_SYLLABUS Unit I: Introduction to Distributed Computing = Fundamentals of Distributed Computing: Characteristics of Distributed Systems: Issues, Goals ond Types of dist systems, Distributed System Models. yypes of distributed Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Data Science in Distributed Computing: Distributing computational tasks, Handling large volumes of data and leveraging parallel processing capabilities, Issues related to data storage and retrieval, Data consistency, Communication overhead, Synchronization and fault tolerance. Use Cases and Applications of Integrating AI and Data Science in Distributed System: predictive Maintenance, Fraud Detection, Intelligent Transportation Systems, Supply Chain Optimization, Energy Management, Healthcare and Medical Diagnostics, Customer Behavior Analysis and Natural Language Processing (NLP) Case Studies : Introduction to Distributed Computing in E-commerce. Unit I: Distributed Data Management and Storage (06 hrs) Overview of Distributed Computing Frameworks and Technologies Parallel Computing, Distributed Computing Models, Message Passing, Distributed File Systems: Hadoop Distributed File system (HDFS) and Google File System (GFS), Cluster Computing: (AWS), Microsoft Azure and Google Cloud Platform (GCP), Message Brokers and Stream Processing, Edge Computing, Data Replication and Consistency Model: Eager Replication, Lazy Replication, Quorum-Based Replication, Consensus- Based Replication, Selective Replication, Strong Consistency, Eventual Consistency, Read-your-writes Consistency Consistent Prefix Consistency, Causal Consistency. Distributed Data Indexing and Retrieval Techniques: Distributed Hash Tables (DHTS), Distributed Inverted Indexing, Range-based Partitioning, Content-based Indexing, Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Indexing, Hybrid Approaches Case Studies : Distributed Data Management and Storage in Healthcare, Unit 0 Distributed Computing Algorithi istributed Computing Algorithms (06 hrs) Communication and coordination in distributed systems. Distributed consensus algorithms (Other consensus algorithms) » Viewstamped Replication # RAFT ¢ ZAB « Mencius ‘¢ Many variants of Paxos (Fast Paxos, Egalitarian Paxos ete) Fault tolerance and recovery in distributed systems. Load Balancing and Resource Allocation Strategies: Weighted Round Robin, Least Connection, Rendomized Load Balancing, Dynamic Load Balancing, Centralized Load Balancing, Distributed Load Balancing, Predictive Load Balancing ‘Applying Al Techniques to Optimize Distributed Computing Algorithms: Machine Learning for Resource Allocation, Reinforcement Learning for Dynamic Lead Balancing, Genetic Algorithms for Task Scheduling, Swarm Inteligence for Distributed Optimization Case Studies : Distributed Computing Algorithms in Weather Prediction. Unit 1V: Distributed Machine Learning and AI (06 hrs) Introduction to Distributed Machine Learning Algorithms: Types of Distributed Machine Learning: Data Parallelism and Model Parallelism, Distributed Gradient Descent, Federated Learning, Al-Reduce, Hogwild, Elastic Averaging SGD- Software to Implement Distributed ML: Spark, GraphL2b, Google Tensorflow, Parallel ML System (Formerly Petuum) Systems and Architectures for Distributed Machine Learning, Integration of Al Algorithms in Distributed Systems: Intelligent Resource Management, Anomaly Tolerance, Predictive Analytics, Intelligent Task Offloading, 1s: Distributed Machine Learning and Al in Fraud Detection. Detection and FaultCONTENTS Unit I: Introduction to Distributed Computing 11 Fundamentals of Distributed Computing 1.11 Introduction 112 Characteristics of Distributed Computing 1.13 Goals in Distributed System L14 Issues of Distributed System 12. Types of Distributed Systems 1.21 Client-server Architecture 122 Peer-to-Peer Networks (P2P) 123. Middleware system 124 — Three-tier System 1.3 Distributed System Models 13.1 _ Distributed Computing system 132 Distributed Information System 13.3 Distributed Pervasive System 1.4 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence and Data Science in Distributed Computing 14.1 Collaboration between Al and Data Science in Distributed Computing 14.2 Distributing Computational Tasks 143 Handling Large Volume of Data Set 1.44 Understanding Parallel Processing 145 Data Consistency 146 Communication Overhead 147 Data Storage Issues and Retrieval 15 Synchronization and Fault Tolerance in Distributed Systems 15.1 Synchronization 15.2 Fault Tolerance 16 Use Cases and Applications of Integrating Al and Data Science in Distributed Systems 1.6.1 Predictive Maintenance (PdM) 16.2 Fraud Detection 1.6.3 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) 1.64 Supply Chain Optimization 165 Energy Management 1.66 Healthcare and Medical Diagnostics 1.6.7 Customer Behavior Analysis and Natural Language Processing (NLP) * Case Study: Enhancing Scalability and Performance in E-Commerce through Distributed Computing + Exercise Unit I: Distributed Data Management and Storage 21 Overview of Distributed Computing Frameworks and Technologies 2.1.1 Parallel Computing 2.1.2 Types of Parallel Computing 2.13 Distributed Computation Models 22 _ Distributed File System 221 — Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) 222 Google File System (GFS) 223 Google Cloud Platform (GCP) 23. Cluster Computing 231 Types of Clusters MWIKAS 110 aan uaz 113 114 114 114 114 1as 1s 116 17 118 118 119 1.20 121 21-226 21 21 2a 22 22 24 24 24232 Amazon Web Services (AWS) A 233 Microsoft Azure 23 234 Message Broker 210 235 Stream Processing 210 23.6 Edge Computing an 23.7 Applications of the Edge Computing 223 24 Data Replication and Consistency Model 2aa 241 Eager Replication 215 242 Lazy Replication 2as 243 — Quorum Based Replication fed 244 — Selective Replication 217 245. Consensus-Based Replication on 246 — Comparison of Data Replication na 25 Consistency Models 239 251 Strong Consistency 219 252 — Eventual Consistency 220 25.3 Read Your Writes Consistency eae 254 — Consistent Prefix Consistency oo 255 Casual Consistency 221 26 Distributed Data Indexing and Retrieval Techniques 221 261 _ Distributed Hash Tables (DHTS) 221 262 Distributed Inverted Indexing oo 263. Range-based Partitioning 222 264 — Content-based Indexing faa 265 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Indexing 224 266 Hybrid Approaches 2.24 + Case Study: Distributed Data Management and Storage in Healthcare 225 «Exercise 226 Distributed Computing Algorithms 313.24 3.1 Communication and Coordination in Distributed System 31 3.2. Distributed Consensus Algorithms 32 23 Variant of Paxos 32 3.3.1 Fast Paxos 33 33.2. Egalitarian Paxos (EPaxos) 33 34 Raft 34 35 ZABin Distributed Computing 35 3.6 Viewstamped Replication Protocol 310 3.7 Mencius Protocol in Distributed System 3.10 3.8. Load Balancing and Resource Allocation Strategies aun 38.1 Weighted Round Robin (WRR) 3a Least Connections 3.2 Randomized Load Balancing 313 Dynamic Load Balancing 3.3 Centralized Load Balancing 34 Distributed Load Balancing 3u4 Predictive Load Balancing 315, 3.9. Applying Al Techniques to Optimize Distributed Computing Algorithms 7 3.9.1 Machine Learning for Resource Allocation VIKAS43 44 4s 46 a7 39.2 _ Reinforcement Learning for Dynamic Load Balancing 3.9.3 _ Genetic Algorithms for Task Scheduling Jo4 Swarm Intelligence for Distributed Optimization Case Study: Distributed Computing Algorithm in Weather Prediction Exercise tributed Machine Learning and AI Introduction to Distributed Machine Learning Algorithms ‘Types of Distributed Machine Learning 42.1 Data Parallelism in PyTorch 42.2 Model Parallelism in PyTorch Distributed Gradient Decent 43.1 Visualization of Gradient Descent 43.2 Gradient Descent Algorithm Federated Learning, All Reduce and Hogwild 441 — Federated Learning 442 All Reduce 443 Hogwild Elastic Averaging SGD 48.1 Working of EASGD 45.2 Applications of EASGD Software to Implement Distributed ML 461 Spark 46.2 Graphlab 463 TensorFlow 46.4 Parallel ML System-Petuum Design 4.6.5 Systems and Architectures for Distributed Machine Learning Integration of Al algorithms in Distributed Systems 47.1 _ Intelligent Resource Management 47.2 Anomaly Detection and Fault Tolerance 47.3 _ Intelligent Task Offioading Case Study : Distributed Machine Learning and Al in Fraud Detection Exercise Unit V: Big Data Processing in Distributed Systems 51 52 53 Big Data Processing Frameworks in Distributed Computing 5.11 Apache Hadoop 5.12 Apache Spark 5.13 Apache Flink 5.14 Apache Storm 5.15 Apache Kafka 5.1.6 Apache Samza 5.17 Apache Hive 518 Apache HBase 519 Google BigQuery Parallel and Distributed Data Processing Techniques 5.21 Parallel Data Processing 5.22 Distributed Data Processing Fynn’s Taxonomy with Processing Nodes and Data Stream Technique 53.1 Single Instruction, Single Data (SISO) Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD) Multiple Instruction, Single Data (MISD) Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD) 532 319 320 321 3.23 3.24 4.1-4.16 4a 4a 4a 42 43 43 43 43 43 4a 4s 46 46 46 410 410 4 per 443 4a 414 43s 436 5.1-5.16 5a, 5a 52 53 53 54 54 54 55 5s 56 56 56 56 87 57 58 5853.5 Single Program, Multiple Data (SPMD) 536 Massively Parallel Processing (MPP) 54 _ Scalable Data Ingestion 5.4.1 Types of Data Ingestion 5.4.2. Advantages of Data Ingestion 543 Challenges in Data Ingestion 5.44 Tools for Data Ingestion in Distributed Systems 545 Data Transformation 55. Real-Time Analytics and Streaming Analytics 55.1 _ Key Differences between Real Time Analytics and Streaming Analytics 55.2 Types of Real-Time Analytics 553. Types of Streaming Analytics 5.54 _ Difference between Real Time Analytics and Streaming Analytics 555 Applying Al and Data Science for Large-Scale Data Processing and Analytics © Case Study : Big Data Processing in Distributed Systems for Social Media Analytics + exer Distributed Systems Security and Privacy 61 Security Challenges in Distributed Systems 6.1.1 Goals of Distributed System Security 6.12 — Security Requirements and Attacks Related to Distributed Systems 6.13 Issues of Distributed System Security 62 _ Insider Threats/ Attacks 63 Encryption and Secure Communication 631 TLS/SSL 632 PKI 633 VPN 634 AMQP 64 Privacy Preservation Techniques 64.1 Differential Privacy 64.2 Homomorphic Encryption 643 Secure Multi-arty Computation (SMPC) 6.444 Federated Learning 645 Anonymization and Pseudonymization 646 Access Control and Data Minimization 65 _Al-based Intrusion Detection and Threat Mitigation Techniques 65.1 Anomaly Detection 65.2 Behavior-based Detection 653 Threat Intelligence and Analysis 654 _ Real-time Response and Mitigation 655 Adaptive Security 65.6 User and Entity Behavior Analytics (UEBA) 65.7 Threat Hunting and Visualization * Case Study : Distributed System Security and Privacy in Healthcare + Exercise * Model Question Papers > In-Sem. Exam. (30 Marks) > End-Sem. Exam. (70 Marks) VIKAS RR 58 58 53 S10 510 S30 510 5a sul 511 512 512 513 54 55 5.16 6.1-6.18 6a 61 6a 61 62 63 63 64 6s 66 67 67 68 69 69 610 610 613 613 613 613 et 614 616 616 6a7 618UNIT - I INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING computing refers to the use of multiple interconnected computers or processors thet work together to solve a compley problem or perform a task. In the contert of Antficial Intelligence (Al), distributed computing plays crucial role in handling the computational demands of large-scale and intensive Al applications. 1_ Introduction + Parallel Processing: Distributed computing in Al often involves parallel processing, where tasks are divided into smaller sub-tasks and evecuted concurrently across multiple processors or machines. Ths parallelism helps in achieving faster computations and handling large datasets Scalability: Scalability is @ key advantage of distributed computing in A. As the complevity of AI models and datasets it , distributed systems can easily scale by adding more computational resources, allowing for efficient handling of growing workloads. + Large-Seale Data Processing: Al applications often require the processing of massive datasets. Distributed computing enables the parallel processing of data across multiple nodes, reducing the time required for data enalyss, training and inference. + Fault Tolerance: Distributed systems are designed to be resilient to failures. if one node or machine fails, the system can continue to operate with the remaining nodes. This fault tolerance is crucial in ensuring the reliability of Al applications, especially in mission- critical scenarios. Distributed Machine Learning: Tachine learning models, Training complex especially deep neural etviorks, can be computationally intensive. Distributed computing facilitates the parallel training of models cross multiple machines, reducing the time needed for model convergence. WIKAS Decentralized Al Architectures: In some cases, Al ns are designed with decentralized architectures, winere components of the Al model or algorithm are distributed across different nodes. This approach can enhance privacy, reduce latency and improve the overall performance of the Al system, Resource Optimization: By distributing computation across multiple nodes, distributed computing allows for better resource uti tion. This is particularly important in Al applications where optimizing computational resources is essential for efficiency and cost- effectiveness Distributed Inference: In real-time Al applications, such as those involving computer vision or natural language processing, distributed systems can be used to perform inference across multiple nodes simultaneously, enabling quicker response times. Edge Computing Integration: Distributed computing is closely linked with edge computing in AL Edge devices can perform local computations and the results can be aggregated and processed in a distributed manner, minimizing the need for centralized data processing. 1.1.2 Characteristics of Distributed Computing Distributed computing refers to the use of multiple computers or nodes that work together to solve a problem or perform a task. Here are some key characteristics of distributed computing + Concurrency: Distributed systems often involve multiple nodes working concurrently. Tasks are divided ‘among different nodes and these nodes can execute their tasks independently of each other. Fault Tolerance: Distributed systems need to be resilient to failures. If one node fails, the system should bbe able to continue functioning without a complete breakdown, This is achieved through redundancy, replication and fault-tolerant mechanisms aaDISTRIBUTED COMPUTING i ty: Distributed systems should be scalable to + Scala accommodate an increasing number of nodes or users. Scalability can be achieved by adding more nodes to the system and disttibuting the workload effectively. + Interprocess Communication: Communication is @ critical aspect of distributed computing, Nodes need to exchange information and coordinate their activites. There are vatious communication mechanisms, such as message passing, Remote Procedure Calls (RPC) and distributed objects + Transparency: Ideally, the distribution of the system should be transparent to the end-users and application developers. This means that users should not be aware of the underlying distribution of resources and the system should appear as a single, unified entity + Heterogeneity: Distributed systems often consist of nodes with different hardware, operating systems and software. They should be capable of working together despite these differences, Middleware and standardized communication protocols are often used to address heterogeneity + Consistency and Replication: Ensuring consistency of data across distributed nodes can be challenging. Replication is often used to mitigate this challenge by maintaining multiple copies of data on different nodes. However, maintaining consistency among these replicas is a complex task. * Load Balancing: To ensure efficient resource utilization, distributed systems employ load balancing mechanisms. These mechanisms distribute the workload evenly among nodes to prevent overloading of specific resources. + Security: Distributed systems must address security concems such as data integrity, confidentiality and authentication. Security mechanisms, such as encryption and access control, are implemented to protect data and ensure the integrity of communication. + Decentralization: Distributed systems are designed to be decentralized, meaning that there is no single point of control. This can improve fault tolerance and reduce the risk of system-wide failures 1.1.3 Goals in Distributed System What Made Computational Systems Distributed? ‘At the very beginning computers were huge and expensive machines. Computer science at the time, as the art of often 2) | INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED conpuning Four Goals for a Distributed System 1, Making (distributed, remote) Resources Av for Use Making distributed, remote resources available for use typically involves setting up a system or infrastructure that allows users to access and utilize resources locate in different locations. 2, Allowing Distribution of Resources to be Hidden Whenever Unnecessary \ Hiding non-relevant properties of the system's components and structure is called transparency, ble Types of Transparency \ + Location hide the location of a resource, ‘+ Migration hide the change of location of 2 resource ; * Relocation hide the motion of a resource ‘+ Replication hide that a resource is replicated + Concurrency hide the sharing of a resource by multiple users - + Failure hide the failure and subsequent recovery of a resource a, 3. Promoting Openness a Promoting openness in a distributed system is crucial for fostering collaboration, transparency and effective communication among the verious components and. Participants 4 Promoting Scalability } Scaling 2 distributed system involves designing. and implementing a system architecture that can handle) increased load and demand, 1.1.4 Issues of Distributed System j 4, There are also multiple challenges of distributed systems) that determine the performance of the overall system. There are also multiple challenges of distributed system: that determine the performance of the overall system. j () Heterogeneity f * One of the difcuties with a distributed system i) heterogeneity, which describes variations in the hardware, software or network configurations of individual nodes. | * Coordination and communication may be hampered a result. Service-oriented architecture, vitualzton middleware and standardization are methods computer programming was born upon such machines. VIKAS handling heterogeneity.DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING __ as) These methods can be used to create scalable, reliable systems that support a variety of configurations. | @ Scalability Maintaining the performance and availability of distributed systems is harder as they get bigger and more complex. Security, preserving data consistency across all systems, network latency across systems, resource allocation ‘and appropriate node balancing across numerous nodes are the main obstacles. (dM Openness Achieving a standard between various systems that employ various standards, protocols and data formats is referred to as "openness" in distributed systems. Itis critical to make sure that various systems can share data and communicate with one another without requiring a lot of manual labour. Maintaining the ideal balance between security and transparency in these kinds of systems is also crucial (IV) Transparency ‘© The degree of abstraction used by the system to keep, complicated information hidden from the user is referred to as transparency. Ensuring that system failures remain transparent to users and do not impact system performance as a whole is imperative. Systems with varying configur of software and hardware present a challenge to transparency. For distributed systems to remain transparent, security is also an issue. Concurrency The capacity to handle data concurrently on various system nodes is known as concurrency. Race conditions provide one of the main obstacles to concurrency in distributed systems. (VD Security * Data processing systems have significant security challenges due to the distributed and diverse nature of distributed systems. Since data is transferred among several nodes, the system needs to protect confidentiality against unwanted access. (Vil) Failure Handling Since a failure might happen at any node, diagnosing and recognizing it is one of the main issues of INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING Addressing failures in distributed systems. The failure nodes should be identified by implementing logging methods, 1.2 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS. ‘A network of machines that can communicate with one another via message-passing i called a distributed system. It facilitates resource sharing, which makes it highly valuable. It makes it possible for computers to communicate with one another and share system Tesources, giving users the impression that the systern ic an integrated, single computing facility. 1.2.1 Client-server Architecture A dlient and a server make up client-server architecture, 25, the name implies. All work operations are located on the server and users interact with services and other resources, (remote server) through the client. The server will then react appropriately to any requests made by the client, The remote side is usually handled by a single server, however complete security is guaranteed when many servers are used. Request PhonePT Internet ~——]_PC-PT Network Laptop PT ServerPT server Response Fig. 12 snt-server architecture Centralized security is a standard design element in client-server architecture. Any server user can access data, including passwords and usemames, because they are kept in a secure database. Compared to peer-to-peer, this makes it more reliable and secure. Because of the client-server design and the security database's capacity to permit more meaningful resource utilization, this stability is possible. Though it is not as quick as a server, the system is far more safe and stable. A distributed system's single point of failure and lack of server-level scalability are its drawbacks. 1.2.2 Peer-to-Peer Networks (P2P) Peer-to-peer networks or P2P networks, operate under the tenet that distributed systems lack centralized control. Once a node enters the network, it can function as a client or server at any given time. 2 SDISTRIBUTED COMPUTING a4) + Anode that makes a request is referred to as a client, \while a node that responds to the request is referred to as a server, Every node is referred to as a peer in general. Poort oer 2 shareable Fj Fi BEI etiese ‘ra oo So a i oo oo oo oo Peer Poor’ Wey B00 ao co Peers 1.2 : Peer-to-peer architecture A new node has two options if it wants to offer services. A centralized lookup server can be used to register, after which it will point the node in the direction of the service provider. ‘An alternative method involves the node broadcasting its service request to all other nodes inside the network, with the node that receives the most responses offering the requested servic. ‘Main computer INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED comeury ‘Three Separate Sections of P2P Networks usta i) Structured P2P: The nodes in structured PZF folow, predefined distributed data structure, (ii) Unstructured P2P: randomly select the The nades in unstructured yp eightors. a (iii) Hybrid P2P: In a hybrid P2P, some nodes have unique functions appointed to them in an orderly m 1.2.3 Middleware System 1.2.3_Middleware System _______ ‘We can think of middleware as an application that serves, two different apps by siting in betieen them. It serves 2 3 foundation for several interoperability programmes thet run on various OS systems. This service allows for the shating of data between users. a 1.2.4 Three-tier System A three-tier structure divides a program's functions inte their own layer and server. Instead of being organized into the client system or on their server, where development can be done more quickly, the client's date is kept in the middle tier in this case. = There are three layers in it: (1) Application, (2) Data and (ij) Presentation. Most commonly, this is utilized in online ot ‘web applications. = [1.3 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM MODELS. 1.3.1 Distributed Computing System ie L Performance computations requiring great computations power use this distributed system. ‘a 1. Cluster computing is the integration of severe’ @ networked computers into 2 single systemmthat functions as a single unit to carry out tasks. Local are2_ networks are typically used to swiftly connect clusters and all nodes in the cluster run the same operating system, «as) DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING tasks and omplete. configured as a network of computer systems, Each ‘= The slave nodes then send the completed tasks system might be a part of a distinct administrative =e E SS ail 28 Bat a = <— ca C_s|c s|c€ Bs AWS general ‘AWS general aoe AWS general Ceueeel > Different departments use different computers ‘The application integration core in the server or database presence of the control node, wi enables | controls distributed (or nested) transactions. The 1.3.2 Distributed Information System Its primary function was to provide a transactional Distributed Transaction Processing different servers using multiple The four characteristics that 1 Tt works across communication models. transactions have: () Atomic: the transaction taking place must be indivisible to the others. (ii) Consistent: The transaction should be consistent after, the transaction has been done. Isolated: A transaction must not interfere with another transaction, (iv) Durable: Once an engaged transaction, the changes are permanent. Transactions are often constructed as several sub-transactions, jointly forming nested transaction Databases Database? C= C=) “Two different (Independent) databases: Fig. 1.5 : Nested transaction programming approach so that an application could access humerous servers or databases. A large number of queries are made to the database in order to obtain the result; the TP Monitor is responsible for making sure that every request is correctly processed and that the results are delivered to each request. 2. Enterprise Application Integration The process of uniting disparate enterprises is known as enterprise application integration or EAI. Business application databases and processes ensure that information is used consistently throughout the company and that data changes made in one application are accurately reflected in another. Bons) amazon] OH Fig. 1.6DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING cnan Many organizations use their internal systems to gather various data from various plate formats, which are then Utilized in their trading systems or physical media 1.3.3 Distributed Pervasive System Pervasive computing, sometimes referred to as ubiquitous (Changed and removed) computing, is the latest development in the integration of commonplace things with microprocessors to enable communication of information. @ computer system that can be accessed from anywhere in the office or as a widely accessible consumer system that functions the same everywhere and has the same appearance but uses processing power, storage and locations all over the world. + Home System: Nowadays many devices used in the home are digital so we can control them from anywhere and effectively. o— Cy Stas Fig. 1.7 [1.4 INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND DATA SCIENCE IN DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING The way that we examine and use large datasets across geographically dispersed systems is being revolutionized by the convergence of distributed computing, Artificial Intelligence (Al) and data science. This combination opens up amazing possibilities across a range of domains, from advancing industry efficiency to taking on challenging scientific problems. Two quickly developing fields, Artificial Intelligence (Al) and data science, use sophisticated computer methods to mine data for insightful information. These technologies become even more potent when paired with distributed computing, enabling businesses to process ‘enormous datasets, build sophisticated models and resolve challenging issues. VIKAS 06) INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED COMPUT, ——e—rr TING 1.4.1 Collaboration between Al and Data Scien, Distributed Computing . ‘An outline of the collaboration between Al and day, ‘science in distributed computing is provided below 1. Distributed Computing i «Parallel Processing Power: By distributing day, | ‘among several network nodes, enofmous datasets thy would be too big for a single system may be processes concurrently and analyzed more quickly. + Scalability and Resilience: As 2 network grows in, umber of nodes, its processing capacity and fax, tolerance improve, making it possible to handle eve. increasing volumes of data effectively. “" + Flexibility and Collaboration: Distributed systems promote innovation and knowledge exchange ty facilitating data sharing and collaboration between ‘organizations and continents. 7 2. Aland Data Science + Algorithms for Machine Learning (MLy: Learn from data to identify trends, forecast results and make wise choices. * Big Data Analytics: Help find patterns, connections ‘and hidden knowledge by deriving insightful conclusions from enormous datasets. © Deep Learning: Uses artificial neural networks to simulate the human brain's intricate pattern detection and problem-solving abilities. Applications of AL + Al algorithms evaluate sensor data from dlspersed systems (wind turbines, smart sensors) to forecast equipment breakdowns and plan _ preventive maintenance, reducing expenses and downtime. + Al can identify anomalies and suspicious behavioss in real-time by analyzing large amounts of transacion data distributed across platforms. This successful stops fraudulent activity. + Artifical Intelligence (Al) models evaluate traffic fo" data from vehicles and sensors throughout a netwot to optimize traffic routes, forecast congestion increase overall transportation efficiency ‘+ Supply Chain Optimization: To improve inverto? control, route planning and overall supply 2 sere ch Because data partitioning lessens contention on each node, it can increase te availability, scalability and performance.pIsTRIBUTED COMPUTING «Data partitioning does, however, also bring with it certain additional issues, such as how to distribute the rorkload among the nodes, maintain data consistency and integrity, and manage node failures and recovery, 2. Data Rey + Data replication, or the process of making and maintaining numerous copies of the same data across several system nodes, is another crucial technique for handling big data sets in distributed systems, “+ Because data replication offers redundancy and backup in the event of node failures or network partitions, it an improve the system's availabilty, fault tolerance, ‘and dependability. Also, data replication enables faster and more concurrent access to the data from several places, it can also enhance the system's scalability and performance, + Data replication can, however, present several difficulties. For example, managing storage and synchronizing updates among replicas, resolving conflicts and inconsistencies among replicas. 3. Data Processing © Data processing, which entails applying logic or ‘computation to the data to extract value or insight, is a third essential component for handling big data sets in distributed systems. Data processing can take several forms, depending on the nature, organization, and goal of the data ‘+ Data mining and machine learning are examples of offline, analytical jobs that are well-suited for batch processing. * Although this paradigm hes significant latency, minimal interaction, and no real-time updates, it can manage massive volumes of data and accelerate processing by utilizing parallelism and dispersion. Online and reactive Jjobs like anomaly detection and event processing are good fits for stream processing. Technologies for 1. Hadoop istributed Data Processing + Large volumes of data may be processed and stored Using the open-source Hadoop platform. The son of ‘one of the framework’s inventors had a toy elephant, which inspired the name "Hadoop." Since its original development in 2005 by Doug Cutting and Mike Cafarella, Hadoop has grown to become one of the Most widely used frameworks for distributed data Processing. as INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING The Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), a distributed file system built to store and handle massive volumes of data across numerous cluster nodes, is the central component of the Hadoop framework, HDFS is designed to manage massive date collections and is based on the Google File System (GFS). The MapReduce programming model, which handles data Processing across several cluster nodes, is also included ‘with Hadoop. Hadoop is made up of various parts, such as: + Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS): This is the Hadoop storage layer, made to spread out massive volumes of data over several cluster nodes. Because HDFS is fault-tolerant, data can be lost even in the event that a single node fails. + MapReduce: The Hadoop processing layer that handles data processing over several cluster nodes is called MapReduce. In order for MapReduce to function, data must first be divided into smaller pieces, processed in parallel, and the results combined. + YARN: The Hadoop resource management layer, known as YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator, is responsible for overseeing the resources within Hadoop cluster. Resource allocation and application monitoring for clustered applications fall under the purview of YARN. 2. Spark + Big data processing is the focus of Apache Spark, an open-source distributed computing platform. The constraints of Hadoop’s MapReduce programming methodology led to the development of Spark. While batch processing works well with MapReduce, it is not recommended for real-time or iterative processing, Conversely, Spark is built to manage workloads of tl nature. ‘© Adgitionally, Spark comes with a number of libraries for stream processing (Spark Streaming), graph processing (GraphX), and machine learning (MUlib). Developers may create distributed data processing apps more easily thanks to these libraries’ high-level APIs for typical data processing activities. 3. Flink © Apache Flink is a free and open-source distributed computing platform intended for batch and streaming data processing.DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING ‘The Technical University of Berlin first created Flink in 2009, and it became open-sourced in 2014, Low- latency processing is necessary for real-time data processing workloads, which Flink is built to handle, ‘+The DataStream API, which processes streaming data in real-time, is the central component of Apache Flink The DataSet APL which is used to handle data in batches, is also included with Flink. The Flink APL, on which both APIs are built, is @ single, unified API that lets programmers create code for batch and streaming processing. Flink processes data in parallel across several cluster nodes by use of a distributed dataflow engine. ‘Additionally capable of handling failover and recovery automatically, Flink is a great fit for mission-critical applications, Additionally, Flink comes with a number of libraries for ‘SQL (Flink SQL), graph processing (Gelly), and machine learning (FlinkML), Developers may create distributed data processing apps more easily thanks to these libraries’ high-level APIs for typical data processing activities. 4, Cassiandra + An open-source distributed database management system called Apache Cassandra is made to manage massive amounts of data among several cluster nodes, Facebook began developing Cassandra in 2008, and in 2010 it became open-sourced. The fault-tolerant, scalable, and highly available features of Cassandra are builtin, + Since Cassandra is built on a distributed architecture, data is kept spread out among several cluster nodes. Because Cassandra employs a ring design, a piece of the data is stored on each cluster node. © As a result, Cassandra can manage massive data volumes and maintain high availability even in the event that a cluster node fails. + Because Cassandra is a NoSQL database, it does not ‘employ the conventional database architecture, Rather, the data is arranged into rows and columns and stored in a column-family model. relational * Additionally, Cassandra has a flexible schema model ‘that enables real-time, dynamic database schema modifications. VIKAS 20) INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED ComPuTINg 1.4.4 Understanding Parallel Processing + Numerous Processors or Cores: Many modem * computers have numerous processing cores that can handle multiple tasks at once, + Distributed Systems: Even more parallelization ig possible when the processing capacity of several « computers is combined over a network. + Algorithms and Code Optimization: Paralelzation is a natural fit for some algorithms but not for others. For the best use of processor cores, proper code optimization is essential Advantages of Parallel Processing + Quicker Execution: Workloads are split up” and handled separately, which drastically cuts down on completion times. + Scalability: Performance is further enhanced by adding more processing power (cores or machines). + Real-time Capabilities: For applications that move quickly, parallelization allows for real-time analysis and, response, ) + Resource Optimization: Tasks are divided among several cores or computers to make efficient use of the resources that are available. 4 Applications of Parallel Processing + Scientific Computing: Analyzing data and running intricate simulations in disciplines like engineering, chemistry and physics. = © Big Data Analytics: handling and examining ‘enormous databases to find patterns, revelations and guidance for making decisions. “4 ‘+ Machine Learning: Developing intricate models for a range of applications, including natural language processing and picture identification. igh-performance Computing: Resolving issues involving large amounts of computation in domains such as financial simulations, aerospace and climate) modeling, + Graphics and Video Processing: Producing lifelike visuals and instantly handling live video feeds for games and video editing Methods for Leveraging Parallel Processing * Determining which Tasks may be Parallelized: Som jobs cannot be parallelized because of dependencies constraints for sequential execution. Examine yo¥ process to find quelified applicants.DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING + Selecting the Appropriate Libraries and Tools: Parallel programming and task distribution features are provided by frameworks such as CUDA, MPI and OpenMP. Your unique needs and the design of your system will determine which tool is best for you, + Tuning Performance and optimization: You can overcome potential bottlenecks and greatly increase parallelization efficiency by fine-tuning your code and algorithms Challenges and Considerations L. General | Complexity: Compared to sequential programming, designing and implementing parallel algorithms and programs might be more difficult. ‘Overhead: jobs, overhead from ‘communication and synchronization between parallel activities may outweigh the advantages. Debugging and troubleshooting: Compared to sequential code, parallel programs can provide additional difficulties in locating and fixing problems. + Scalability and Storage Costs Exponential Data Growth: As the amount of data increases, scalable storage systems that can manage the ever-increasing volume of information are required. Cost Optimization: Especially for big datasets, striking a balance between affordability and the requirement for dependable storage becomes essential. Although cloud storage solutions are flexible, long-term storage can be very expensive. Security and Privacy Data Breaches and Cyberattacks: To guard against, hostile activity and illegal access, sensitive data requires, strong security measures. For modest Data Privacy Regulations: User permission processes and careful data management are necessary to comply with ever-evolving laws like the CCPA and GDPR, Performance and Availability latency and Data Access Speed: Fast and effective data retrieval is necessary for real-time applications and user satisfaction, Data Loss and System Outages: These events can hhave serious repercussions, thus strong backup and disaster recovery plans are required. Data Integrity and Quality Data Mistakes and Corruption: Accurate and consistent data are essential for trustworthy analysis 2 eiien-making INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING Data Versioning and Audit Trails: Athough trackin modifications, este and keeping track of previous iterations of data can be dificult, they are necessary for accountability and traceability. 24.5 _Data Consistency A key component of data management is data consistency, which guarantees the dependability, correctness and Credibility of your data, In essence, it describes the situation in which the same data, independent of location or access ‘mode, has the same value across all instances and systems. Why is Data Consistency Important? + Accurate Insights and Decision-making: Date inconsistencies that are misrepresented, incorrect drawn and ultimately, bad choices made, can result in analyses conclusions + Enhanced Productivity and Effici ney: Time and resources are saved when manual data reconciliation and correction are avoided due to consistent data. + Increased user Confidence and Trust: Users depend on reliable information and inconsistent information might make them lose faith in your systems and data. + Adherence to Rules: In order to safeguard user security and privacy, numerous regulations, such as GDPR and HIPAA, need data consistency and integrity. Challenges to Data Consistency * Multiple Data Sources and Systems: Information can be accessible and stored on a variety of platforms, databases and apps, which increases the tisk of discrepancies if improperly managed * Manual Data Entry and Updates: If appropriate validation and control procedures are not followed, manual data manipulation may result in errors and inconsistencies. * Data Synchronization and Replication: If data replication between systems is not correctly managed ‘and synchronized, it may result in discrepancies. ‘Methods for Maintaining Data Consistency To guarantee data + Data Quality Manageme accuracy and consistency at the source, put data validation guidelines, cleaning procedures and anomaly detection into practice.DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING = = To guarantee consistent data use data + Data Synchronizat across various platforms and systems, synchronization tools and protocols. + Transactional Data Changes: Use atomic transactions to guarantee that all impacted systems receive full and consistent data updates. + Master Data Management: To avoid inconsistencies, create a master data source for important information and mandate its use across all systems. + Data Governance: Establish precise guidelines and protocols for maintaining consistency, controlling ‘access and managing data, Tools and Technologies for Data Consistency + Data Quality Tools: Trifecta Wrangler and DataVelidator are two examples of tools that may be Used to find and fix data flaws and inconsistencies. + Tools for Data Synchronization: Programs like Fivetran and Apache Kafka facilitate the replication and synchronization of data between systems, + Master Data Management Systems: A central repository for managing vital data is offered by platforms such as Master Data Management and Collibra, Informatica 6 Communication Overhead A key idea in distributed systems is "communication overhead,” which is the extra time and money required for information exchange across. ‘components, Comprehending and reducing this overhead is crucial for attaining effective and seamless distributed systems. various Factors Contributing to Communication Overhead + Message Size: Larger communications incur more overhead because they take longer to process and send, ‘+ Network Latency: Communication times are impacted by delays in data transmission across the network. + Comple: of Protoc acknowledgments and error corre‘ Handshakes, N are just a few of the intricate communication protocols that can add to overhead, Communication Frequency: Regular communication between components builds up and adds to the total overhead. VIKAS aaa) INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED coMPUTIng PUTING + Serialization and Deserialization: It can take a why, to convert data between various formats for processing and transport. L Impact of Communication Overhead + Performance Degradation: Distributed systems may become slower due to high overhead, which vill afte, their responsiveness and processing speed. + Resource Utilization: Communication uses more computing power and network bandwidth, which could interfere with other operations. a + Scalability Constraints: Overhead may become 2 scalability issue as systems expand and communication requirements rise. Methods for Minimizing Communication Overhead «© Reduce Message Size: Send only the data that is required, omit unnecessary information and take compression methods into account. Reduce transmission delays by using hardware and network protocols that are as efficient as possible. = + Simplify Communication Protocols: Select error- handling and handshake protocols that are lightweight and need little overhead. = Reduce needless communication by batching requests, employing effective algorithms and caching data to optim + Make use of Asynchronous Communication: To cut down on wait times, use asynchronous communication patterns rather than blocking calls. the frequency of communication. + Opt for Effective Data Structures: Choose data architectures that are most suited for processing and transmission over networks, Tools and Techniques for managing Communication Overhead + Profiling Tools: Find your distributed systems communication hotspots and bottlenecks. + Message Queues and Asynchronous Communication Frameworks: To buffer messages and cut down on the ‘overhead of synchronous communication, use message queues like Apache Kafka. tributed Caching: To reduce _ network communication, cache frequently accessed data close! to processing nodes. + Data Serialization Libraries: Select _ effective serialization libraries to reduce processing overt and data size,pisrmmBuTED COMPUTING ae 47. Data Storage Issties and Retrieval 1. Data Protection through Security TF rhe leadership of IT departments is facing data storage challenges as a result of an increase in cybersecurity breaches, especially those involving ransomware, Although the first line of defense for data storage security is network perimeter security, there is always a chance that personnel with the right authorization could access secure data, utilize it, and perhaps corrupt or destroy it. One crucial tactic to protect sensitive data while it’s in transit and at rest is encryption. Selecting the Approp! ste Hardware for Storage IT requires equipment racks in addition to the required servers, storage devices, power systems, network connectivity, appropriate operating environment for on-site data storage and an It also requires a raised floor and enough floor space for the equipment rack for storage. The use of cloud-based managed data storage, in particular, do away with the requirement for physical infrastructure, saving money on floor space. can minimize or ._ Selecting the Appropriate Storage Application The sheer number of data storage options both services and products can be disorienting, These products can be freeware that can manage smal to medium storage requirements at a lesser cost, standalone storage apps, or applications that live in server operating systems. Understanding short- and long-term storage needs, as ‘well as related tasks like data recovery and archiving, is crucial Data Management and Protection Being able to access data when needed without worrying that it has been lost, distorted, altered, or stolen is the main objective of data storage. Data protection and management software programs make sure that saved data will be accessible in its Criginal form when needed, which helps to mitigate these data storage problems. Additionally, if a company will not be using the data for a while, it can utilize an archive to retrieve it later, —BYARGAGr e-discovery that a court may seek. 9 TED COMPUTING. Furthermore numberof apps can a the da ie 9 9 an en dessa Horage device i TT no lon needs the data or if it has been suy ae data versions, Sai cles and even the Scalability of Resources New requirements must_be accommodated by changing storage media. It must be possible for storage components to scale up or down, TT could expand storage through an alternative data center or third-party managed storage, like in the cloud, or by adding circuit boards to servers, more servers, or standalone storage devices. One significant advantage of third-party storage is its ease of scalability, as there are no upfront costs for customers to purchase extra racks, floor space, storage devices, or software. Controlling and Maximizing Expenses A significant amount of an IT department's budget may {go toward storage charges. The ability of the cloud to lower or eliminate major expenses has increased its popularity ‘When compared to an organization that largely uses on-site storage, one that uses the cloud may require fewer staff, equipment, floor space, and electricity Data Accessibility During a Crisis Make sure that in the event of a disruptive occurrence, the company can swiftly and securely retrieve the data and technological resources required to operate the business. When there are security lapses, ransomware attacks in particular, secure data storage becomes more and more crucial. Test 19 Data Storage In the event of a true disaster, issues could arise from failing to routinely test and confirm that IT stores data appropriately. Testing aids in finding errors or malfunctions in any storage infrastructure. It makes it possible to address data storage problems before they become serious catastrophes. Patching Data Storage One of the most crucial IT tasks is patching, which guarantees that all infrastructure components operate fat peak efficiency and make use of the most recent software updates.‘arn connor ans '* Inadequate patching of data storage infrastructure components may lead to a highly inconvenient system failure or disruption [1.5 SYNCHRONIZATION AND FAULT TOLERANCE IN DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS ‘An exciting trio of problems with intriguing answers. Let us ‘examine each idea and their relationships: 1.5.1 Synchronization Guarantees that, at any given moment, every node in a distributed system has an identical perspective on the INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED ComPuTiy, n Here are a Few Crucial Areas where this Collaboration Excels ti shared state. . Essential for jobs like preventing conflicting activities, preserving data integrity and performing concurrent changes. ‘Attained using a variety of methods, such as: (@ Clock Synchronization: Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) cor Network Time Protocol (NTP) are two technologies that are used to align system clocks. Distributed Locking: Gaining sole possession of pooledresources to avoid incompatible changes. (ily Transactional Updates: Guaranteeing the consistency and atomicity of multi-step processes amongst nodes. 1.5.2 Fault Tolerance Ensures that the system will continue to function even if ‘some parts malfunction. Reduces service interruptions, data loss and downtime. Employed using tactics like as: + Replication: Distributing functionality and data over several nodes so that, in the event of a node failure, others can take over. + Checkpointing: Enabling rollback and failure recovery, periodically preserving system state. + Leader Election: Choosing a stand-in node to take over as leader in the event that the main node fails. [1.6 USE CASES AND APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATING AI AND DATA SCIENCE IN DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS. ‘A wealth of fascinating new use cases and applications across numerous sectors become possible with the integration of Al and data science into distributed systems. 4 Scalable Analytics and Real: Large-scale Data Proce: 5 fe Insights . While AL and dats science approaches can extract valuable insights from large datasets, distributed systems are excellent at handling them. Real-time analytics on streaming data are made possible by this combination, which is essential for applications like anomaly detection, fraud detection and tailored recommendations. Edge Computin: Distributed systems enable quicker decision-making and resource optimization in edge, devices like smart sensors and autonomous cars by bringing Al and data analysis closer to the data source. oO; Predi equipment breakdowns and plan jized Resource Management ive Maintenance: Al models are able to detect ‘maintenance proactively, saving money and downtime, by analyzing, sensor data from distributed systems. Workload Balancing: Al can be used by distributed systems to dynamically assign resources in response to workload demands in real time, assuring effective use and performance enhancement. Enhanced Security and Intrusion Detection istributed Anomaly Detection: Al can. instantly detect potentially dangerous activity and suspicious behavior by analyzing system logs and network traffic from several nodes in a distributed system, Adaptive Security Frameworks: Al models offer intelligent defenses against cyberattacks in dynamic distributed systems by learning from and adapting'to changing attack patterns. Personalized User Experiences Recommendation Engines: Personalized content and services catered to individual preferences can be delivered by Al-powered recommendation systems that analyze user data across distributed platforms. Dynamic Pricing and Marketing: Businesses are able to modify pricing and marketing tactics according individual and regional characteristics becoust distributed systems allow AI to evaluate custome behavior and market trends in real-time. — |Srsmure connor _ BB scientific Discovery and Research 2D pistributed Scientific Computing: By processing and analyzing large scientific datasets across distributed computer clusters, AL and data science techniques ca speed up research in domains like climate modeling, astronomy and genomics. + Platforms for Cooperative Research: Distributed systems can make it safe and effective for researchers to work together across borders, exchanging information, analyzing findings and producing joint discoveries. 1.6.1 Predictive Maintenance (PAM) ‘One exciting area where AI and data science excel in distributed systems is Predictive Maintenance (PM). Let us examine a few particular use cases and applications this fie. 1. Anomaly Detection and Failure Prediction + Data is continuously generated by sensors integrated in a variety of equipment located throughout a distributed system, such as wind turbines, electricity ‘grids and factory machinery. + Artificial Intelligence (Al) algorithms that have been trained on failure patterns and historical data may evaluate sensor readings in real-time and spot minute inegularities that could be signs of imminent equipment failure, + Proactive maintenance scheduling is strengthened by early identification, averting expensive downtime and production interruptions. 2. Distributed Sensor Fusion and Edge Computing + Itis possible to combine and analyze data from various sensors across geographically scattered nodes in ‘geographically dispersed systems. + By deploying AI models closer to the data source, edge computing improves efficiency and resilience by minimizing latency and reducing dependency on centralized computer resources. This allows for faster real-time analysis and quicker Tesponse to possible concerns. ing Useful Life (RUL) Estimation Intelligence (Al) models can forecast how long equipment will ast before failing by analyzing sensor ata and operational trends. INTRODUCTION To DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING By using this information, maintenance interventions can be precisely scheduled as needed, preventing needless maintenance and marimizing resource allocation, + Distributed systems facilitate multi-node data Processing and model training, effectively managing big datasets from various equipment. 4. Adaptive Maintenance Strategies AL models have the ability to dynamically modify maintenance schedules in response to environmental and real-time data Jn contrast to a wind turbine running in calm conditions, one experiencing higher wind speeds may need more regular monitoring and possibly even ‘earlier maintenance. + Because of its flexibility, the distrisuted system's components’ individual equipment and operating conditions are catered to by optimal maintenance procedures. 5. Collaborative PdM Platforms © PAM data and insights can be shared more easily between various enterprises or industries thanks to distributed systems. ‘+ Power grids, for instance, can communicate equipment health data to wind farms connected to the same network, facilitating improved system-wide disruption prediction and control * By working together, we can improve system reliability overall and maximize maintenance efforts for everyone involves. 1.6.2_Fraud Detection Another fascinating area where the combination of data science and artificial intelligence might unleash enormous potential in distributed systems is fraud detection, Now let us explore some particular use cases and applications 1. Scalable Anomaly Detection + Large volumes of transaction data and user activity logs from a variety of platforms and services can be processed by distributed systems.E INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTED cong, DISTRIBUTED COMPUTING ai tn, ‘AL models can analyze this data in real-time, spotting | 5. Edge-based Fraud Detection ois fuspicious behaviors and anomalous patterns that | + This provides for speedier real-time anal, | « diverge from pre-established user profiles or transactions and user activity by deploying ‘Al mog transaction norms closer to the data source at the network edge. This makes it possible to identify fraudulent activity | * This also allows for immediate risk assessment quickly, such as account. takeovers, fraudulent | fraud prevention measures before suspicious activa payments and unauthorized access spread farther into the system. Be abstained crane eased eid oasis + For distributed systems where decisions must be may, fest, such as payment processing oF on, 4. Graph databases ae excellent at displaying the | Senteation, edge based fraud detection connections between different system entities, such as People, accounts, devices and transactions. These graphs can be used by Al models to find intricate fraud networks, which ere made up of seemingly unconnected actions that ultimately lead to a main ‘audulent operation, This all-encompassing method works especially well for identifying intricate freuds and money laundering operations dispersed over a distributed system. Adaptive Fraud Scoring and Risk Assessment ‘As fraud techniques change and fresh data is anelyzed, ‘Al models are able to learn and adapt on a constant basis. They have the ability to dynamically produce real-time fraud scores for user activities and transactions, evaluating the degree of risk based on contextual jables, personal profiles and the ever-evolving threat lendscepe. By enabling customized fraud prevention tactics, this enhances security measures without interfering with the experiences of authorized users. Collaborative Threat Intelligence Sharing A collaborative ecosystem is created where institutions can leam from each other's experiences, discover new fraud patterns and create more effective detection and prevention strategies. Distributed systems enable the secure sharing of fraud- ‘elated data end insights across different organizations and sectors. Distributed systems can greatly improve the overall defense against changing fraud threats by pooling especially important. 1.6.3 Intelligent Transportation Systems (Ts) ~ Another excellent illustration of how Al and dats scence excel in distributed systems is found in Inteligen * Transportation Systems (TS). By combining severe technologies, they seek to increase the sustainability, safet and efficiency of transportation networks. 1. Real-time Traffic Management and Congestion Control i * Dispersed sensors and cameras gather data on trafft flow throughout highways and intersections. Real-tim e ‘AI models evaluate this data to forecast traffic trend * and pinpoint areas of high congestion, * By using this data, traffic light timing may b dynamically changed, drivers can be given alter: routes to consider and congestion pricing technique * can be put into place, all of which will improve traf flow and shorten travel times. 2. Connected and Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs) ‘+ Vehicle-to-Everything or V2X, technology allot vehicles with sensors and Al systems to talk to rom infrastructure and to each other. '* This allows for autonomous lane changes for bettt ~ traffic flow, cooperative collision avoidance a‘ platooning for greater fuel efficiency. * Real-time coordination and communication betwee ‘ CAVs and infrastructure are ensured by distribu * systems, which manage the huge data interchange. Public Transportation Optimization + Ridership data from trains, buses and other pot transportation systems can be analyzed bY knowledge and resources, algorithms.