Topic 1: Complex Numbers

Number Systems

We first learned about Natural Numbers N (1,2,3...) when we were growing up. Over the years
we then added numbers like zero and negative numbers to create the Integers Z , then fractions
(including terminating or recurring decimals) to create the Rational Numbers Q . All the rational
numbers can be written as fractions.

𝜋or √ 2. These are the Irrational Numbers (non-recurring decimals), which together with
The next step was to learn that there are numbers that cannot be written as fractions, such as

Rational Numbers, form the larger group Real Numbers R . A number cannot be both Rational
and Irrational.

You are about to learn that there is another set of numbers, Imaginary Numbers 𝕀, that together
with Real Numbers form the larger group Complex Numbers C . Just like Real Numbers,
Imaginary Numbers can also be rational or irrational.

A number cannot be Real and Imaginary, but it can have a real and an imaginary part, just like
the real number 2+ √ 3 has a rational and irrational part.
Imaginary Numbers

Although what we now know as Imaginary Numbers have only been commonly accepted for a
few hundred years, they were first discovered by the Ancient Greeks.

French mathematician and philosopher Rene Descartes (“I think, therefore I am”) created the
Cartesian Plane (which allows us to link geometry and algebra), and derisively named numbers
involving the square root of negatives as ‘imaginary’. It is a poor choice of name that misleads us
to this day.

He didn’t think negative numbers existed either and called solutions which were negative ‘false’!

We should also note that the ‘complex’ in Complex Numbers means ‘made of parts’ rather than
‘complicated’ - another misleading name! A complex number is made of a real part and an
imaginary part.

So, keep in mind that complex numbers are not hard and they do exist.

Imaginary numbers are a bit like irrational numbers, negative numbers and even zero - they are
non-tangible numbers that have useful properties. You cannot hold 2 marbles, −2 marbles, 0
marbles or −2 marbles in your hand, but irrational, negative, zero and imaginary numbers allow
us to solve more difficult problems.

At various points in history in different cultures all these non-tangible numbers have been seen
as fictitious or useless!

Definition of i

The definition of 𝑖 from the syllabus is as a solution of the equation 𝑥2 = −1, so 𝑖2 = −1.

The definition is not the more commonly recognised 𝑖 = √ −1, which is not mentioned in the
syllabus at all. It is no big deal if you use both definitions for 𝑖, as we will certainly gain a better
understanding from 𝑖 = −1. We will look at this more closely later in the lesson.

It is important to note that 𝑖 is similar to a surd, so there are some similarities between the
properties of complex numbers and surds, but not all of the rules for complex numbers follow
the surd rules.

i=√ −1
Examples

1. Determine

a) √4

b) √ −4

c) √−3

d) i 2

e) i 3

Complex Numbers

The numbers we have just looked at and determined have all been ‘purely imaginary’,
that is, they only contain an imaginary component.

Complex Number: a number that contains both a real and imaginary component.

 Note: technically imaginary numbers are complex numbers with a

real component of 0

 Complex numbers are vectors, meaning a few things:

 They CANNOT be ordered.

 We can only add real and imaginary components
individually.


Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Multiplication of Complex Numbers

The Conjugate of a Complex Number

Division of Complex Numbers

To divide complex numbers, for example , we multiply the numerator

z1

and denominator by the conjugate of z 2. This process is known as

z2

realising the denominator, a play on rationalising the denominator. We

will see this in the example below.
Factorising and Solving Previously unsolvable Equations:

When factorising and solving equations, often we had to pause whenever

∆ <0, since we cannot ‘normally’ square root a negative number.

But now we can! I find this really cute ❤️

Solve the following:

1. z 2+ 4=0

2. z 2+ 2 z +17=0

Factorising

1. Factorise z 2+ 2 z +26
2. Factorise z 3 +64

a) Over the set of real numbers

b) Over the set of complex numbers

Here we can see that each expression in each individual bracket is linear.
This is why these questions rather than say factorise, will say:

Express as a product of its linear factors…

c) Hence, solve z 3 +64=0 (these are known as the cube roots of −64 )
Equating Real and Imaginary Parts

One of the most useful and ‘go-to’ strategies to solving equations

involving complex numbers is by equating the real and imaginary
components SEPERATLY.

For example,

For a+ ib=i

Then, the REAL component must be equal to 0, and the IMAGINARY

component 1.

 a=0 , b=1

1. Determine Re(z) and Im(z) of the following:

a) 3+ 4 i

b) √ 3−2 i

c) 4

d) 5 i

2. Solve for a and b, a+ 2+ ib−3 i=4−2 i

Square Roots of Complex Numbers

We have determined already things such as √ −4=2 i, however, what about

√ i? Or √(2+3 i)?

For the complex number a+ ib, let √ a+ib=x +iy , then:

2 2
x − y =a

2 xy=b
Of course, we will know the values of a and b, so solving this set of
simultaneous equations will give is the square root. (Note: there will be
two solutions)

Hence, more formally:

If z=a+ib, then its square root x +iy will satisfy:

2 2
x − y =ℜ ( z )

1. Find √ 3+4 i
2 xy=ℑ(z)

2. Solve z 2−( 3−2i ) z+ (1−3 i )=0

3. Solve 2 z−1=( 4−i ) (hint: z=x +iy ¿
2
 The Argand Diagram

Much like the Cartesian Plane, the Argand diagram is the plane which we can plot
complex numbers. It is very similar except we have a real axis (basically the x-axis) and
an imaginary axis (basically the y-axis).

Remember, these are NOT numbers, but rather vectors. Due to this, we can determine
the following:
Note: the argument is often −π ≤θ ≤ π , however, 0 ≤ θ ≤2 π is equally correct (and makes
more sense, to me at least!). The textbook makes no mention that both are correct, but
they are.

We use the following notation for complex number z=x +iy

mod ( z )=| z|=√ x 2+ y2

arg ( z )=θ=tan−1 ( xy )
1 1
1. Plot the complex number + i on the argand diagram, noting its modulus and
√2 √2
argument.

Modulus Argument Form (Polar Form)

We have now seen that complex numbers (due to them being vectors) have a modulus
(magnitude) and argument (angle with the real axis). We can express our complex
number using this information such that:
It is obvious to see why this is called Mod-Arg form.

1. Express 2−2i in Mod-Arg form

(
2. Convert 4 cos
π
3
+isin
π
3)to Cartesian Form

But why do we are about this form?... It makes multiplication and division VERY fast.

Multiplication in Modulus-Argument Form

1. Multiply the moduli.

2. Add the arguments.

Division in Modulus-Argument Form

1. Divide the moduli.

 2. Subtract the powers.

EASY!!!!! 😊

Note: sometimes it is easier to first convert complex numbers into mod-arg form, then
multiply them, and then convert back.

Although, the CASIOfx8200AU throws this out the window most cases xoxo…. ☹
 De Moivre’s Theorem

Find the following in Cartesian Form:

[( )]
5
3π 3π
1. 2 cos +isin
10 10

6
2. ( √ 3+i )
 4
3. ( 1+ √ 3 i ) ( 1−i )2

(−1+ i )3
4. 2
( 1+ i )
 Euler’s Formula

Note: the rules of multiplication and division of Complex Numbers works the exact same
in this form.

 Multiplication: times moduli, add powers

 Division: divide moduli, subtract powers
 De Moivre’s Theorem still applies:
 Applications of De Moivre’s Theorem

 Note: De Moivre’s Theorem works for positive AND negative integers

 Complex Numbers and Polynomial Equations

We have already solved some polynomial equations that result in complex solutions. You
may have noticed that whenever we have a complex solution, we always have a ± in our
solution somewhere. This is not a coincidence.

Conjugate Root Theorem

The complex roots of a polynomial equation with REAL COEFFICENTS will occur in
CONJUGATE PAIRS

Note, this implies a property that will see more of later.

If p ( z )=z 3 is a polynomial equation with real coefficients with root w , then:

3
p ( w )=w =0

It is known that the conjugate of 0 is still 0, so:

3
p( w)=( w )=0

However, since the coefficients are real, then w is also a root and hence:

3
p ( w )=( w ) =0

This suggests that the conjugate of a power is equal to the power of the conjugate, i.e.,

n n
w =( w )
1. If a quadratic with real coefficients equation has a root of 2+ 4 i, what is its other
root?

2. What is this equation?

3. How many real roots can a polynomial of degree 3 have if one of its roots is 1−3 i ?
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n solutions over the complex field

 As a deduction from this, the factor theorem works in the complex field.

1. Use the factor theorem to show that z−i is a factor of z 3 +2i z 2+3 i

2. Factorise z 3 +1over the set of complex numbers.

3. Factorise 2 z3 −4 z 2 +3 z−1

a) Over the set of real numbers

b) Over the set of complex numbers

4. 2z3 − 3z2 + 8z + 5 to its linear factors over the set of complex numbers.
3 2
Hence find the values of z for which 2z − 3z + 8z + 5 = 0
 Zeros of a Polynomial

Determining the zeros of a polynomial involves the exact same process as we just saw in
factorising these polynomials, except we make it equal to 0 and solve. There are a few
things to keep in mind:

 When the coefficients are REAL, its roots will occur in conjugate pairs.
 When ANY of its coefficients are complex, its roots will NEVER OCCUR IN
CONJUGATE PAIRS.
 The sum/product of roots still work and may be useful in proving
identities/finding an unknown root.
 It is very useful to consider the constant term, we will look at how we do this.
 YOU MUST HAVE EXACTLY n SOLUTIONS TO A POLYNOMIAL OF DEGREE n, if not,
something has gone wrong.

1. The polynomial z 3−7 z 2 +25 z−39 has one zero equal to 2+3 i. Write it as a product of
its three linear factors.
 Solving Quadratic Equations with Complex Coefficients

For the most part, we have been solving equations with REAL coefficients, however,
when the coefficients of z are complex, the process is a tad different.

We know that when we solve quadratic equations using the formula, we get to the step
where we must square root a number. In the complex field, we know that we can always
square root a number. We have already learnt how to do this.

Recall,

1. Find √ 3+4 i
This process will always work, however, sometimes when we have complex coefficients
it gets quite complicated. I am going to completely ignore the textbooks method because
it’s terrible, and instead use the one I prefer.
Alternative Method to Find the Square Root of Complex Numbers

 This is most used to solve quadratic equations with complex coefficients.

For a complex number z , its square root a+ ib follows:

a=
√ |z|+ ℜ ( z )
2

b=± ×(sign ( y ))
√ ¿ z∨−ℜ ( z )
2

 THIS WILL ALWAYS WORK, EVEN ON THE EASIER SQUARE ROOT

PROBLEMS WE SAW BEFORE.

1. Find √ 5+12i using this new method.

2. Solve x 2+ 2 x +i=0
3. Solve i x 2 +3 x−4=0
 Complex Numbers as Vectors

It is important to note that two dimensional vectors (which we will cover in Vectors)
and complex vectors (in Complex Numbers) behave the same with addition and
subtraction but quite differently for multiplication. We can also divide with Complex
vectors, as well as raising them to powers or finding their roots, which we cannot do
with two dimensional vectors.

In Vectors we are only interested in the direction of a two-dimensional vector as a

concept, whereas in Complex Numbers we are interested in the argument of complex
vectors, so will solve proofs involving rotation.

number 𝑢 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, which can be viewed as a vector starting at zero which travels 𝑎
We can look at a complex number as a vector. For example, ⃗ OU represents the complex

units to the right and goes up by 𝑏 units. Its tail is at zero and its tip is at 𝑈.

WV also equals 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏.

Since ⃗
OU and ⃗WV have the same magnitude and direction they are equal vectors, so
⃗

Parallelogram Law - Adding

Vectors
Parallelogram Law - Subtracting Vectors

Recall, the tip of the subtraction vector moves away from the vector we are subtracting.

Polygon Law – Useful for Extension 1

Rotation and Dilation

When a complex number is multiplied by another complex number, then starting with
the original we:

- Dilate (scale) the modulus by the modulus of the second number.

- Rotate the vector by the argument of the second number.

The work on complex vectors is far more likely to involve multiplication than division,
however division is the inverse operation of multiplication, so the effects occur in the
opposite directions:

- Rotate by the opposite of the argument of the second complex number (i.e., rotate
clockwise instead of anticlockwise)
- Divide by the modulus of the second complex number.
Dilation

Multiplying a complex number by another complex number rotates the original vector
by the argument of the second vector (anti-clockwise). This is because:

arg ( z 1 z 2 )=arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z 2 )

As such,

π
- Multiplying a complex number by i rotates the vector by arg ( i )=
2

 A multiplication of i rotates a vector by 90 ° .

 z and iz are at right angles to each other.

- Multiplication by 1 cisθ rotates the vector by θ BUT DOES NOT CHANGE ITS
LENGTH.

- Multiplication by kcisθ rotates the vector by θ and dilates the vector by k.

Looking back at our Extension 1 work, it is clear to see that to rotate a complex number
without affecting its modulus can only occur if the modulus of the second vector is 1. In
other words, we are multiplying it by a unit vector.

1. On the argand diagram below, plot the following:

a) z
b) iz
π
c) z × cis
3
2π
d) z × 2 cis
3
−π
e) z × cis( )
2
The Conjugate as a Vector

The argument of the conjugate is −θ , since the conjugate simply makes the imaginary
component negative. Hence, we observe:
 The Triangle Inequality

The Triangle Inequality is one of those things you must know. It’s quite straight forward
and is used often in proofs. The triangle inequality is ASSUMED, meaning, you can state
it in proof without proving it every time. It will show up in the most random of places.

 You are allowed to refer to it as the Triangle Inequality, it’s not just a name I came
up with for you to remember it.

The Triangle Inequality States:

Proof:
 More Work with Vectors

Midpoint Vector between two vectors

The most important thing…we will spend a long time on this exercise
 Complex Roots of Unity

Surprisingly, the textbook explains this better than anyone (even a certain YouTube
teacher). I will attempt to explain it even better so! ❤️❤️❤️

Complex Roots of Unity

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra tells us that every polynomial equation of degree
n has EXACTLY n solutions. This is very important here.

The Complex Roots of Unity are the roots that are the solutions to z n=1. In the real
numbers, there is only one possible answer (1). However, in this case, there are n
solutions.

For example,

The equation z 6=1 has 6 solutions.

1. Determine the cube roots of unity in mod-arg form, and plot these on an argand
diagram.
Did you notice anything about these roots?...

1. They all have modulus 1, and hence lie on a circle with centre O and radius 1.
2π
2. They are all separated by an angle of
3

These properties are crucial and will assist us in finding complex roots. We will explore
this soon.

Complex Roots

Whenever we are solving an equation that is not equal to 1, for example, z 6=64 , then we
are just finding the “6th roots of 64”, not the Complex Roots of Unity. We only say unity
when the equation is equal to 1.

Note: this process is also how we will find the complex roots of unity from now on. Just
remember to convert 1 to mod-arg form (cos 0+isin 0 ¿

The Complex Roots of the equation z n=R is define by the following properties:

1. They roots will ALL have a modulus of √n R . i.e., we take the nth root of the
modulus.

2 kπ
2. They will all be separated by an angle of
n
 θ 2 kπ
3. They will have an argument of + ( k ∈ Z ) , where θ is the argument of R.
n n

1. Find the 6th roots of −64

 Further Work with the Complex Roots of Unity

Hint: when you are given names for EACH INDIVIDUAL root of unity, such as w 1 , w 2 , w3 being the
cube roots of unity, you MUST ACTUALLY FIND THE ROOTS.

However, if you are told that w is ONE of the roots, then you DO NOT find the actual value of the
roots. We are dealing with them on a general basis since we don’t know which root w is.
Conjugate Theorems
The proofs of these are quite straight forward. For example:

z+z

¿ ( x +iy ) + ( x−iy )
¿2 x
¿ 2 ℜ(z )
 Curves and Regions on the Argand Diagram

Basic Regions

For basic regions, we recall that z=x +iy

1. On an Argand diagram, sketch the following:

a) z + z> 4

b) ℑ ( z )=3
c) 2|z|=z + z +4
2. On the argand diagram, sketch the following. Show both a geometric and algebraic method.

a) |z|=2

b) |z +2−2i|=2
c) 3 ≤∨z−2−2 i∨≤ 4
3. On the argand diagram, sketch the following. Show both a geometric and algebraic method.

a) |z−2 i|=¿ z +1−i∨¿

b) |z−4|=¿ z−2 i∨¿

4. On the argand diagram, sketch the following.

π
a) arg ( z )=
3
 −π π
b) < arg ( z ) ≤
4 3

3π
c) arg ( z−2+2 i )=
4
Arcs

This is technically not in the syllabus because Circle Geometry is not in the Stage 6
Syllabus, it is in the Stage 5 so it may appear…. maybe? We don’t know but I will teach it
just in case. It is quite easy.

On an Argand diagram, sketch the following.

1. arg ( z−2
z +3 )
i
=0

I like to this of this visually. Remember, 0=2 π . Imagine you are standing at the point 2 i
or 3 and you turn around by 2 π radians (in other words, you’ve done a 360). If you start
walking, you are walking in the same direction you started facing. So:

2. arg ( z−2
z +3 )
i
=π
 I like to this of this visually. Remember, 180 °=2 π . Imagine you are standing at the point
2 i or 3 and you turn around by π radians (in other words, you’ve done a 180). If you
start walking, you are walking in the opposite direction you started facing. So:

Some other drawing hints:

Imagine you LITERALLY standing on the second listed point and facing the first point.

1. If θ is positive (the thing it is equal to), you want the arc/circle on the LEFT.
2. If θ is negative (the thing it is equal to), you want the arc/circle on the RIGHT.

π
3. Sketch arg ( z +1 )−arg ( z +4 )=
3

 Note, this is the same as arg ( zz+1+4 )= π3