
Also, back faces have normal vectors that point away from the viewing position and are
identified by C >= 0 when the viewing direction is along the positive Zv axis. By examining
parameter C for the different planes defining an object, we can immediately identify all the
back faces.

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5. A-BUFFER METHOD
The A-buffer method is an extension of the depth-buffer method. The A-buffer method is a
visibility detection method developed at Lucas film Studios for the rendering system
Renders Everything You Ever Saw (REYES). The A-buffer expands on the depth buffer
method to allow transparencies. The key data structure in the A-buffer is the accumulation
buffer.

Each position in the A-buffer has two fields:

 Depth field − It stores a positive or negative real number
 Intensity field − It stores surface-intensity information or a pointer value

1. If depth >= 0, the number stored at that position is the depth of a single surface
overlapping the corresponding pixel area. The intensity field then stores the RGB
components of the surface color at that point and the percent of pixel coverage.
2. If depth < 0, it indicates multiple-surface contributions to the pixel intensity. The
intensity field then stores a pointer to a linked list of surface data. The surface buffer
in the A-buffer includes:
 RGB intensity components
 Opacity Parameter
 Depth
 Percent of area coverage
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  Surface identifier
The algorithm proceeds just like the depth buffer algorithm. The depth and opacity values
are used to determine the final color of a pixel.
6. DEPTH SORTING METHOD
Depth sorting method uses both image space and object-space operations. The depth-sorting
method performs two basic functions:
 First, the surfaces are sorted in order of decreasing depth.
 Second, the surfaces are scan-converted in order, starting with the surface of
greatest depth.
The scan conversion of the polygon surfaces is performed in image space. This method, for
solving the hidden-surface problem, is often referred to as the painter's algorithm. The
following figure shows the effect of depth sorting:

The algorithm begins by sorting by depth. For example, the initial depth estimate of a
polygon may be taken to be the closest z value of any vertex of the polygon.
Let us take the polygon P at the end of the list. Consider all polygons Q whose z-extents
overlap P’s. Before drawing P, we make the following tests. If any of the following tests is
positive, then we can assume P can be drawn before Q.
 Do the x-extents not overlap?
 Do the y-extents not overlap?
 Is P entirely on the opposite side of Q’s plane from the viewpoint?
 Is Q entirely on the same side of P’s plane as the viewpoint?
 Do the projections of the polygons not overlap?
If all the tests fail, then we split either P or Q using the plane of the other. The new cut
polygons are inserted into the depth order and the process continues. Theoretically, this
partitioning could generate O(n2) individual polygons, but in practice, the number of
polygons is much smaller.
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7. BINARY SPACE PARTITION - BSP TREES
Binary space partitioning is used to calculate visibility. To build the BSP trees, follow the
steps given below:
1. Starts with polygons and label all the edges.
2. Dealing with only one edge at a time, extend each edge so that it splits the plane into
two.
3. Place the first edge in the tree as root.
4. Add subsequent edges based on whether they are inside or outside.
5. Edges that span the extension of an edge that is already in the tree are split into two
and both are added to the tree.
Example:

1. From the above figure, first take A as a root.

2. Make a list of all nodes in figure aa.
3. Put all the nodes that are in front of root A to the left side of node A and put all
those nodes that are behind the root A to the right side as shown in figure bb.
4. Process all the front nodes first and then the nodes at the back.
5. As shown in figure cc, we will first process the node B. As there is nothing in front
of the node B, we have put NIL. However, we have node C at back of node B, so
node C will go to the right side of node B.
6. Repeat the same process for the node D.

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 8. BASICS OF IMAGE
PROCESSING

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The digital image processing deals with developing a digital system that performs
operations on a digital image. An image is nothing more than a two dimensional signal. It
is defined by the mathematical function f(x,y) where x and y are the two co-ordinates
horizontally and vertically and the amplitude of f at any pair of coordinate (x, y) is called
the intensity or gray level of the image at that point. When (x, y) and the amplitude values
of f are all finite discrete quantities, we call the image a digital image. A digital image is
composed of a finite number of elements, each of which has a particular location and
values of these elements are referred to as picture elements, image elements and pixels.
The field of digital image processing refers to the processing of digital image by means of
a digital computer.
1. COMPONENTS OF IMAGE PROCESSING SYSTEM
1 Image Sensors: With reference to sensing, two elements are required to acquire digital
image. The first is a physical device that is sensitive to the energy radiated by the object
of which we want to capture the image and second is specialized image processing
hardware.
2 Specialize image processing hardware: It consists of the digitizer just mentioned, plus
hardware that performs other primitive operations such as addition, subtraction and
logical operations on images.
3 Computer: It is a general purpose computer and can range from a PC to a
supercomputer depending on the application requirements. In dedicated applications,
sometimes specially designed computer are used to achieve a required level of
performance.
4 Software: It consists of specialized modules that perform specific tasks with a well
designed package which includes capability for the user to write and execute code.
5 Mass storage: This capability is a must in an image processing applications. For
example, an image of size 1024X1024 pixels, in which the intensity of each pixel is an
8-bit quantity requires one MB of storage space if the image is not compressed.
6 Image display: Image displays, in use today, are mainly color TV monitors. These
monitors are driven by the outputs of image and graphics displays cards that are an
integral part of computer system.
7 Hardcopy devices: The devices for recording image includes laser printers, film
cameras, heat sensitive devices, inkjet units and digital units such as optical and CD
ROM disks. Films provide the highest possible resolution, but paper is the obvious
medium of choice for written applications.
8 Networking: It is almost a default function in any computer system in use today
because of the large amount of data transfer required in image processing applications.
The key consideration in image transmission bandwidth which affects the data
transfer.
2. IMAGE FORMATION
Images are formed in the similar way the human eye forms the image. First, let us
understand the how does the human eye work.
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2.1 Structure of Human eye
The eye is nearly a sphere with average approximately 20 mm diameter. The eye is
enclosed with three membranes:
1. The cornea and sclera – It is a tough, transparent tissue that covers the anterior surface
of the eye. Rest of the optic globe is covered by the sclera.
2. The choroid – It contains a network of blood vessels that serves as the major source of
nutrition to the eyes. It helps to reduce extraneous light entering in the eye. It has two parts:
a. Iris Diaphragms – It contracts or expands to control the amount of light that
enters the eyes
b. Ciliary body – The shape of the lens of the eye is controlled by tension in the
fiber of the ciliary body.

Human Eye
3. Retina – It is innermost membrane of the eye. When the eye is properly focused,
light from an object outside the eye is imaged on the retina. There are various light
receptors over the surface of the retina. The two major classes of the receptors are:
a. Cones – It is about 6 to 7 million in number. These are located in the central
portion of the retina called the fovea. They are highly sensitive to color.
Human can resolve fine details with these cones because each one is
connected to its own nerve end. Cone vision is called photonic or bright light
vision.
b. Rods – These are very much in number ranging from 75 to 150 million and
are distributed over the entire retinal surface. The large area of distribution
and the fact that several roads are connected to a single nerve give a general
overall picture of the field of view. They are not involved in the color vision
and are sensitive to low level of illumination. Rod vision is called isotopic or
dim light vision. The absence of these reciprocators is called blind spot.
2.2 Image formation in the eye
The major difference between the lens of the eye and an ordinary optical lens is that the
former is more flexible. As stated earlier, the shape of the lens of the eye is controlled by
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tension in the fiber of the ciliary body. To focus on the distant object, the controlling
muscles allow the lens to become thicker in order to focus on object near the eye and thus
it becomes relatively flattened. The distance between the center of the lens and the retina
is called the focal length and it varies from 17mm to 14mm as the refractive power of the
lens increases from its minimum to its maximum. When the eye focuses on an object
farther away than about 3m. the lens exhibits its lowest refractive power. When the eye
focuses on a nearly object, the lens is most strongly refractive. The retinal image is
reflected primarily in the area of the fovea. Then the perception takes place by the relative
excitation of light receptors, which transform radiant energy into electrical impulses that
are ultimately decoded by the brain.

Image formation in Human eye

2.3 Image Formation using cameras

Digital camera replaces traditional film with a sensor array. Each cell in the array is light-
sensitive diode that converts photons to electrons. There are two common types of digital
cameras:
1. Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
2. Complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

CCD Vs CMOS Camera

CCDs move photo generated charge from pixel to pixel and convert it to voltage at an
output node. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) then turns each pixel's value into a
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digital value. However, CMOS Cameras convert charge to voltage inside each element.
They use several transistors at each pixel to amplify and move the charge using more
traditional wires. Since the CMOS signal is digital, so it does not need ADC. To form the
image through camera, the scene is illuminated by a single source. Then scene reflects
radiation towards the camera and the camera senses it via solid state cells.

The image formation model

There are two parts to the image formation process:
(1) The geometry, which determines wherein the image plane i.e. the projection of a point
in the scene will be located.
(2) The physics of light, which determines the brightness of a point in the image plane.
The irradiance at the image pixel is converted into the brightness of the pixel. Image
Irradiance is proportional to Scene Radiance. Scene distance i.e. distance between object
and viewer z, does not affect image brightness. The angle of the scene patch with respect to
the view(α) reduces the brightness by the cos4α. In practice the effect is even stronger.
To understand this image formation, we have to learn few terminologies given below:
Irradiance (E): Irradiation is where the radiation is falling on the surface. It is calculated in
light power per unit area (watts per square meter) incident on a surface and the apparent
extension of the edges of an illuminated object seen against a dark background.

Light incidence to surface

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Radiance (L): Radiation is the number of photons that are being emitted by a single source.
Amount of light radiated from a surface into a given solid angle per unit area is given in
watts per square meter per steradian.

Refelction
Refraction: The change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused
by its change in speed due to density of the medium.

Refraction of rays
Aperture: Aperture refers to the opening of a lens's diaphragm through which light passes.
The large aperture make image blurry as light from the source spreads across the image
(i.e., not properly focused) whereas smaller aperture size reduces blurring but it limits the
amount of light entering the camera and causes light diffraction.

Larger aperture size

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 Smaller aperture size
Following figure shows varying aperture sizes and its effect on image formation.

Varying aperture size and effects

2.4 Lens
Lens duplicates pinhole geometry without resorting to undesirably small apertures. It
gathers all the light radiating from an object point towards the lens’s finite aperture and
bring light into focus at a single distinct image point. Lens improves image quality, leading
to sharper images.

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 Image formation without lens Image formation using lens
Following figure shows functioning of lens.

Functioning of lens
The lens has following properties which makes it more useful in digital cameras.
1. Light rays passing through the center are not deviated.
2. Light rays passing through a point far away from the center are deviated more.
3. All parallel rays converge to a single point.
4. When rays are perpendicular to the lens, it is called focal point.
5. The plane parallel to the lens at the focal point is called the focal plane.
6. The distance between the lens and the focal plane is called the focal length (f) of the
lens.

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3. DIGITAL IMAGE:
A digital image is denoted by a two dimensional function of the form f(x,y). The value or
amplitude of f at spatial coordinates (x,y) is a positive scalar quantity whose physical
meaning is determined by the source of the image. When an image is generated by a
physical process, its values are proportional to energy radiated by a physical source. As a
consequence, f(x,y) must be nonzero and finite.
The function f(x,y) may be characterized by two components:
1. The amount of the source illumination incident on the scene being viewed.
2. The amount of the source illumination reflected back by the objects in the scene
These are called illumination and reflectance components and are denoted by i(x,y) and
r(x,y) respectively.
f(x,y) = r(x,y) * i(x,y)
where, Reflectance value ranges in [0,1] and illumination value vary in interval [0,inf].
3.1 Image Sampling And Quantization
To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous signal into digital from. This
involves two processes – sampling and quantization. An image, f(x, y), that we want to
convert to digital form will be continuous with respect to the x- and y-coordinates, and
also in amplitude. To convert it to digital form, we have to sample the function in both
coordinates and in amplitude. So the part that deals with the digitizing of coordinates is
known as sampling and the part that deals with digitizing the amplitude is known as
quantization.

Sampling

Quantization

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A digital image f(m,n) described in a 2D discrete space is derived from an analog image
f(x,y) in a 2D continuous space through a sampling process that is frequently referred to as
digitization. The mathematical representation of the image is as follow:

The 2D continuous image f(m,n) is divided into N rows and M columns. The intersection
of a row and a column is termed a pixel. The value assigned to the integer coordinates
(m,n) with m=0,1,2..N-1 and n=0,1,2…N-1. In fact, in most cases, f(m,n) is actually a
function of many variables including depth, color and time (t). The effect of digitization
after sampling and quantization is shown in figure below.

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Ultimately, an image will be represented, as shown in the figure below, in the form of a
f(m,n) matrix as stated earlier.

3.2 Color Images

Color images are comprised of three color channels – red, green, and, blue which are
combined to create most of the colors a human eye can see.

RGB Color channels

The Color sensing in camera is done through a digital prism which requires three chips and
precise alignment. It also uses color filter array for sensing the colors.

RGB Color Array

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 Color sensing prism
3.3 Alternative Color Spaces
Color images use various color spaces which can be computed from RGB channels. This
can be done for:
1. Decorrelating the color channels.
2. Bringing color information to the front or core.
3. Perceptual uniformity.
Following various color spaces are used in digital images:
1. RGB (CIE-International Commission on Illumination), RnGnBn (TV - National
Television Standard Committee)
2. XYZ (CIE) - The CIE XYZ color space encompasses all color sensations that are
visible to a person with average eyesight. That is why CIE XYZ (Tristimulus
values) is a device-invariant representation of color. It serves as a standard reference
against which many other color spaces are defined.
3. UVW - Wyszecki invented the UVW color space in order to be able to calculate
color differences without having to hold the luminance constant. (UCS de la CIE),
U*V*W* (UCS modified by the CIE)
4. YUV space uses mathematical formulas to represent colors. In this case, Y varies
from 0 to 1 or 0 to 255 if you want to get technical with digital formats. U and V
range from -0.5 to 0.5
5. HSV HSV (which stands for Hue Saturation Value) scale provides a numerical
readout of your image that corresponds to the color names contained therein. Hue is
measured in degrees from 0 to 360. For instance, cyan falls between 181–240
degrees, and magenta falls between 301–360 degrees
6. YIQ is the color space used by the analog NTSC color TV system, employed mainly
in North and Central America, and Japan. Y stands for luminance part and IQ stands
for chrominance part. I stands for in-phase, while Q stands for quadrature, referring
to the components used in quadrature amplitude modulation. It is the most widely
colour model used in Television broadcasting.
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 7. YCbCr (also Y'CbCr, Y Pb/Cb Pr/Cr) is a family of color spaces used in videos and
digital photography that separates brightness (luma) from chroma (color).
8. YDbDr used in analog terrestrial color TVs.
9. DSH, HLS, IHS, Munsel color space (cylindrical representation), CIELuv, CIELab,
SMPTE-C RGB, YES (Xerox), Kodak Photo CD, YCC, YPbPr etc.
3.4 Image file formats
Many image formats adhere to the simple model shown below to store the image data i.e.
pixel values (line by line, no breaks between lines).

Image format model

The header contains at least the width and height of the image. Most headers begin with a
signature or “magic number” (i.e. a short sequence of bytes for identifying the file format).
Based on these, the various image formats have been created which are given below:
1. GIF (Graphic Interchange Format) -
2. PNG (Portable Network Graphics)
3. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
4. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)
5. PGM (Portable Gray Map)
6. FITS (Flexible Image Transport System)
7. A popular format for grayscale images (8 bits/pixel)
8. Closely-related formats are:
a. PBM (Portable Bitmap), for binary images (1 bit/pixel)
b. PPM (Portable Pixelmap), for color images (24 bits/pixel)
4. STEPS IN IMAGE PROCESSING
Image processing is a sequence of many steps from capturing the image to making a
decision. Following are stage in a digital image processing.
1. Image acquisition: It could be as simple as being given an image that is already in
digital form. Generally the image acquisition stage involves processing such scaling.

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2. Image Enhancement: It is among the simplest and most appealing areas of digital
image processing. The idea behind this is to bring out details that are obscured or
simply to highlight certain features of interest in image. Image enhancement is a very
subjective area of image processing and is based on human subjective preferences
regarding what constitutes a “good” enhancement result.

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3. Image Restoration: It deals with improving the appearance of an image. It is an
objective approach, in the sense that restoration techniques tend to be based on
mathematical or probabilistic models of image processing.

4. Morphological processing: It deals with tools for extracting image components that are
useful in the representation and description of shape and boundary of objects. It is
majorly used in automated inspection applications.

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5. Segmentation: Image segmentation is the process of partitioning a digital image into
multiple image segments, also known as image regions or image objects (sets of pixels).
The goal of segmentation is to simplify and/or change the representation of an image
into something that is more meaningful and easier to analyze.

6. Recognition: It is the process that assigns label to an object based on its descriptors. It
is the last step of image processing which uses artificial intelligence and machine
learning techniques.

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7. Representation and Description: It always follows the output of recognition step that
is the labelling and describing the data based on raw pixel data.

8. Compression: It deals with techniques reducing the storage required to save an image,
or the bandwidth required to transmit it over the network. It follows either a lossy or
lossless approach.

9. Color image processing: It is an area that is been gaining importance because of the
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 use of digital images over the internet and in decision making. Color image processing
deals with basically color models and their implementation in image processing
applications.

5. APPLICATIONS
Almost in every field, digital image processing puts a live effect on things and is growing
with time to time and with new technologies.
1) Image sharpening and restoration: It refers to the process in which we can modify the
look and feel of an image. It basically manipulates the images and achieves the desired
output. It includes conversion, sharpening, blurring, detecting edges, retrieval, and
recognition of images.
2) Medical Field: There are several applications under medical field which depends on the
functioning of digital image processing.
 Gamma-ray imaging
 PET scan
 X-Ray Imaging
 Medical CT scan
 UV imaging
3) Robot vision: There are several robotic machines which work on the digital image
processing. Through image processing techniques, robot finds their ways and can perform

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many operations the way human does. For example, hurdle detection root, surgery and line
follower robot.
4) Pattern recognition: It involves the study of image processing combined with artificial
intelligence and machine learning techniques for computer-aided diagnosis, handwriting
recognition and images recognition. Now a days, image processing is used for pattern
recognition.
5) Video processing: It is also one of the applications of digital image processing. A
collection of frames or pictures are arranged in such a way that it makes the fast movement
of pictures. It involves frame rate conversion, motion detection, reduction of noise and
colour space conversion etc.

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 9. IMAGE PROCESSING
WITH PYTHON AND OPEN
CV

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Computer Vision can be defined as a discipline that explains how to reconstruct, interrupt,
and understand a 3D scene from its 2D images, in terms of the properties of the structure
present in the scene. It deals with modeling and replicating human vision using computer
software and hardware.
Computer Vision overlaps significantly with the following fields −
 Image Processing − It focuses on image manipulation.
 Pattern Recognition − It explains various techniques to classify patterns.
 Photogrammetry − It is concerned with obtaining accurate measurements from
images.
Here, Image processing deals with image-to-image transformation. The input and output of
image processing are both images whereas computer vision is the construction of explicit,
meaningful descriptions of physical objects from their image. The output of computer
vision is a description or an interpretation of structures in 3D scene. We will use python
with OpenCV for practical purpose. OpenCV is a cross-platform library using which we
can develop real-time computer vision applications. It mainly focuses on image processing,
video capture and analysis including features like face detection and object detection.
Follow the steps given below to set up OpenCV library in PyCharm IDE.
1. Download Open CV from www.opencv.org. (This experiments have been carried
out on OpenCV 3.4
2. Go to File>Settings>Project:ProjectName>>Select Project Interpreter option in
PyCharm.
3. Type opencv-python in serach bar.
4. Install it.
5. Similarly install matplotlib and numpy (if not available)
Following are the operations that can be performed on image in Python using OpenCV
1. READING, WRITING AND DISPLAYING IMAGE
1.1 Reading Images
Use the function cv2.imread() to read an image. The image should be in the working
directory or a full path of image should be given.
Second argument is a flag which specifies the way image should be read.
cv2.IMREAD_COLOR : Loads a color image. Any transparency of image will be
neglected. It is the default flag.
cv2.IMREAD_GRAYSCALE : Loads image in grayscale mode
cv2.IMREAD_UNCHANGED : Loads image as such including alpha channel
Instead of these three flags, you can simply pass integers 1, 0 or -1 respectively.
#Python code
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import numpy as np
import cv2
# Load an color image in grayscale
img = cv2.imread(‘xyz.jpg',0)
Even if the image path is wrong, it won’t throw any error, but print img will display None
1.2 Display an Image
Use the function cv2.imshow() to display an image in a window. The window automatically
fits to the image size. First argument is a window name which is a string. second argument
is our image. You can create as many windows as you wish, but with different window
names.
#Python code
cv2.imshow('image',img)
cv2.waitKey(0)
cv2.destroyAllWindows()
cv2.waitKey() is a keyboard binding function. Its argument is the time in milliseconds. The
function waits for specified milliseconds for any keyboard event. If you press any key in
that time, the program continues. If 0 is passed, it waits indefinitely for a key stroke. It can
also be set to detect specific key strokes like, if key a is pressed etc.
cv2.destroyAllWindows() simply destroys all the windows we created. If you want to
destroy any specific window, use the function cv2.destroyWindow() where you pass the
exact window name as the argument.
1.3 Write Image
Use the function cv2.imwrite() to save an image.
First argument is the file name, second argument is the image you want to save.
#Python code
cv2.imwrite(‘xyz.png',img)
This will save the image in PNG format in the working directory.
Using Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a plotting library for Python which gives you wide variety of plotting
methods. You will see them in coming articles. Here, you will learn how to display image
with Matplotlib. You can zoom images, save it etc using Matplotlib.
#Python Code
import numpy as np
import cv2
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from matplotlib import pyplot as plt
img = cv2.imread(‘xyz.jpg',0)
plt.imshow(img, cmap = 'gray', interpolation = 'bicubic')
plt.xticks([]), plt.yticks([]) # to hide tick values on X and Y axis
plt.show()
2. BASIC OPERATIONS ON IMAGES
Following are the basic operations carried out on an image.
1. Access pixel values and modify them
2. Access image properties
3. Setting Region of Interest (ROI)
4. Splitting and Merging image
These operations require numpy but to improve performance in OpenCV, numpy is
mandatory.
2.1 Accessing and Modifying pixel values
#Python code
# Loading the image
Python code
import cv2
import numpy as np
img = cv2.imread(‘XYZ.jpg')
You can access a pixel value by its row and column coordinates. For BGR image, it returns
an array of Blue, Green, Red values. For grayscale image, just corresponding intensity is
returned.
#Python code
#Accessing pixel values
px = img[100,100]
print px
OUTPUT: [157 166 200]
# accessing only blue pixel
blue = img[100,100,0]
print blue
OUTPUT: 157

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# Modifying pixel values
You can modify the pixel values the same way.
img[100,100] = [255,255,255]
print img[100,100]
OUTPUT: [255 255 255]
For individual pixel access, Numpy array methods, array.item() and array.itemset() is
considered to be better. But it always returns a scalar. So if you want to access all B,G,R
values, you need to call array.item() separately for all.
#Python code
# accessing RED value
img.item(10,10,2)
OUTPUT: 59
# modifying RED value
img.itemset((10,10,2),100)
img.item(10,10,2)
OUTPUT: 100
2.2 Accessing Image Properties
Image properties include number of rows, columns and channels, type of image data,
number of pixels etc. Shape of image is accessed by img.shape. It returns a tuple of number
of rows, columns and channels (if image is color):
#Python code
print img.shape
OUTPUT: (342, 548, 3)
Total number of pixels is accessed by img.size:
#Python code
print img.size
OUTPUT: 562248
#Python code
#Image datatype is obtained by img.dtype:
print img.dtype
OUTPUT: uint8
2.3 Setting Image ROI
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Sometimes, you will have to play with certain region of images. For example, eye
detection in images, first perform face detection over the image until the face is found, then
search within the face region for eyes. This approach improves accuracy (because eyes are
always on faces and performance (because we search for a small area).
#Python code
#ROI is again obtained using Numpy indexing.
specs = image[280:340, 200:500]
image[0:60, 0:300] = specs
cv2.imshow('roi',image)
2.4 Splitting and Merging Image Channels
The B,G,R channels of an image can be split into their individual planes when needed.
Then, the individual channels can be merged back together to form a BGR image again.
This can be performed by:
#Python code
b = image[:,:,0]
cv2.imshow('blue‘,b)
b,g,r = cv2.split(image) image = cv2.merge((b,g,r))
Suppose, you want to make all the red pixels to zero, you need not split like this and put it
equal to zero. You can simply use Numpy indexing which is faster. cv2.split() is a costly
operation (in terms of time), so only use it if necessary. Numpy indexing is much more
efficient and should be used if possible.
If you want to create a border around the image, something like a photo frame, you can use
cv2.copyMakeBorder() function. But it has more applications for convolution operation,
zero padding etc. This function takes following arguments:
1. src - input image
2. top, bottom, left, right - border width in number of pixels in corresponding
directions
3. borderType - Flag defining what kind of border to be added. It can be following
types:
a. cv2.BORDER_CONSTANT - Adds a constant
b. colored border. The value should be given as next argument.
c. cv2.BORDER_REFLECT - Border will be mirror reflection of the border
elements, like this : fedcba|abcdefgh|hgfedcb
d. cv2.BORDER_REFLECT_101 or cv2.BORDER_DEFAULT - Same as
above, but with a slight change, like this : gfedcb|abcdefgh|gfedcba
e. cv2.BORDER_REPLICATE - Last element is replicated throughout, like
this: aaaaaa|abcdefgh|hhhhhhh

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 f. cv2.BORDER_WRAP - Random, it will look like this :
cdefgh|abcdefgh|abcdefg
4. value - Color of border if border type is cv2.BORDER_CONSTANT
3. ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON IMAGES
Following arithmetic operations can be performed on images.
1. Image Addition
2. Image Blending
3. Bitwise Operations
3.1 Image Addition
You can add two images by OpenCV function, cv2.add() or simply by numpy operation,
res = img1 + img2.
Both images should be of same depth and type, or second image can just be a scalar value.
There is a difference between OpenCV addition and Numpy addition. OpenCV addition is a
saturated operation while Numpy addition is a modulo operation.
x = np.uint8([250])
y = np.uint8([10])
print cv2.add(x,y) # 250+10 = 260 => 255 [[255]]
print x+y # 250+10 = 260 % 256 = 4 [4]
It will be more visible when you add two images. OpenCV function will provide a better
result. So always better stick to OpenCV functions.
3.2 Image Blending
This is also image addition, but different weights are given to images so that it gives a
feeling of blending or transparency. Here, I took two images to blend them together. First
image is given a weight of 0.7 and second image is given 0.3.
cv2.addWeighted() applies following equation on the image.
#Python code
img1 = cv2.imread(‘1.png')
img2 = cv2.imread(‘Taj.jpg')
dst = cv2.addWeighted(img1,0.7,img2,0.3,0)
cv2.imshow('dst',dst)
cv2.waitKey(0)
cv2.destroyAllWindows()
3.3 Bitwise Operations

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This includes bitwise AND, OR, NOT and XOR operations. They will be highly useful
while extracting any part of the image, defining and working with non-rectangular ROI etc.
Here, we will see an example on how to change a particular region of an image. Bitwise
Operations are required for the following purpose.
1. If we to put some logo above an image.
2. If we add two images, it will change color.
3. If we blend it, we get transparent effect.
4. Especially, when the image is not in rectangular shape.
5. For this, we have to go for bitwise operation.

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 10. REFERENCES

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Following are the references that have been used to create this book. I am thankful to these
contributors for providing these resources.

1. Computer Graphics C Version by Donald Hearn & M Pauline Baker II Edition

2. https://lectureloops.com/computer-graphics/
3. https://www.tutorialandexample.com/computer-graphics-tutorial
4. https://www.includehelp.com/computer-graphics/
5. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-graphics-2/
6. https://www.gatevidyalay.com/computer-graphics/
7. https://www.javatpoint.com/computer-graphics-tutorial
8. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_graphics/index.htm
9. http://www.gpcet.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/DIP-UNIT-1.pdf
10. https://kanchiuniv.ac.in/coursematerials/Digital%20image%20processing%20-
Vijaya%20Raghavan.pdf
11. http://library.iiests.ac.in:30000/dqpas/pdf/Contents_Image_Processing_Ajoy_Kuma
r_Ray.pdf
12. https://www.drkmm.com/resources/INTRODUCTION_TO_IMAGE_PROCESSIN
G_29aug06.pdf
13. http://library.iiests.ac.in:30000/dqpas/pdf/Contents_Image_Processing_Ajoy_Kuma
r_Ray.pdf
14. https://gacbe.ac.in/pdf/ematerial/20MCA24C-U1.pdf
15. https://getsetcg.blogspot.com/

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