 Mathematical models of physical systems are key

elements in the design and analysis of control

systems.
 We will consider electrical and mechanical systems
 Obtain the input-output relationship for
components and subsystems of the system in the
form of transfer functions using Laplace
transforms.
 Forming Different graphical representations of the
system model (Block diagram and signal flow).

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 Recognize that differential equations can
describe the dynamic behavior of physical
systems.
 Be able to utilize linearization approximations
through the use of Taylor series expansions.
 Understand the application of Laplace transforms
and their role in obtaining transfer functions.
 Be aware of block diagrams (and signal-flow
graphs) and their role in analyzing control
systems.
 Understand the important role of modeling in
the control system design process

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 Electrical Components

The differential
equations describing
the dynamic
performance of a
physical system
are obtained by
utilizing the physical
laws of the process
like Kirchhoff's laws
(KCL, KVL) and
Newton's second law

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Mechanical Components: Translational motion

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Mechanical Components: Rotational motion

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 Element Type Physical Element Describing Equation

Inductive storage Electrical Inductance v = L di/dt

Translational spring F= kx

Rotational spring T=kθ

Capacitive storage Electrical capacitance i = C dv/dt

Translational mass F = M d 2x/dt 2

Rotational mass T = J dω /dt

Energy dissipators Electrical resistance v = iR

Translational damper F = b dx/dt

Rotational damper T = bω

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Examples

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 The Laplace transform is a mathematical tool for solving
linear time invariant differential equation.
 It allows a time domain differential equation model of a
system to be transformed in to algebraic model
Therefore simplifying the
analysis and design of a control
 Definition system

F ( s)  L{ f (t )}   e  st f (t )dt for f (t ), t  0
0

f (t )  L1{F ( s)}
x(t) can be found by applying the
inverse Laplace transform of X(s)
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 In general, a necessary condition for a linear system can be
determined in terms of an excitation x(t) and a response y(t)
When the system at rest is subjected to an excitation
x1 (t ), it provides a response y1 (t ) and when the
system is subjected to an excitation x 2 (t ) , it provides
a corresponding response y 2 (t ) ;

For a linear system, it is necessary that the excitation

x1 (t )  x2(t ) result in a response y1 (t )  y 2(t )
This is usually called the principle of superposition
 If the system is nonlinear a linear one can be obtained using
Taylor series expansion around a known operating conditions

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Consider a system whose input variable is x(t) and output
variable is y(t) where the relationship between them is
nonlinear given by y=f(x); If the operation conditions
corresponds to ( x, y) , then a linear relationship around this
point can be found using the Taylor series as follows:
y  f ( x)
df 1 d2 f
y  f ( x)  ( x  x)  2
( x  x ) 2
.......
dx 2! dx
df d 2 f
Where the derivatives , 2
,....... are evaluated x  x .
dx dx
Eliminating higher order terms from Taylor series gives: ( y  y )  k ( x  x )
df y  k x
Where, y  f ( x) , k 
dx x  x
Linear relationship
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 F(s)
F(t)

Laplace Transform
Time domain Differential Laplace domain Algebraic
equation equation

Inverse Laplace
Transform

Solution of Differential Solution of Algebraic

Equation Equation

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 
Laplace transform of  1  st  1
the unit step (u(t)=1)
L[u (t )]   1e  st
dt  e | 
0
s 0 s
df (t )
Laplace transform of L[ ]  sF ( s)  f (0)
time Differentiation dt

We can extend the time  df (t ) 2  2

L 2 
 s F ( s )  sf (0)  f ' (0)
differentiation to be:  dt 
 df (t ) 3 
L 3 
 s 3
F ( s )  s 2
f (0)  sf ' (0)  f ' ' (0)
 dt 
general case
 df (t ) n  n 1 n2
L n   s n
F ( s )  s f ( 0)  s f ' (0)
 dt 
 ...  f ( n1) (0)

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 f(t) L(f) f(t) L(f)
s
1 Unit-impulse 1 7 cos t
 (t ) s2   2
2 Unit-step 1 1/s 8 sin t 
s2   2
s
3 Unit-ramp t 1/s2 9 cosh at
s2  a2
4 t2 2!/s3 10 t eat 1
( s  a) 2
5 tn (n is n! 11 eat cos t sa
+ve integer) s n 1 ( s  a) 2   2
6 eat 1 12 eat sin t 
sa ( s  a) 2   2

For most engineering purposes the

inverse Laplace transformation can be
accomplished simply by referring to
Laplace transform tables
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13
The Laplace Transform….cont
d
The Laplace variable s can be considered s
to be the differential operator so that dt

1
And we also have the integral operator   dt
s 0
s-operator is a complex quantity has a real and imaginary parts
s  a  jb
Initial Value Theorem
f (0)  lim sF ( s)  lim f (t )
s  t 0 For function
Final Value Theorem f(t)
f ()  lim sF ( s)  lim f (t )
s 0 t 

The final value theorem is very useful for

analysis and design of control systems,
since it gives the final value of a time
function f(t)
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Examples

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The Transfer Function (T.F) of Linear Systems
The transfer function of a linear system is defined as the
ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to the
Laplace transform of the input variable, with all initial
conditions assumed to be zero.

The transfer function of a system (or element) represents the

relationship describing the dynamics of the system under
consideration output
T .F   G( s)
input

Represents system dynamics in s-domain

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 output
T .F   G ( s) Where p(s) and q(s ) are polynomials
input
p( s) The roots of p(s) are called the zeros of the
 system where the roots of q(s ) are called the
q( s)
poles of the system

q(s ) is also known as the characteristic equation of the systems

The location of the roots of q(s ) in s-plane gives a
character to the system performance

p( s)
G ( s) 
q( s)
( s  z1)( s  z 2)

( s  p1)( s  p 2)( s  p 3)

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Example: TF’s of Operational Amplifier circuits

The operational amplifier (op-amp) belongs to an important class of analog

integrated circuits commonly used as building blocks in the implementation
of control systems and in many other important applications.

• Compensators
• Control laws
• Filters
• Comparator/summing elements

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Examples: TF’s of DC motors
A DC motor is used to move loads and is
called an actuator.

The DC motor converts direct

current (DC) electrical energy into
rotational mechanical energy
DC motors features:
• High output torque
• Speed controllability over a wide range
• Portability
• Adaptability to various types of controllers

DC motors are widely

used in numerous control
applications such as
robotic manipulators, tape
transport mechanisms,
disk drives, and machine
tools

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 Block Diagram (BD) Models
Again:
Control systems consists of elements that are represented
mathematically by a set of simultaneous differential equations
Laplace transformation reduces the problem of differential
equations to the solution of a set of linear algebraic equations.
Since control systems are concerned with the control of specific
variables, the controlled variables must relate to the controlling
variables
This relationship is typically represented by the TF of
the subsystem relating the input and output variables
The importance of the TF is evidenced by the ability
to represent the relationship of system variables by
diagrammatic means called BD
Hence, the control system with all its elements can be
represented by one BD showing all variables relations
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Armature controlled DC motor BD

In order to find the cause-effect relationship of a system

BD, we simplify the BD (reduction) by applying the rules
of BD algebra.

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 Block Diagram (BD) Algebra
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

(1)

(2)

(3)

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(4)

(5)

(6)

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Example
For the following control system, find the input-output relationship
(i.e. TF) relation the output variable Y(s) to the input variable R(s).

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 Signal-Flow (SF) Graph Models
Block diagrams are adequate for the representation of the system
interrelationships. However, for a system with reasonably complex
interrelationships, the block diagram reduction procedure is often
quite difficult to complete.

An alternative method for determining the relationship

between system variables has been developed by Mason
which is called the signal-flow graph method
A signal-flow graph is a diagram consisting of nodes that are
connected by several directed branches and is a graphical
representation of a set of linear relations.
The reduction procedure (used in the BD method) is not
necessary to determine TF (input-output relationship) of a system
represented by SF graph.
We apply Mason`s Gain Formula to find the TF

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General SF Graph

Node: acts like a summing point and also represents a system variable.

Transmittance: real or complex gain between two nodes.

Branch: directed line segment joining two nodes.

Input node (source): only outgoing branches.

Output node (sink): only incoming branches.

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Mixed node: both incoming and outgoing branches

Path: traversal of connected branches in the direction of arrows.

Loop: closed path.

Loop gain: product of branch transmittance at a loop.

Non touching loops: they do not posses any common nodes.

Forward path: path from an input to an output node that does

not cross any node more than once.

Forward path gain: product of transmittances of a

forward path

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SF Graph Algebra

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Examples

(1)

(2) (3)
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 Mason`s Gain Formula
The formula is often used to relate the output variable
Y(s) to the input variable R(s) (i.e. finding the TF) and is
given by
TF 
 K
PK  K
where, 
PK is the gain of path K from input node to output node in the
direction of the arrows and without passing node than once.
 K: Cofactor o the path PK
Δ : determinant of the graph

Δ = 1 – ( sum of all different loop gains ) + ( sum of the gain

products of all combinations of two non touching loops ) –
( sum of the gain products of all combinations of three non
touching loops )

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Example
For the following control system, find the input-output relationship
(i.e. TF) relation the output variable Y(s) to the input variable R(s).

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Example
For the following control system, find the input-output relationship
(i.e. TF) relation the output variable Y(s) to the input variable R(s).

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Example: Armature Controlled DC Motor (page 94)

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Example: Disk Drive Read System (Page 118)

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