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Poul Klausen

Java 1: Basic syntax and

semantics
Software Development
Java 1: Basic syntax and semantics: Software Development

1st edition

© 2017 Poul Klausen & bookboon.com

ISBN 978-87-403-1689-6

Peer review by Ove Thomsen, EA Dania

Contents
Foreword 6
1 Introduction 8
2 Hello World 11

2.1 NetBeans 11

2.2 The source code 15

2.3 Run the program 16

2.4 The NetBeans project 17

2.5 Gedit 19

2.6 Something about comments 21

2.7 Example: Kings 22

Exercise 1 23

Exercise 2 23

3 Commands and console programs 24

3.1 Commands 24

3.2 Example: PrintAddress 27

Problem 1 28

3.3 Console programs 29

Problem 2 32

4 Variables and data types 33

Exercise 3 38

4.1 Operators 38

Exercise 4 44
Exercise 5 45

4.2 Literals 46

4.3 Objects 49

Exercise 6 59

Problem 3 59

4.4 Example: Cubes 63

Exercise 7 65

4.5 Arrays 67

Exercise 8 71

4.6 Example: CupProgram 72

4.7 Multidimensional arrays 76

Exercise 9 78

5 Program control 79

5.1 The if statement 79

Exercise 10 81

Problem 4 82

Problem 5 83
5.2 do and while statements 84

Exercise 11 85

Problem 6 87

5.3 The for statement 88

Exercise 12 92

Exercise 13 92

Problem 7 94

5.4 The switch statement 94

Exercise 14 96

5.5 Return statement 97

5.6 Break and continue 97

Problem 8 101

Problem 9 102

6 ArrayList 104
7 Comparison and sorting 107
8 Files 114

8.1 Text files 114

Excercise 15 118

8.2 Serialization of objects 119

Exercise 16 121

9 Final example 123

9.1 Design 126

9.2 Programming and test 130

Appendix A 131
Foreword
This book is the first in a series of books on software development.
The programming language is Java, and the language and its syntax
and semantics fills obviously much, but the books have also largely
focus on the process and how to develop good and robust
applications. The subject of the current book is an introduction to
the programming language Java with an emphasis on basic language
syntax and semantics, but it is also a book about what programming
in general is and how to practically write and test simple programs.
The book requires no knowledge about programming or the
language Java, and the goal is to show how to get started writing
computer programs. After reading the book and worked through the
book’s exercises and problems, the reader should be able to write
simple console applications in the language Java.

As the title says this series of books deals with software

development, and the goal is to teach the reader how to develop
applications in Java. It can be learned by reading about the subject
and by studying complete sample programs, but most importantly by
yourself to do it and write your own programs from scratch.
Therefore, an important part of the books is exercises and problems,
where the reader has to write programs that correspond to the
substance being treated in the books. All books in the series is built
around the same skeleton and will consist of text and examples and
exercises and problems that are placed in the text where they
naturally belongs. The difference between exercises and problems is
that the exercises largely deals with repetitions of the substance that
is presented in the text, and furthermore it is relatively accurately
described what to do. Problems are in turn more loosely described,
and are typically a little bigger and there is rarely any clear best
solution. These are books to be read from start to finish, but the
many code examples, including exercises and problems plays a
central role, and it is important that the reader predict in detail
studying the code to the many examples and also solves the
exercises and problems or possibly just studying the recommended
solutions.

All books ends with one or two larger sample programs, which focus
primarily is on process and an explanation of how the program is
written. On the other hand appears the code only to a limited extent
– if at all – and the reader should instead study the finished program
code perhaps while testing the program. In addition to show the
development of programs that are larger than the examples, which
otherwise is presented, the aim of the concluding examples also is to
show program examples from varying fields of application.

Most books also ends with an appendix dealing with a subject that
would not be treated in the books. It may be issues on the
installation of software or other topics in computer technology, which
are not about software development, but where it is necessary to
have an introductory knowledge. If the reader already is familiar
with the subject, the current appendix can be skipped.
The programming language is, as mentioned Java, and besides the
books use the following products:

NetBeans as IDE for application development

MySQL to the extent there is a need for a database server (from

the book Java 6 onwards)

GlassFish as a web server and application server (from the book

Java 11 onwards)

It is products that are free of charge and free to install, and there is
even talk about products, where the installation is progressing all by
itself and without major efforts and challenges. In addition, there
are on the web detailed installation instructions for all the three
products. The products are available on Windows and Linux, and it
therefore plays no special role if you use Linux or Windows.

All sample programs are developed and tested on machines running

Linux. In fact, it plays no major role, as both Java and other
products work in exactly the same way whether the platform is one
or the other. Some places will be in the books where you could see
that the platform is Linux, and this applies primarily commands that
concerning the file system. Otherwise it has no meaning to the
reader that the programs are developed on a Linux machine, and
they can immediately also run under Windows unless a program
refers to the file system where it may be necessary to change the
name of a file.
Finally a little about what the books are not. It is not “how to write”
or for that matter reference manuals in Java, but it is as the title
says books on software development. It is my hope that the reader
when reading the books and through the many examples can find
inspiration for how to write good programs, but also can be used as
a source collection with a number of examples of solutions to
concrete everyday programming problems that you regularly face as
a software developer.
1 Introduction
A computer program is a series of commands executed in a certain
order, and together they solve a specific task. A program is written
as a text document that contains all the necessary commands. This
document is called the program code or source code. The individual
commands must be written in a very precise way for the computer
to understand them, and it is here that programming languages
comes into the picture. A programming language lays down precise
rules for how the commands should be entered. There are many
programming languages, and although they are different, each with
their advantages and disadvantages, the similarities outweigh the
differences, and once you have learned a language, it is easy to
learn the next. The following are used throughout the Java
programming language, which is a widely used languages on many
platforms. How the individual commands and orders exactly must be
written is called the language’s syntax. What the individual
commands are doing or performing is called the language’s
semantics.

As mentioned above, a program is written as a text document (in

practice several or many), and it is simply a document of commands.
Commands are also called statements. These commands or
statements being only text, the machine can not immediately
perform the comands, but they must be translated into an internal
format that the computer understands. This process is called
translation or compilation and is performed by a program that can
convert statements written in a particular programming language to
the computer’s internal commands. The program is usually called a
compiler. During the translation the program is checked for errors,
and if there are errors, you get an error message, and the errors
must then be corrected before the program is translated again. Not
all errors are found during translation, but only syntax errors, which
covers the issue where a statement is not written in accordance with
the programming language’s rules. A translated program can easily
contain errors, for example a miscalculation.

To write a program you must of course learn the programming

language that is selected, but also you must learn how the solution
of a task can be formulated by statements in the language. It is the
latter that is the most difficult, and there is rarely a clear solution. A
solution of a problem by means of a program is also called an
algorithm. Programming is largely a matter of writing algorithms,
something that I will return to several times.

When you have to write software, you need a tool that can be used
to enter the program code, and in principle you could use a simple
input program (a text editor) and then the compiler, but in practice
you will always use a specific development tool, as it makes the job
much easier. In the following I will everywhere use NetBeans, a
development tool for a wide variety of tasks, including writing code
in Java. It is an integrated software package, which includes all the
tools necessary for the development of a number of different types
of programs.

Java is an object oriented programming language. The fundamental

architectural element in a program is a class, and from the
programmer’s point of view a Java program consists of a family of
classes that collectively define all the application’s features and
functionality. Writing a program is thus to define – design – and
write the code to the program’s classes. Nothing in Java exists
outside of a class. A program will also always apply other classes
that are not written by the programmer, but classes coming from the
Java API, and thus is available for the programmer as finished
components. One of the program’s classes have a special role as the
program’s “entry point” and the place where the program starts and
this class should be written with a special naming, but it is almost
the only formal requirements for the architecture of a Java program.

Java is technically both a platform and a programming language.

Seen as a programming language, it is a high-level language, which
is characterized by

it is a simple language

it is an object-oriented language

the language is architecture neutral

Java programs are portable

it supports development of multithreaded applications

 it supports the development of distributed applications

it supports the development of programs with strong security

development of effective programs

development of robust programs

development of maintenance-friendly and dynamic programs

All Java code are as mentioned written as plain text files – which
filename must have the extension .java – and then these files are
translates to .class files. The translation is performed by the Java
compiler called javac. Java class files do not contain machine code
for a particular platform, but rather so-called bytecode, which is the
machine code for the Java Virtual Machine, which is a virtual
computer, commonly referred to as VM or JVM. The program
(consisting of a set of class files) can then be carried out by the
virtual machine, which is a program that is running on a particular
machine. Since Java and thus the virtual machine is available for
many different operating systems, the same class files can run on
many machines for example Windows, Solaris, Linux, etc.

With a platform wee understand the hardware and software, where

a program is running, and in relation to an usual PC you can think of
Windows, Linux and Mac machines. Compared to this is a Java
platform a software-only solution that runs on a different hardware
based platform. The Java Platform consists in principle of two parts:

JVM, the Java Virtual Machine

 an API, the Java Application Programming Interface

where the last is a large collection of ready to use software

components that a program can use. They are grouped into libraries
called packages, which consists of classes and interfaces.

The result of the above technology is that Java programs, in

principle, is a bit slower than programs translated into an actual
physical machine. However, since Java was born there has been an
incredible number of improvements and optimizations of both the
compiler and the virtual machine, so the difference in performance is
negligible if at all measurable.
2 Hello World
The subject of this chapter is to show how to write and run a Java
program using NetBeans and the aim is solely to get started. There are
several kinds of programs, or you can say that the programs can be
categorized in several ways, but in the first books I will look at three
types of programs:

commands, which is a program that is typically performed from a

command window (a Terminal ) where you enters the program’s
name that may be followed by one or more arguments

consol applications, which also is performed at a command prompt,

but here the program runs in a dialogue with the user, where the
user must enter values when the program is executed

GUI-programs, where the program opens one or more windows with

components as buttons and input fields used by the user to interact
with the program

This division is only for practical reasons, as I will sometimes

characterize the program examples in relation to this, but common to the
three types of programs is that they are standalone applications that run
on a single machine and without using resources on other machines.

I’ll start with the classic Hello World program, a program that prints a
text on the screen. It is an example of a command, but it is also an
example of a program that has absolutely no practical interest. Although
it is a simple program, it will nevertheless treat a number of basic
principles that apply to all Java programs.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
“Article 117. The secrecy of letters and all postal,
telegraphic, and telephone communications is inviolable.
Exceptions are inadmissible except by Reich law.
“Article 118. Every German has the right, within the limits
of the general laws, to express his opinions freely in
speech, in writing, in print, in picture form, or in any other
way. No conditions of work or employment may detract
from this right and no disadvantage may accrue to him
from any person for making use of this right. . . .
“Article 123. All Germans have the right to assemble
peacefully and unarmed without giving notice and without
special permission.
“A Reich law may make previous notification obligatory for
assemblies in the open air, and may prohibit them in case
of immediate danger to the public safety.
“Article 124. All the Germans have the right to form
associations or societies for purposes not contrary to
criminal law. This right may not be curtailed by preventive
measures. The same provisions apply to religious
associations and societies.
“Every association may become incorporated (Erwerb der
Rechtsfähigkeit) according to the provisions of the civil law.
The right may not be refused to any association on the
grounds that its aims are political, social-political, or
religious.
“Article 153. Property is guaranteed by the Constitution. Its
content and limits are defined by the laws.
“Expropriation can only take place for the public benefit and
on a legal basis. Adequate compensation shall be granted,
unless a Reich law orders otherwise. In the case of dispute
concerning the amount of compensation, it shall be possible
to submit the matter to the ordinary civil courts, unless
Reich laws determine otherwise. Compensation must be
paid if the Reich expropriates property belonging to the
Lands, Communes, or public utility associations.
 “Property carries obligations. Its use shall also serve the
common good.” (2050-PS)
It must be said in fairness to Von Hindenburg that the
constitution itself authorized him temporarily to suspend these
fundamental rights “if the public safety and order in the German
Reich are considerably disturbed or endangered.” It must also be
acknowledged that President Ebert previously had invoked this
power.
But the National Socialist coup was made possible because the
terms of the Hitler-Hindenburg decree departed from all previous
ones in which the power of suspension had been invoked. Whenever
Ebert had suspended constitutional guarantees of individual rights,
his decree had expressly revived the Protective Custody Act adopted
by the Reichstag in 1916 during the previous war. This act
guaranteed a judicial hearing within 24 hours of arrest, gave a right
to have counsel and to inspect all relevant records, provided for
appeal, and authorized compensation from Treasury funds for
erroneous arrests.
The Hitler-Hindenburg decree of February 28, 1933 contained no
such safeguards. The omission may not have been noted by Von
Hindenburg. Certainly he did not appreciate its effect. It left the Nazi
police and party formations, already existing and functioning under
Hitler, completely unrestrained and irresponsible. Secret arrest and
indefinite detention, without charges, without evidence, without
hearing, without counsel, became the method of inflicting inhuman
punishment on any whom the Nazi police suspected or disliked. No
court could issue an injunction, or writ of habeas corpus, or
certiorari. The German people were in the hands of the police, the
police were in the hands of the Nazi Party, and the Party was in the
hands of a ring of evil men, of whom the defendants here before
you are surviving and representative leaders.
The Nazi conspiracy, as we shall show, always contemplated not
merely overcoming current opposition but exterminating elements
which could not be reconciled with its philosophy of the state. It not
only sought to establish the Nazi “new order” but to secure its sway,
as Hitler predicted, “for a thousand years.” Nazis were never in
doubt or disagreement as to what these dissident elements were.
They were concisely described by one of them, Colonel General Von
Fritsch, on December 11, 1938 in these words:
“Shortly after the first war I came to the conclusion that we
should have to be victorious in three battles if Germany
were to become powerful again: 1. The battle against the
working class—Hitler has won this. 2. Against the Catholic
Church, perhaps better expressed against Ultramontanism.
3. Against the Jews.” (1947-PS)
The warfare against these elements was continuous. The battle
in Germany was but a practice skirmish for the worldwide drive
against them. We have in point of geography and of time two groups
of Crimes against Humanity—one within Germany before and during
the war, the other in occupied territory during the war. But the two
are not separated in Nazi planning. They are a continuous unfolding
of the Nazi plan to exterminate peoples and institutions which might
serve as a focus or instrument for overturning their “new world
order” at any time. We consider these crimes against humanity in
this address as manifestations of the one Nazi plan and discuss them
according to General Von Fritsch’s classification.

1. The Battle against the Working Class:

When Hitler came to power, there were in Germany three groups
of trade unions. The General German Trade Union Confederation
(ADGB) with 28 affiliated unions, and the General Independent
Employees Confederation (AFA) with 13 federated unions together
numbered more than 4,500,000 members. The Christian Trade Union
had over 1,250,000 members.
The working people of Germany, like the working people of other
nations, had little to gain personally by war. While labor is usually
brought around to the support of the nation at war, labor by and
large is a pacific, though by no means a pacifist force in the world.
The working people of Germany had not forgotten in 1933 how
heavy the yoke of the war lord can be. It was the workingmen who
had joined the sailors and soldiers in the revolt of 1918 to end the
first World War. The Nazis had neither forgiven nor forgotten. The
Nazi program required that this part of the German population not
only be stripped of power to resist diversion of its scanty comforts to
armament, but also be wheedled or whipped into new and unheard
of sacrifices as a part of the Nazi war preparation. Labor must be
cowed, and that meant its organizations and means of cohesion and
defense must be destroyed.
The purpose to regiment labor for the Nazi Party was avowed by
Ley in a speech to workers on May 2, 1933 as follows:
 “You may say what else do you want, you have the
absolute power. True we have the power, but we do not
have the whole people, we do not have you workers 100
per cent, and it is you whom we want; we will not let you
be until you stand with us in complete, genuine
acknowledgment.” (614-PS)
The first Nazi attack was upon the two larger unions. On April 21,
1933 an order not even in the name of the Government, but of the
Nazi Party was issued by the conspirator Robert Ley as “Chief of
Staff of the political organization of the NSDAP,” applicable to the
Trade Union Confederation and the Independent Employees
Confederation. It directed seizure of their properties and arrest of
their principal leaders. The Party order directed Party organs which
we here denounce as criminal associations, the SA and SS “to be
employed for the occupation of the trade union properties, and for
the taking into custody of personalities who come into question.”
And it directed the taking into “protective custody” of all chairmen
and district secretaries of such unions and branch directors of the
labor bank. (392-PS)
These orders were carried out on May 2, 1933. All funds of the
labor unions, including pension and benefit funds, were seized.
Union leaders were sent to concentration camps. A few days later,
on May 10, 1933, Hitler appointed Ley leader of the German Labor
Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront) which succeeded to the confiscated
union funds. The German Labor Front, a Nazi controlled labor
bureau, was set up under Ley to teach the Nazi philosophy to
German workers and to weed out from industrial employment all
who were backward in their lessons. (1940-PS) “Factory troops”
were organized as an “ideological shock squad within the factory”
(1817-PS). The Party order provided that “outside of the German
Labor Front, no other organization (whether of workers or of
employees) is to exist.” On June 24, 1933 the remaining Christian
Trade Unions were seized, pursuant to an order of the Nazi Party
signed by Ley.
 On May 19, 1933, this time by a government decree, it was
provided that “trustees” of labor appointed by Hitler, should regulate
the conditions of all labor contracts, replacing the former process of
collective bargaining (405-PS). On November 30, 1934 a decree
“regulating national labor” introduced the Führer Principle into
industrial relations. It provided that the owners of enterprises should
be the “Führer” and the workers should be the followers. The
“enterprise-Führer” should “make decisions for employees and
laborers in all matters concerning the enterprise” (1861-PS). It was
by such bait that the great German industrialists were induced to
support the Nazi cause, to their own ultimate ruin.
Not only did the Nazis dominate and regiment German labor, but
they forced the youth into the ranks of the laboring people they had
thus led into chains. Under a compulsory labor service decree on 26
June 1935 young men and women between the ages of 18 and 25
were conscripted for labor (1654-PS). Thus was the purpose to
subjugate German labor accomplished. In the words of Ley, this
accomplishment consisted “in eliminating the association character
of the trade union and employees’ associations, and in its place we
have substituted the conception ‘soldiers of work’.” The productive
manpower of the German nation was in Nazi control. By these steps
the defendants won the battle to liquidate labor unions as potential
opposition and were enabled to impose upon the working class the
burdens of preparing for aggressive warfare.
Robert Ley, the field marshal of the battle against labor,
answered our Indictment with suicide. Apparently he knew no better
answer.

2. The Battle against the Churches:

The Nazi Party always was predominantly anti-Christian in its
ideology. But we who believe in freedom of conscience and of
religion base no charge of criminality on anybody’s ideology. It is not
because the Nazi themselves were irreligious or pagan, but because
they persecuted others of the Christian faith that they become guilty
of crime, and it is because the persecution was a step in the
preparation for aggressive warfare that the offense becomes one of
international consequence. To remove every moderating influence
among the German people and to put its population on a total war
footing, the conspirators devised and carried out a systematic and
relentless repression of all Christian sects and churches.
We will ask you to convict the Nazis on their own evidence.
Martin Bormann, in June 1941, issued a secret decree on the relation
of Christianity and National Socialism. The decree provided:
“For the first time in German history the Führer consciously
and completely has the leadership of the people in his own
hand. With the Party, its components, and attached units
the Führer has created for himself and thereby the German
Reich leadership an instrument which makes him
independent of the church. All influences which might
impair or damage the leadership of the people exercised by
the Führer with help of the NSDAP, must be eliminated.
More and more the people must be separated from the
churches and their organs, the pastors. Of course, the
churches must and will, seen from their viewpoint, defend
themselves against this loss of power. But never again must
an influence on leadership of the people be yielded to the
churches. This (influence) must be broken completely and
finally.
“Only the Reich Government and by its direction the Party,
its components, and attached units have a right to
leadership of the people. Just as the deleterious influences
of astrologers, seers, and other fakers are eliminated and
suppressed by the State, so must the possibility of church
influence also be totally removed. Not until this has
happened, does the State leadership have influence on the
individual citizens. Not until then are people and Reich
secure in their existence for all the future.” (D-75)
And how the Party had been securing the Reich from Christian
influence, will be proved by such items as this teletype from the
Gestapo, Berlin, to the Gestapo, Nuremberg, on July 24, 1938. Let
us hear their own account of events in Rottenburg.
 “The Party on 23 July 1939 from 2100 on carried out the
third demonstration against Bishop Sproll. Participants
about 2500-3000 were brought in from outside by bus, etc.
The Rottenburg populace again did not participate in the
demonstration. This town took rather a hostile attitude to
the demonstrations. The action got completely out of hand
of the Party member responsible for it. The demonstrators
stormed the palace, beat in the gates and doors. About 150
to 200 people forced their way into the palace, searched
the rooms, threw files out of the windows and rummaged
through the beds in the rooms of the palace. One bed was
ignited. Before the fire got to the other objects of
equipment in the rooms and the palace, the flaming bed
could be thrown from the window and the fire extinguished.
The Bishop was with Archbishop Groeber of Freiburg and
the ladies and gentlemen of his menage in the chapel at
prayer. About 25 to 30 people pressed into this chapel and
molested those present. Bishop Groeber was taken for
Bishop Sproll. He was grabbed by the robe and dragged
back and forth. Finally the intruders realized that Bishop
Groeber is not the one they are seeking. They could then
be persuaded to leave the building. After the evacuation of
the palace by the demonstrators I had an interview with
Archbishop Groeber who left Rottenburg in the night.
Groeber wants to turn to the Führer and Reich Minister of
the Interior, Dr. Frick, anew. On the course of the action,
the damage done as well as the homage of the Rottenburg
populace beginning today for the Bishop I shall immediately
hand in a full report, after I am in the act of suppressing
counter mass meetings. . . .
“In case the Führer has instructions to give in this matter, I
request that these be transmitted most quickly. . . .” (848-
PS)
Later, Defendant Rosenberg wrote to Bormann reviewing the
proposal of Kerrl as Church Minister to place the Protestant Church
under State tutelage and proclaim Hitler its supreme head.
Rosenberg was opposed, hinting that nazism was to suppress the
Christian Church completely after the war (See also 098-PS).
The persecution of all pacifist and dissenting sects, such as
Jehovah’s Witnesses and the Pentecostal Association, was peculiarly
relentless and cruel. The policy toward the Evangelical Churches,
however, was to use their influence for the Nazis’ own purposes. In
September 1933 Mueller was appointed the Führer’s representative
with power to deal with the “affairs of the Evangelical Church” in its
relations to the State. Eventually, steps were taken to create a Reich
Bishop vested with power to control this Church. A long conflict
followed, Pastor Niemöller was sent to concentration camp, and
extended interference with the internal discipline and administration
of the churches occurred.
A most intense drive was directed against the Roman Catholic
Church. After a strategic concordat with the Holy See, signed in July
1933 in Rome, which never was observed by the Nazi Party, a long
and persistent persecution of the Catholic Church, its priesthood,
and its members, was carried out. Church schools and educational
institutions were suppressed or subjected to requirements of Nazi
teaching inconsistent with the Christian faith. The property of the
Church was confiscated and inspired vandalism directed against
Church property was left unpunished. Religious instruction was
impeded and the exercise of religion made difficult. Priests and
bishops were laid upon, riots were stimulated to harass them, and
many were sent to concentration camps.
After occupation of foreign soil, these persecutions went on with
greater vigor than ever. We will present to you from the files of the
Vatican the earnest protests made by the Vatican to Ribbentrop
summarizing the persecutions to which the priesthood and the
Church had been subjected in this twentieth century under the Nazi
regime. Ribbentrop never answered them. He could not deny. He
dared not justify.
I now come to “Crimes against the Jews.”
THE PRESIDENT: We shall now take our noon recess.
[A recess was taken until 1400 hours.]
 Afternoon Session
THE PRESIDENT: The Tribunal will adjourn for 15 minutes at half
past 3 and will then continue until half past 4.
MR. JUSTICE JACKSON: I was about to take up the “Crimes
Committed against the Jews.”

3. Crimes against the Jews:

The most savage and numerous crimes planned and committed
by the Nazis were those against the Jews. Those in Germany in 1933
numbered about 500,000. In the aggregate, they had made for
themselves positions which excited envy, and had accumulated
properties which excited the avarice of the Nazis. They were few
enough to be helpless and numerous enough to be held up as a
menace.
Let there be no misunderstanding about the charge of
persecuting Jews. What we charge against these defendants is not
those arrogances and pretensions which frequently accompany the
intermingling of different peoples and which are likely, despite the
honest efforts of government, to produce regrettable crimes and
convulsions. It is my purpose to show a plan and design, to which all
Nazis were fanatically committed, to annihilate all Jewish people.
These crimes were organized and promoted by the Party leadership,
executed and protected by the Nazi officials, as we shall convince
you by written orders of the Secret State Police itself.
The persecution of the Jews was a continuous and deliberate
policy. It was a policy directed against other nations as well as
against the Jews themselves. Anti-Semitism was promoted to divide
and embitter the democratic peoples and to soften their resistance
to the Nazi aggression. As Robert Ley declared in Der Angriff on 14
May 1944: “The second German secret weapon is Anti-Semitism
because if it is constantly pursued by Germany, it will become a
universal problem which all nations will be forced to consider.”
 Anti-Semitism also has been aptly credited with being a
“spearhead of terror.” The ghetto was the laboratory for testing
repressive measures. Jewish property was the first to be
expropriated, but the custom grew and included similar measures
against anti-Nazi Germans, Poles, Czechs, Frenchmen, and Belgians.
Extermination of the Jews enabled the Nazis to bring a practiced
hand to similar measures against Poles, Serbs, and Greeks. The
plight of the Jew was a constant threat to opposition or discontent
among other elements of Europe’s population—pacifists,
conservatives, Communists, Catholics, Protestants, Socialists. It was
in fact, a threat to every dissenting opinion and to every non-Nazi’s
life.
The persecution policy against the Jews commenced with non-
violent measures, such as disfranchisement and discriminations
against their religion, and the placing of impediments in the way of
success in economic life. It moved rapidly to organized mass
violence against them, physical isolation in ghettos, deportation,
forced labor, mass starvation, and extermination. The Government,
the Party formations indicted before you as criminal organizations,
the Secret State Police, the Army, private and semi-public
associations, and “spontaneous” mobs that were carefully inspired
from official sources, were all agencies that were concerned in this
persecution. Nor was it directed against individual Jews for personal
bad citizenship or unpopularity. The avowed purpose was the
destruction of the Jewish people as a whole, as an end in itself, as a
measure of preparation for war, and as a discipline of conquered
peoples.
The conspiracy or common plan to exterminate the Jew was so
methodically and thoroughly pursued, that despite the German
defeat and Nazi prostration this Nazi aim largely has succeeded. Only
remnants of the European Jewish population remain in Germany, in
the countries which Germany occupied, and in those which were her
satellites or collaborators. Of the 9,600,000 Jews who lived in Nazi-
dominated Europe, 60 percent are authoritatively estimated to have
perished. Five million seven hundred thousand Jews are missing
from the countries in which they formerly lived, and over 4,500,000
cannot be accounted for by the normal death rate nor by
immigration; nor are they included among displaced persons. History
does not record a crime ever perpetrated against so many victims or
one ever carried out with such calculated cruelty.
You will have difficulty, as I have, to look into the faces of these
defendants and believe that in this twentieth century human beings
could inflict such sufferings as will be proved here on their own
countrymen as well as upon their so-called “inferior” enemies.
Particular crimes, and the responsibility of defendants for them, are
to be dealt with by the Soviet Government’s counsel, when
committed in the East, and by counsel for the Republic of France
when committed in the West. I advert to them only to show their
magnitude as evidence of a purpose and a knowledge common to all
defendants, of an official plan rather than of a capricious policy of
some individual commander, and to show such a continuity of Jewish
persecution from the rise of the Nazi conspiracy to its collapse as
forbids us to believe that any person could be identified with any
part of Nazi action without approving this most conspicuous item in
their program.
The Indictment itself recites many evidences of the anti-Semitic
persecutions. The Defendant Streicher led the Nazis in anti-Semitic
bitterness and extremism. In an article appearing in Der Stürmer on
19 March 1942 he complained that Christian teachings have stood in
the way of “racial solution of the Jewish question in Europe”, and
quoted enthusiastically as the twentieth century solution the Führer’s
proclamation of February 24, 1942 that “the Jew will be
exterminated.” And on November 4, 1943 Streicher declared in Der
Stürmer that the Jews “have disappeared from Europe and that the
Jewish ‘Reservoir of the East’ from which the Jewish plague has for
centuries beset the people of Europe, has ceased to exist.” Streicher
now has the effrontery to tell us he is “only a Zionist”—he says he
wants only to return the Jews to Palestine. But on May 7, 1942 his
newspaper, Der Stürmer, had this to say:
“It is also not only a European problem! The Jewish
question is a world question! Not only is Germany not safe
 in the face of the Jews as long as one Jew lives in Europe,
but also the Jewish question is hardly solved in Europe so
long as Jews live in the rest of the world.”
And the Defendant Hans Frank, a lawyer by profession, I say
with shame, summarized in his diary in 1944 the Nazi policy thus:
“The Jews are a race which has to be eliminated; whenever we
catch one, it is his end” (2233-PS, 4 March 1944, P. 26). And earlier,
speaking of his function as Governor General of Poland, he confided
to his diary this sentiment: “Of course I cannot eliminate all lice and
Jews in only a year’s time” (2233-PS, Vol. IV, 1940, P. 1158). I could
multiply endlessly this kind of Nazi ranting but I will leave it to the
evidence and turn to the fruit of this perverted thinking.
The most serious of the actions against Jews were outside of any
law, but the law itself was employed to some extent. There were the
infamous Nuremberg decrees of September 15, 1935
(Reichsgesetzblatt 1935, Part. I, P. 1146). The Jews were segregated
into ghettos and put into forced labor; they were expelled from their
professions; their property was expropriated; all cultural life, the
press, the theater, and schools were prohibited them; and the SD
was made responsible for them (212-PS, 069-PS). This was an
ominous, guardianship, as the following order for “The Handling of
the Jewish Question” shows:
“The competency of the Chief of the Security Police and
Security Service, who is charged with the mission of solving
the European Jewish question, extends even to the
Occupied Eastern Provinces. . . .
“An eventual act by the civilian population against the Jews
is not to be prevented as long as this is compatible with the
maintenance of order and security in the rear of the
fighting troops. . . .
“The first main goal of the German measures must be strict
segregation of Jewry from the rest of the population. In the
execution of this, first of all is the seizing of the Jewish
populace by the introduction of a registration order and
similar appropriate measures. . . .
 “Then immediately, the wearing of the recognition sign
consisting of a yellow Jewish star is to be brought about
and all rights of freedom for Jews are to be withdrawn.
They are to be placed in ghettos and at the same time are
to be separated according to sexes. The presence of many
more or less closed Jewish settlements in White Ruthenia
and in the Ukraine makes this mission easier. Moreover,
places are to be chosen which make possible the full use of
the Jewish manpower in case labor needs are present. . . .
“The entire Jewish property is to be seized and confiscated
with exception of that which is necessary for a bare
existence. As far as the economical situation permits, the
power of disposal of their property is to be taken from the
Jews as soon as possible through orders and other
measures given by the commissariat, so that the moving of
property will quickly cease.
“Any cultural activity will be completely forbidden, to the
Jew. This includes the outlawing of the Jewish press, the
Jewish theaters, and schools.
“The slaughtering of animals according to Jewish rites is
also to be prohibited. . . .” (212-PS)
The anti-Jewish campaign became furious in Germany following
the assassination in Paris of the German Legation Councillor Von
Rath. Heydrich, Gestapo head, sent a teletype to all Gestapo and SD
offices with directions for handling “spontaneous” uprising
anticipated for the nights of November 9 and 10, 1938 so as to aid
in destruction of Jewish-owned property and protect only that of
Germans. No more cynical document ever came into evidence. Then
there is a report by an SS brigade leader, Dr. Stahlecker, to Himmler,
which recites that:
“. . . Similarly, native anti-Semitic forces were induced to
start pogroms against Jews during the first hours after
capture, though this inducement proved to be very difficult.
Following out orders, the Security Police was determined to
solve the Jewish question with all possible means and most
decisively. But it was desirable that the Security Police
should not put in an immediate appearance, at least in the
beginning, since the extraordinarily harsh measures were
apt to stir even German circles. It had to be shown to the
world that the native population itself took the first action
by way of natural reaction against the suppression by Jews
during several decades and against the terror exercised by
the Communists during the preceding period. . . .”
“. . . In view of the extension of the area of operations and
the great number of duties which had to be performed by
the Security Police, it was intended from the very beginning
to obtain the co-operation of the reliable population for the
fight against vermin—that is mainly the Jews and
Communists. Beyond our directing of the first spontaneous
actions of self-cleansing, which will be reported elsewhere,
care had to be taken that reliable people should be put to
the cleansing job and that they were appointed auxiliary
members of the Security Police. . . .”
“. . . Kovno. To our surprise it was not easy at first to set in
motion an extensive pogrom against Jews. Klimatis, the
leader of the partisan unit, mentioned above, who was
used for this purpose primarily, succeeded in starting a
pogrom on the basis of advice given to him by a small
advanced detachment acting in Kovno, and in such a way
that no German order or German instigation was noticed
from the outside. During the first pogrom in the night from
25 to 26 June the Lithuanian partisans did away with more
than 1,500 Jews, set fire to several synagogues or
destroyed them by other means and burned down a Jewish
dwelling district consisting of about 60 houses. During the
following nights about 2,300 Jews were made harmless in a
similar way. In other parts of Lithuania similar actions
followed the example of Kovno, though smaller and
extending to the Communists who had been left behind.
“These self-cleansing actions went smoothly because the
Army authorities who had been informed showed
 understanding for this procedure. From the beginning it
was obvious that only the first days after the occupation
would offer the opportunity for carrying out pogroms. After
the disarmament of the partisans the self-cleansing actions
ceased necessarily.
“It proved much more difficult to set in motion similar
cleansing actions in Latvia. . . .” (L-180)
Of course, it is self-evident that these “uprisings” were managed
by the Government and the Nazi Party. If we were in doubt, we
could resort to Streicher’s memorandum of April 14, 1939 which
says:
“The anti-Jewish action of November 1938 did not arise
spontaneously from the people. . . . Part of the Party
formation have been charged with the execution of the
anti-Jewish action.” (406-PS)
Jews as a whole were fined a billion Reichsmarks. They were
excluded from all businesses, and claims against insurance
companies for their burned properties were confiscated, all by
decree of the Defendant Göring. (Reichsgesetzblatt, 1938, Part I, Pp.
1579-82)
Synagogues were the objects of a special vengeance. On
November 10, 1938 the following order was given:
“By order of the Group Commander:
All Jewish synagogues in the area of Brigade 50 have to be
blown up or set afire. . . . The operation will be carried out
in civilian clothing. . . . Execution of the order will be
reported. . . .” (1721-PS)
Some 40 teletype messages from various police headquarters will
tell the fury with which all Jews were pursued in Germany on those
awful November nights. The SS troops were turned loose and the
Gestapo supervised. Jewish-owned property was authorized to be
destroyed. The Gestapo ordered twenty to thirty thousand “well-to-
do-Jews” to be arrested. Concentration camps were to receive them.
Healthy Jews, fit for labor, were to be taken. (3051-PS)
As the German frontiers were expanded by war, so the campaign
against the Jews expanded. The Nazi plan never was limited to
extermination in Germany; always it contemplated extinguishing the
Jew in Europe and often in the world. In the West, the Jews were
killed and their property taken over. But the campaign achieved its
zenith of savagery in the East. The eastern Jew has suffered as no
people ever suffered. Their sufferings were carefully reported to the
Nazi authorities to show faithful adherence to the Nazi design. I shall
refer only to enough of the evidence of these to show the extent of
the Nazi design for killing Jews.
If I should recite these horrors in words of my own, you would
think me intemperate and unreliable. Fortunately, we need not take
the word of any witness but the Germans themselves. I invite you
now to look at a few of the vast number of captured German orders
and reports that will be offered in evidence, to see what a Nazi
invasion meant. We will present such evidence as the report of
“Einsatzgruppe (Action Group) A” of October 15, 1941 which boasts
that in overrunning the Baltic States, “Native anti-Semitic forces
were induced to start pogroms against the Jews during the first
hours after occupation. . . .” The report continues:
“From the beginning it was to be expected that the Jewish
problem in the East could not be solved by pogroms alone.
In accordance with the basic orders received, however, the
cleansing activities of the Security Police had to aim at a
complete annihilation of the Jews. Special detachments
reinforced by selected units—in Lithuania partisan
detachments, in Latvia units of the Latvian auxiliary police—
therefore performed extensive executions both in the towns
and in rural areas. The actions of the execution
detachments were performed smoothly.”
“The sum total of the Jews liquidated in Lithuania amounts
to 71,105. During the pogroms in Kovno 3,800 Jews were
eliminated, in the smaller towns about 1,200 Jews.”
 “In Latvia, up to now a total of 30,000 Jews were executed.
Five hundred were eliminated by pogroms in Riga.” (L-180)
This is a captured report from the Commissioner of Sluzk on
October 30, 1941 which describes the scene in more detail. It says:
“. . . The first lieutenant explained that the police battalion
had received the assignment to effect the liquidation of all
Jews here in the town of Sluzk, within two days. . . . Then I
requested him to postpone the action one day. However, he
rejected this with the remark that he had to carry out this
action everywhere and in all towns and that only two days
were allotted for Sluzk. Within these two days, the town of
Sluzk had to be cleared of Jews by all means. . . . All Jews
without exception were taken out of the factories and
shops and deported in spite of our agreement. It is true
that part of the Jews was moved by way of the ghetto
where many of them were processed and still segregated
by me, but a large part was loaded directly on trucks and
liquidated without further delay outside of the town. . . .
For the rest, as regards the execution of the action, I must
point out to my deepest regret that the latter bordered
already on sadism. The town itself offered a picture of
horror during the action. With indescribable brutality on the
part of both the German police officers and particularly the
Lithuanian partisans, the Jewish people, but also among
them White Ruthenians, were taken out of their dwellings
and herded together. Everywhere in the town shots were to
be heard and in different streets the corpses of shot Jews
accumulated. The White Ruthenians were in greatest
distress to free themselves from the encirclement.
Regardless of the fact that the Jewish people, among whom
were also tradesmen, were mistreated in a terribly
barbarous way in the face of the White Ruthenian people,
the White Ruthenians themselves were also worked over
with rubber clubs and rifle butts. There was no question of
 an action against the Jews any more. It rather looked like a
revolution. . . .”
There are reports which merely tabulate the numbers
slaughtered. An example is an account of the work of
Einsatzgruppen of SIPO and SD in the East, which relates that:
In Estonia, all Jews were arrested immediately upon the arrival of
the Wehrmacht. Jewish men and women above the age of 16 and
capable of work were drafted for forced labor. Jews were subjected
to all sorts of restrictions and all Jewish property was confiscated. All
Jewish males above the age of 16 were executed, with the exception
of doctors and elders. Only 500 of an original 4,500 Jews remained.
Thirty-seven thousand, one hundred eighty persons have been
liquidated by the SIPO and SD in White Ruthenia during October. In
one town, 337 Jewish women were executed for demonstrating a
‘provocative attitude.’ In another, 380 Jews were shot for spreading
vicious propaganda.
And so the report continues, listing town after town, where
hundreds of Jews were murdered:
In Vitebsk 3,000 Jews were liquidated because of the danger of
epidemics. In Kiev 33,771 Jews were executed on September 29 and
30 in retaliation for some fires which were set off there. In Shitomir
3,145 Jews ‘had to be shot’ because, judging from experience they
had to be considered as the carriers of Bolshevik propaganda. In
Cherson 410 Jews were executed in reprisal against acts of
sabotage. In the territory east of the Dnieper, the Jewish problem
was ’solved’ by the liquidation of 4,891 Jews and by putting the
remainder into labor battalions of up to 1,000 persons. (R-102)
Other accounts tell not of the slaughter so much as of the depths
of degradation to which the tormentors stooped. For example, we
will show the report made to Defendant Rosenberg about the army
and the SS in the area under Rosenberg’s jurisdiction, which recited
the following:
“Details: In presence of SS man, a Jewish dentist has to break all
gold teeth and fillings out of mouth of German and Russian Jews
before they are executed.”
 Men, women and children are locked into barns and burned alive.
Peasants, women and children are shot on the pretext that they
are suspected of belonging to bands. (R-135)
We of the Western World heard of gas wagons in which Jews and
political opponents were asphyxiated. We could not believe it. But
here we have the report of May 16, 1942 from the German SS
Officer Becker to his supervisor in Berlin which tells this story:
Gas vans in C group can be driven to execution spot, which is
generally stationed 10 to 15 kms. from main road, only in dry
weather. Since those to be executed become frantic if conducted to
this place, such vans become immobilized in wet weather.
Gas vans in D group were camouflaged as cabin trailers, but
vehicles well known to authorities and civilian population which calls
them ‘death vans’.
Writer of letter (Becker) ordered all men to keep as far away as
possible during gassing. Unloading van has ‘atrocious spiritual and
physical effect’ on men and they should be ordered not to participate
in such work. (501-PS)
I shall not dwell on this subject longer than to quote one more
sickening document which evidences the planned and systematic
character of the Jewish persecutions. I hold a report written with
Teutonic devotion to detail, illustrated with photographs to
authenticate its almost incredible text, and beautifully bound in
leather with the loving care bestowed on a proud work. It is the
original report of the SS Brigadier General Stroop in charge of the
destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto, and its title page carries the
inscription, “The Jewish ghetto in Warsaw no longer exists.” It is
characteristic that one of the captions explains that the photograph
concerned shows the driving out of Jewish “bandits”; those whom
the photograph shows being driven out are almost entirely women
and little children. It contains a day-by-day account of the killings
mainly carried out by the SS organization, too long to relate, but let
me quote General Stroop’s summary:
“The resistance put up by the Jews and bandits could only
be suppressed by energetic actions of our troops day and
 night. The Reichsführer SS ordered, therefore, on 23 April
1943, the cleaning out of the ghetto with utter ruthlessness
and merciless tenacity. I, therefore, decided to destroy and
burn down the entire ghetto without regard to the
armament factories. These factories were systematically
dismantled and then burned. Jews usually left their
hideouts, but frequently remained in the burning buildings
and jumped out of the windows only when the heat
became unbearable. They then tried to crawl with broken
bones across the street into buildings which were not afire.
Sometimes they changed their hideouts during the night
into the ruins of burned buildings. Life in the sewers was
not pleasant after the first week. Many times we could hear
loud voices in the sewers. SS men or policemen climbed
bravely through the manholes to capture these Jews.
Sometimes they stumbled over Jewish corpses; sometimes
they were shot at. Tear gas bombs were thrown into the
manholes and the Jews driven out of the sewers and
captured. Countless numbers of Jews were liquidated in
sewers and bunkers through blasting. The longer the
resistance continued the tougher became the members of
the Waffen SS, Police and Wehrmacht who always
discharged their duties in an exemplary manner. Frequently
Jews who tried to replenish their food supplies during the
night or to communicate with neighboring groups were
exterminated.
“This action eliminated,” says the SS commander, “a proved
total of 56,065. To that, we have to add the number killed
through blasting, fire, etc., which cannot be counted.”
(1061-PS)
We charge that all atrocities against Jews were the manifestation
and culmination of the Nazi plan to which every defendant here was
a party. I know very well that some of these men did take steps to
spare some particular Jew for some personal reason from the
horrors that awaited the unrescued Jew. Some protested that
particular atrocities were excessive, and discredited the general
policy. While a few defendants may show efforts to make specific
exceptions to the policy of Jewish extermination, I have found no
instance in which any defendant opposed the policy itself or sought
to revoke or even modify it.
Determination to destroy the Jews was a binding force which at
all times cemented the elements of this conspiracy. On many internal
policies there were differences among the defendants. But there is
not one of them who has not echoed the rallying cry of nazism:
“Deutschland erwache, Juda verrecke!” (Germany awake, Jewry
perish!).

Terrorism and Preparation for War:

How a government treats its own inhabitants generally is thought
to be no concern of other governments or of international society.
Certainly few oppressions or cruelties would warrant the intervention
of foreign powers. But the German mistreatment of Germans is now
known to pass in magnitude and savagery any limits of what is
tolerable by modern civilization. Other nations, by silence, would
take a consenting part in such crimes. These Nazi persecutions,
moreover, take character as international crimes because of the
purpose for which they were undertaken.
The purpose, as we have seen, of getting rid of the influence of
free labor, the churches, and the Jews was to clear their obstruction
to the precipitation of aggressive war. If aggressive warfare in
violation of treaty obligation is a matter of international cognizance
the preparations for it must also be of concern to the international
community. Terrorism was the chief instrument for securing the
cohesion of the German people in war purposes. Moreover, these
cruelties in Germany served as atrocity practice to discipline the
membership of the criminal organization to follow the pattern later in
occupied countries.
Through the police formations that are before you accused as
criminal organizations, the Nazi Party leaders, aided at some point in
their basic and notorious purpose by each of the individual
defendants, instituted a reign of terror. These espionage and police
organizations were utilized to hunt down every form of opposition
and to penalize every nonconformity. These organizations early
founded and administered concentration camps—Buchenwald in
1933, Dachau in 1934. But these notorious names were not alone.
Concentration camps came to dot the German map and to number
scores. At first they met with resistance from some Germans. We
have a captured letter from Minister of Justice Gürtner to Hitler
which is revealing. A Gestapo official had been prosecuted for crimes
committed in the camp at Hohnstein, and the Nazi Governor of
Saxony had promptly asked that the proceeding be quashed. The
Minister of Justice in June of 1935 protested because, as he said:
“In this camp unusually grave mistreatments of prisoners
have occurred at least since summer 1933. The prisoners
not only were beaten with whips without cause, similarly as
in the Concentration Camp Bredow near Stettin till they lost
consciousness, but they were also tortured in other
manners, e.g. with the help of a dripping apparatus
constructed exclusively for this purpose, under which
prisoners had to stand until they were suffering from
serious purulent wounds of the scalp. . . .” (787-PS)
I shall not take time to detail the ghastly proceedings in these
concentration camps. Beatings, starvings, tortures, and killings were
routine—so routine that the tormentors became blasé and careless.
We have a report of discovery that in Plötzensee one night, 186
persons were executed while there were orders for only 180.
Another report describes how the family of one victim received two
urns of ashes by mistake.
Inmates were compelled to execute each other. In 1942 they
were paid five Reichsmarks per execution, but on June 27, 1942 SS
General Glücks ordered commandants of all concentration camps to
reduce this honorarium to three cigarettes. In 1943 the Reich leader
of the SS and Chief of German Police ordered the corporal
punishments on Russian women to be applied by Polish women and
vice versa, but the price was not frozen. He said that as reward, a
few cigarettes was authorized. Under the Nazis, human life had been