17-Jul-20

EE201 BASIC ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
Presented by

M. Jayachandran
Guest Faculty
Dept. of EEE
PEC, Puducherry

UNIT-2

AC CIRCUITS
2.1 Representation of Sinusoidal W aveforms
• Peak & RMS values
• Phasor Representation
• Real, Reactive, & Apparent Power
• Power Factor
2.2 Analysis of 𝟏Ф AC circuits
• R, RL, RC, and RLC (Series & parallel) combinations
• Series and parallel resonance
2.3 Analysis of 𝟑Ф balanced AC circuits
• Voltage and Current relations in star and delta connections
• Power measurement by two wattmeter method

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2.1 Representation of Sinusoidal Waveforms

A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine

function.

A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as alternating current

(ac).
 Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called
ac circuits.

Let I be the value of the direct current that produces the same
energy dissipated in the resistance as produced by the periodic
waveform. This value is termed as effective or RMS value.

The effective or RMS value of a periodic current is the dc

current that delivers the same average power to a resistor as
the periodic current.

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Time domain representation of sinusoidal signal

𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
𝑽 𝒕 = 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 i n volts
𝑽𝒎 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅 i n volts
𝝎 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝎𝒕 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅
𝑻 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅i n seconds
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒛 (𝒏𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄)

Problem-2.1
Find the amplitude, phase, frequency, and period of the sinusoid.

Sol:
𝑽𝒎 = 𝟏𝟐𝑽
𝝓 = 𝟏𝟎°
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝟓𝟎
𝒇= = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟔 𝑯𝒛
𝟐𝝅
𝟏 𝟏
T= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒇 𝟕.𝟗𝟔

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Average and RMS values of sinusoidal waveform

Average value RMS value

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝟐 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝟏 𝑻 /𝟐
𝑰𝒂𝒗 = ‫׬‬ 𝒊(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 𝟏 𝑻/𝟐 𝟐
𝑻/𝟐 𝟎 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ‫׬‬ 𝒊 𝒅𝒕
𝑻/𝟐 𝟎
𝟏 𝑻/𝟐
𝑽𝒂𝒗 = ‫׬‬ 𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝑻/𝟐 𝟎 𝟏 𝑻 /𝟐
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ‫׬‬ 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕
𝑻/𝟐 𝟎
The average waveform over full cycle is zero.
This indicates that the effective value is the square
root of the mean (or average) of the square of the
periodic signal. Thus, the effective value is often
known as the root-mean-square value, or rms value.

Average and RMS values of sinusoidal voltage waveform

Average value RMS value

𝟏 𝑻/𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 𝑻/𝟐 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ‫𝟎׬‬ 𝒗 𝒅𝒕
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ‫׬‬ 𝒗(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 𝑻/𝟐
𝑻/𝟐 𝟎
𝟏 𝝅
𝟏 𝝅 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ‫𝟐𝒗 ׬‬ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = ‫𝜽𝒅 𝜽 𝒏𝒊𝒔 𝒗 ׬‬ 𝝅 𝟎 𝒎
𝝅 𝟎 𝒎
𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝟐𝒎 𝝅 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝝅 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ‫𝟎׬‬ 𝒅𝜽
𝟎 𝝅 𝟐
𝝅
𝑽𝒎 𝝅
𝑽𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝟏+ 𝟏 𝑽𝟐𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 𝑽𝟐𝒎
𝝅 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝜽− = ×𝝅
𝟐𝝅 𝟐 𝟎
𝟐𝝅

𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽𝒎 𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒎

𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒎 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 𝑷𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟕𝑽𝒎 𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝑽𝒎

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Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more

convenient to work with than sine and cosine functions.
A phasor is a complex number that represents the amplitude and phase
of a sinusoid.

𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎)
𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎)
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎

;
Then, 𝒋
Note:

∠𝝓 = 𝒆𝒋𝝓 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓 + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝓

Fig. Representation of complex number

Time and Phase representation

of sinusoidal signal

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Note: + indicates leading

𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐

 Current leads voltage

by the angle Ф

I 𝒕 = 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 i n amps

𝑰𝒎 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅 in amps
𝝎 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝝎𝒕 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅
𝑻 = 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅in seconds
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒛 (𝒏𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄)
𝝓 = 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔
Fig. Phasor representation of voltage and current

Problem-2.2
Calculate the phase angle between v1 and v2. State which sinusoid is
leading.

Sol:

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Sinusoid-phasor transformation

Time domain Phasor domain

representation representation

Addition/Subtraction/Multiplication/Division Phasors
𝑨𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
𝑺𝒖𝒃𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:
𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝑫𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍:

𝑺𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑹𝒐𝒐𝒕:
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒋𝒖𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆:

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Problem-2.3
Evaluate the complex number.
𝟒 − 𝟓𝒋 + −𝟐 + 𝟑𝒋
𝟒 − 𝟓𝒋 − −𝟐 + 𝟑𝒋

𝟑∠ − 𝟒𝟎° × −𝟐∠𝟑𝟎° =
𝟑∠ − 𝟒𝟎° ÷ −𝟐∠𝟑𝟎° =

Problem-2.4
Evaluate the complex number.

Sol:

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Problem-2.5
Transform these sinusoids to phasors:

Sol:

Problem-2.6

Find

Sol:

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 The impedanc e (Z in Ω) of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor 𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎)

voltage (V) to the phasor current (I). (𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎)

𝒁 → 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑽
𝑹 → 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒁=
𝑿 → 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑰
𝜽 → 𝑷𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

Fig: Impedance triangle

 The admittanc e (Y in mho) is the reciprocal of impedance.

𝑹𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎)
𝒀 → 𝑨𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟏 𝑰
𝑮 → conductance 𝐘= =
𝑩 → susceptance 𝒁 𝑽

Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements: Z = R + jX

Pure resistive circuit (R): Z = R + j(XL − Xc )

Current & voltage are in phase Ф=00

𝑽
Note: The impedance (Z in Ω) of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage (V) to the phasor current (I). 𝒁 =
𝑰
.
𝟏
The admittance (Y in siemens) is the reciprocal of impedance 𝐘 = .
𝒁

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Z = R + jX
Pure inductive circuit (L): Z = R + j(XL − Xc )

Current lags voltage by the angle Ф=90 0

only the inductive reactance ( )

Note: (1st quadrant)

Z = R + jX
Pure capacitive circuit (C): Z = R + j(XL − Xc )

Current leads voltage by the angle Ф=90 0

only the capacitive reactance ( )

Note: (2nd quadrant)

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Z = R + jX
Inductive circuit (RL): Z = R + j(XL − Xc )

Current lags voltage by the angle Ф

Note: The impedance is inductive when X is positive. Thus, impedance is said to be inductive or lagging since current lags
voltage.

Z = R + jX
Capacitive circuit (RC): Z = R + j(XL − Xc )

Current leads voltage by the angle Ф

Note: The impedance is capacitive when X is negative. Thus, impedance is said to be capacitive or leading because current
leads voltage

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Characteristics of the passive elements:

Relation Resistor (R) Inductor (L) Capacitor (C)
v-i

i-v

p or w

Series

Parallel

at dc & 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 at dc 𝑶𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕 at dc

h igh frequency Open circuit at high frequencies Short circuit at high frequencies

Property -- T he current through an inductor T he voltage on a capacitor

cannot change instantaneously cannot change abruptly

Power terms in a 𝟏𝝓 AC circuit:

The instantaneous power “p(t)” absorbed

by an element is the product of the
instantaneous voltage v(t) across the
element and the instantaneous current
i(t) through it.
𝒑(𝒕) = 𝒗 𝒕 𝒊(𝒕)
The instantaneous power (in watts) is
the power at any instant of time.

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𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑(𝒕),

𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝟐𝝎

The average power “P” (in watts) is the average of the instantaneous
power over one period.

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒔𝒐𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐

Note: A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs zero average power.

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The apparent power “S” (in VA) is the product of the rms values
of voltage and current.

The power factor is the cosine of the phase difference

between voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the
angle of the load impedance.

𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆

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Complex power:

the complex power S absorbed by the ac load is,

𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

The real power “P” (in watt) is the average power in watts delivered to a
load; it is the only useful power. It is the actual power dissipated by
the load.
The reactive power “Q” (in VAR) is a measure of the energy exchange
between the source and the reactive part of the load.

Note: The energy storage elements neither dissipate nor supply

power, but exchange power back and forth with the rest of the
network. In the same way, the reactive power is being transferred
back and forth between the load and the source. It represents a
lossless interchange between the load and the source.

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Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms voltage phasor and
the complex conjugate of the rms current phasor. As a
complex quantity, its real part is real power (P) and its
imaginary part is reactive power (Q).

𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 VA
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 VA
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 Watts
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 VAR

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

A standard practice to represent S, P, and Q in the form of a

triangle, known as the power triangle.

Fig: Power triangle Fig: Impedance triangle

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S contains all power information of a load. The real part of S is the real
power P ; its imaginary part is the reactive power Q ; its magnitude is the
apparent power S; and the cosine of its phase angle is the power factor pf.

Problem-2.7
Find the instantaneous power and the average power absorbed by the
passive linear network.

Sol:

𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓,

𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

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Problem-2.8
Calculate the average power absorbed by an impedance
when a voltage is applied across it.
Sol:

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒔,

Problem-2.9
The voltage across a load is and the current through the
element in the direction of the voltage drop is Find: (a) the
complex and apparent powers, (b) the real and reactive powers, and (c) the power
factor and the load impedance.
Sol:

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑽𝑨

𝟒𝟓 𝒄𝒐𝒔 −𝟔𝟎° + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝟔𝟎° 𝑽𝑨
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓: | 𝑽𝑨
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑾
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓: 𝑽𝑨𝑹
𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓:

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆:

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2.2 Analysis of 𝟏Ф AC circuits

Problem-2.10
Consider a sinusoidal supply voltage supplying a
linear load of impedance at , .
Express current as a function of time. Based on and
determine the following,
𝒊 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒊𝒊 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝒊𝒗 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
Repeat the above when load is,

Inductive load (RL):

Z=12+j13

Fig: Circuit diagram Fig: Phasor diagram

Current lags voltage by the angle Ф

Fig: Waveform

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Capacitive load (RC):

Z=12-j13

Fig: Circuit diagram Fig: Phasor diagram

Current leads voltage by the angle Ф

Fig: Waveform

Resistive load (R):

Z=12

Fig: Circuit diagram Fig: Phasor diagram

Current & voltage are in phase Ф=0 0

Fig: Waveform

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Pure inductive load (L):

Z= +j13

Fig: Circuit diagram Fig: Phasor diagram

Current lags voltage by the angle Ф=90 0

only the inductive reactance ( ) Fig: Waveform

Pure capacitive load (C):

Z=-j13

Fig: Circuit diagram Fig: Phasor diagram

Current leads voltage by the angle Ф=90 0

only the capacitive reactance ( ) Fig: Waveform

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Series RLC circuit:

Case-1: Inductive
𝟏
[𝝎𝑳 > ]
𝝎𝑪
𝟏
• The total reactance 𝑿 = 𝝎𝑳 − is positive.
𝝎𝑪
• Then the current lags voltage by the angle Ф. (𝟎° ≤ 𝝓 ≤ 𝟗𝟎°)
• power factor is lagging. (𝒑𝒇 < 𝟏)
Case-2: Capacitive
𝟏
[𝝎𝑳 < ]
𝝎𝑪
𝟏
• The total reactance 𝑿 = 𝝎𝑳 − is negative.
𝝎𝑪
• Then the current leads voltage by the angle Ф. (𝟎° ≤ 𝝓 ≤ 𝟗𝟎°)
• power factor is leading. (𝒑𝒇 < 𝟏)
Case-3: Resistive
𝟏
[𝝎𝑳 = ]
𝝎𝑪
𝟏
• The total reactance 𝑿 = 𝝎𝑳 − is zero.
𝝎𝑪
• Then the current and voltage are in-phase. (𝝓 = 𝟎°)
• power factor is lagging. (𝒑𝒇 = 𝟏)

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Parallel RLC circuit:

Case-1: Inductive
𝟏
> 𝝎𝑪 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑰𝑳 > 𝑰𝑪
𝝎𝑳
• Then the current lags voltage by the angle Ф. (𝟎° ≤ 𝝓 ≤ 𝟗𝟎°)
• power factor is lagging. (𝒑𝒇 < 𝟏)

Case-2: Capacitive
𝟏
< 𝝎𝑪 𝒊. 𝒆 𝑰𝑳 < 𝑰𝑪
𝝎𝑳
• Then the current leads voltage by the angle Ф. (𝟎° ≤ 𝝓 ≤ 𝟗𝟎°)
• power factor is leading. (𝒑𝒇 < 𝟏)

Case-3: Resistive
𝟏
= 𝝎𝑪 𝒊. 𝒆 |𝑰𝑳| = |𝑰𝑪 |
𝝎𝑳
• Then the current and voltage are in-phase. (𝝓 = 𝟎°)
• power factor is lagging. (𝒑𝒇 = 𝟏)

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Z = R + jX
Resonance:
Z = R + j(XL − Xc )
The most prominent feature of the frequency response of a circuit
may be the sharp peak (or resonant peak) exhibited in its amplitude
characteristic.
Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive
and inductive reactances are equal in magnitude, thereby resulting
in a purely resistive impedance.
0

Resonant circuits (series or parallel) are useful for constructing

filters, as their transfer functions can be highly frequency selective.
They are used in many applications such as selecting the desired
stations in radio and TV receivers.

RLC series resonance:

𝟏 𝟏
𝝎𝟎 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄 ⇒ 𝒇𝟎 = 𝟐𝝅 𝑯𝒛
𝑳𝑪 𝑳𝑪

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"𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 − 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔"

The current amplitude versus frequency

bandwidth “B”,

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RLC parallel resonance:

𝟏 𝟏
𝝎𝟎 = 𝒓𝒂𝒅/𝒔𝒆𝒄 ⇒ 𝒇𝟎 = 𝑯𝒛
𝑳𝑪 𝟐𝝅 𝑳𝑪

"𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 − 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔"

The current amplitude versus frequency

bandwidth “B”,

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Problem-2.11
In the circuit show n in Fig.
(a) Find the resonant frequency and the half-power frequencies.
(b) Calculate the quality factor and bandwidth.
(c) Determine the amplitude of the current at
Sol:

Since this is a high-Q circuit and we can obtain the half-power

frequencies as,

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Problem-2.12
In the circuit show n in Fig.
(a) Calculate .
(b) Find .
(c) Determine the power dissipated at
Sol:

Since this is a high-Q circuit and we can obtain the half-power

frequencies as,

2.3 𝟑Ф balanced AC circuits

Circuits or systems in which the ac sources operate at the

same frequency but different phases are known as polyphase.

Fig: Three-phase four-wire system

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Balanced Three-Phase Voltages:

Three-phase voltages are often produced with a three-phase ac

generator (or alternator).
Balanced phase voltages are equal in magnitude and are out of
phase with each other by as shown in Fig. 𝑽𝒑𝒉

The voltages and are respectively between lines

R, Y, & B, and the neutral line N. These voltages
are called phase voltages.
The phase sequence is the time order in which the
voltages pass through their respective maximum
values.
leads which in turn leads This sequence
is produced when the rotor rotates
counterclockwise. This phase sequence (as shown
in Fig.,) is known as the RYB sequence or positive
sequence.
leads which in turn leads This sequence
is produced when the rotor rotates clockwise. This
phase sequence is known as the RBY sequence or
negative sequence. Fig: RYB or positive sequence phase voltages

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A typical three-phase system consists of three voltage sources

connected to loads by three or four wires (or transmission lines).
A three-phase system is equivalent to three single-phase circuits.
The voltage sources can be either wye-connected or delta-
connected as shown in Fig.

Fig: Three-phase voltage sources: (a) Y-connected source, (b) Δ–connected source

A balanced load is one in which the phase impedances are equal in

𝒁 𝟏 = 𝒁 𝟐 = 𝒁 𝟑 (for Y-load)
magnitude and in phase. 𝒁 𝒂 = 𝒁 𝒃 = 𝒁 𝒄 (for Δ-load)
A Y-connected load consists of three impedances connected to a neutral
node, while a Δ-connected load consists of three impedances connected
around a loop.
The load is balanced when the three impedances are equal in either
case.

𝒁𝚫 = 𝟑𝒁𝒀
𝒁𝟏 = 𝒁𝟐 = 𝒁𝟑
𝒁𝒂 = 𝒁𝒃 = 𝒁𝒄

𝒁𝚫
𝒁𝒀 =
𝟑

Fig: Three-phase balanced load: (a) Y-connected load, (b) Δ–connected load

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Since both the three-phase source and the three-phase load

can be either wye- or delta-connected, we have four possible
connections:
 Y-Y connection (i.e., Y-connected source with a Y-connected load.)
 Y-Δ connection
 Δ-Y connection
 Δ -Δ connection

3Ф star connected balanced load:

A balanced Y-Y system is a three-phase system with a balanced Y-
connected source and a balanced Y-connected load.
The phase voltages (𝐕𝐑𝑵, 𝐕𝐘𝑵 & 𝐕𝐁𝑵) are equal to the voltages across the
corresponding load impedances (𝐕𝐑𝑵′ , 𝐕𝐘𝑵′ & 𝐕𝐁𝑵′ ) .

Where,
𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑽𝑳
(= 𝟎)

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Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages (or line-to-neutral voltages 𝐕𝐑𝑵 , 𝐕𝐘𝑵 & 𝐕𝐁𝑵 )

The line voltages (or line-to-line voltages 𝐕𝐑𝐘 , 𝐕𝐘𝐁 & 𝐕𝐁𝐑 ) are related to the phase voltages

So, the three line voltages are

balanced, magnitudes are equal,
and phase angles are displaced by
1200
The line voltage (V RY) leads the
corresponding phase voltage (V RN)
by 300
The magnitude of the line
voltages is times the
magnitude of the phase
Fig. Phasor diagram of the line and phase
voltages voltages with RYB phase sequence

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As s uming a balanced load means that, the magnitude of

the i mpedance per phase, and their angle are same,

The phase currents are obtained as,

Fig. Phasor diagram of phase voltages and

phase currents with RYB phase sequence

 This shows that the phase currents are equal in magnitude with their phase angles displaced
from each other in sequence by 1200

The line current ( ) is the current in each line, the phase

current ( ) is the current in each phase of the source or load.

Fig: A single-phase equivalent circuit.

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Total Power Consumed in the Star-connected Circuit:

The power consumed per phase is given by,

where, the angle between the phase voltage , and the phase current .
It has been shown earlier that and ,
Then the total power (=𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩) consumed is obtained as,

3Ф delta connected balanced load

A balanced Y-Δ system consists of a balanced Y-connected source feeding a
balanced Δ-connected load.
The line voltages ( 𝐕𝐑𝒀 , 𝐕𝐘𝑩 & 𝐕𝐁𝑹 ) are equal to the voltages across the
corresponding load impedances (𝐕𝐑𝒀, 𝐕𝐘𝑩 & 𝐕𝐁𝑹) .

Where,
𝑰𝑳
𝑰𝒑𝒉

Note: This is perhaps the m ost practical three- phase system, as the three-phase sources are usually Y-connected
while the three-phase loads are usually Δ-connected.

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Assuming the positive sequence, the phase voltages (or line-to-neutral voltages 𝐕𝐑𝑵 , 𝐕𝐘𝑵 & 𝐕𝐁𝑵 )

The line voltages (or line-to-line voltages 𝐕𝐑𝐘 , 𝐕𝐘𝐁 & 𝐕𝐁𝐑 ) are related to the phase voltages

Assuming a balanced load means that, the magnitude of

the impedance per phase, and their angle are same,

is taken as reference. The phase currents are given as,

Fig. Phasor diagram of phase and line

The line currents are obtained (using KCL) as, currents with RYB phase sequence

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Total Power Consumed in the Delta-connected Circuit:

The power consumed per phase is given by,

where, the angle between the phase voltage , and the phase current .
It has been shown earlier that and ,
Then the total power (=𝑷𝑹 + 𝑷𝒀 + 𝑷𝑩) consumed is obtained as,

Summary of phase and line voltages/currents for balanced 3Ф systems:

Connection Phase and line voltages/currents

𝑽𝑳= 𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑰𝑳= 𝑰𝒑𝒉
𝑽𝑳= 𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑𝒉
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑰𝑳= 𝑰𝒑𝒉
𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉
𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑𝒉

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Problem-2.13
A balanced abc-sequence Y-connected source with is connected to
a -connected balanced load per phase. Calculate the phase and line
currents. Note: For Y-Y system, 𝑽𝑳= 𝟑 𝑽𝒑𝒉 ; 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑𝒉 & For Y-Δ system, 𝑽𝑳 = 𝟑𝑽𝒑𝒉 ; 𝑰𝑳 = 𝟑 𝑰𝒑𝒉
Sol:

Three-Phase Power Measurement using Two Wattmeter method:

The two-wattmeter method is the most commonly used method for three-
phase power measurement.
The two wattmeters must be properly connected to any two phases, as shown
in Fig.,

Fig: Two-wattmeter method applied to a balanced wye load.

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 The current coil of each wattmeter measures the line current,

while the respective voltage coil is connected between the line
and the third line and measures the line voltage.
The algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings equals the
total average power absorbed by the load, regardless of whether
it is wye- or delta-connected, balanced or unbalanced.
The total real power is equal to the algebraic sum of the two
wattmeter readings,

 The total power consumed by the circuit is,

𝑷𝑻 = 𝑽𝑹𝑵 . 𝑰𝑹𝑵 +𝑽𝒀𝑵 .𝑰𝒀𝑵 +𝑽𝑩𝑵. 𝑰𝑩𝑵
Our objective is to apply the two-wattmeter method to find
the average power absorbed by the load. The instantaneous
power measured by the wattmeters are,

𝑷𝑻 = 𝑽𝑹𝑵 . 𝑰𝑹𝑵 +𝑽𝒀𝑵 . 𝑰𝒀𝑵 +𝑽𝑩𝑵 . 𝑰𝑩𝑵

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Due to the inductive (RL) load

impedance, each voltage coil
leads its current coil by so that
the power factor is
We recall that each line voltage
leads the corresponding phase
voltage by
Thus, the total phase difference
between the phase current and
line voltage is

The average power read by wattmeter-1 (𝐏𝟏 ) is

Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1) gives

The average power read by wattmeter-2 (P𝟐 ) is

the tangent of the power factor
angle as
The sum and difference of two wattmeter readings are,

𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 .𝑰 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝓 1
𝑷𝑻 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 .𝑰 𝑳 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝓
Thus, the two-wattmeter method
not only provides the total real
𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 = 𝑽𝑳 . 𝑰 𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓2 . and reactive powers, it can also be
𝟑(𝑷𝟐 −𝑷𝟏 ) = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 .𝑰𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓Q
used to compute the power factor.
𝑸 𝑻 = 𝟑 𝑽𝑳 .𝑰𝑳 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝓

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The power factor, of the balanced load can be obtained as given here, using two
wattmeter readings.

we conclude that:
1. If , the load is resistive.
2. If , the load is inductive.
3. If , the load is capacitive .

Phase angle Power factor Watt meter readings (W) Remarks

1 +ve +ve
0.5 < pf < 1 +ve +ve
0.5 +ve 0 Total power=P1
0 < pf < 0.5 +ve -ve Total power=+ve

0 +ve -ve Total power=0

Problem-2.14
The three-phase balanced load in Fig. has impedance per phase of
. If the load is connected to lines, predict the readings of the
wattmeters and Find and
Sol:

Note: For star connected load, 𝑽𝑳= 𝟑 𝑽𝒑𝒉 ; 𝑰𝑳 = 𝑰𝒑𝒉 & For delta connected load, 𝑽𝑳 = 𝑽𝒑𝒉 ; 𝑰𝑳 = 𝟑 𝑰𝒑𝒉

41