ACN PYQS

2024

Q1.
Q2.

IP stands for Internet Protocol and v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4). IPv4 was the primary
version brought into action for production within the ARPANET in 1983. IP version four
addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in decimal notation.

Characteristics of IPv4

 IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.

 IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.

 The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.

 It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses.

 IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).

 IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.

 RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.

 Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.

 Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causing host.

IPv4 Datagram Header

 VERSION: Version of the IP protocol (4 bits), which is 4 for IPv4

  HLEN: IP header length (4 bits), which is the number of 32 bit words in the header.
The minimum value for this field is 5 and the maximum is 15.

 Type of service: Low Delay, High Throughput, Reliability (8 bits)

 Total Length: Length of header + Data (16 bits), which has a minimum value 20 bytes
and the maximum is 65,535 bytes.

 Identification: Unique Packet Id for identifying the group of fragments of a single IP

datagram (16 bits)

 Flags: 3 flags of 1 bit each : reserved bit (must be zero), do not fragment flag, more
fragments flag (same order)

 Fragment Offset: Represents the number of Data Bytes ahead of the particular
fragment in the particular Datagram. Specified in terms of number of 8 bytes, which
has the maximum value of 65,528 bytes.

 Time to live: Datagram’s lifetime (8 bits), It prevents the datagram to loop through
the network by restricting the number of Hops taken by a Packet before delivering to
the Destination.

 Protocol: Name of the protocol to which the data is to be passed (8 bits)

 Header Checksum: 16 bits header checksum for checking errors in the datagram
header

 Source IP address: 32 bits IP address of the sender

 Destination IP address: 32 bits IP address of the receiver

 Option: Optional information such as source route, record route. Used by the
Network administrator to check whether a path is working or not.

IPv4 Datagram Header

Due to the presence of options, the size of the datagram header can be of variable length
(20 bytes to 60 bytes).

Q3.
Q4. MACA Protocol and Control Signals

The Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) protocol is designed to improve
wireless communication efficiency by addressing the hidden terminal and exposed terminal
problems using control signals. Unlike traditional CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access),
MACA does not rely on carrier sensing but instead uses handshaking between sender and
receiver.

Control Signals in MACA Protocol

MACA uses three main control signals to coordinate communication between nodes:

1. RTS (Request to Send)

2. CTS (Clear to Send)

3. DATA Transmission

4. ACK (Acknowledgment) [Used in MACAW (enhanced MACA)]

How MACA Addresses Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems

1. Hidden Terminal Problem

What is the Hidden Terminal Problem?

Occurs when two nodes (A and C) are out of each other’s range but both are within range of
a common receiver (B). If A and C transmit simultaneously, collisions occur at B.

How MACA Solves This?

 Node A sends an RTS (Request to Send) to B.

 Node B responds with a CTS (Clear to Send).

 Neighboring nodes (e.g., C) overhear CTS and remain silent, preventing collision.

✅ C does not transmit because it knows B is receiving data from A.

2. Exposed Terminal Problem

What is the Exposed Terminal Problem?

Occurs when a node (B) refrains from transmitting because it detects another transmission
nearby (A → C), even though its own transmission would not cause interference.

How MACA Solves This?

 B overhears RTS from A but does not hear CTS from C (since C is far).

 Since CTS is not received, B knows it is free to transmit.

✅ B can safely send data to another node (e.g., D) without causing interference.

Summary of MACA Control Signals

Control Signal Purpose Effect

Sent by sender to receiver to Alerts the receiver and nearby

RTS (Request to Send)
request communication. nodes.

Sent by receiver in response Tells sender to proceed; prevents

CTS (Clear to Send)
to RTS. collisions by silencing nearby nodes.

Actual transmission from

DATA Data is sent without interference.
sender to receiver.

ACK (Acknowledgment) Confirms successful reception Ensures reliability in

[MACAW] of data. communication.
Q5.
Q6.

Q.7

Busy Tone Multiple Access (BTMA) Protocol

Significance of Busy Tone in BTMA

The Busy Tone Multiple Access (BTMA) protocol is a collision avoidance mechanism used in
wireless networks. It helps prevent collisions by using a separate busy tone channel to
indicate when the medium is in use.

🔹 Why is the busy tone important?

 Reduces collisions by preventing hidden terminals from transmitting.

 Enhances network efficiency by informing all nodes when a transmission is in

progress.

 Prevents unnecessary retransmissions, saving bandwidth.

How BTMA Works?

1. Sender (A) checks if the busy tone is OFF (i.e., no ongoing transmission).

2. If the channel is free, A starts transmitting data while simultaneously activating the
busy tone.

3. Nearby nodes hear the busy tone and defer their transmissions until the channel is
free.

4. Once the transmission ends, the sender turns off the busy tone, allowing new
transmissions.

Variations of BTMA Protocol

Several enhancements and variations of BTMA exist:

1. Single-Channel BTMA

 Both data and busy tone share the same frequency.

 Limitation: Nodes far away may still transmit, leading to hidden terminal problems.

2. Dual-Channel BTMA

 Uses two separate channels:

o Data Channel (for actual data transmission).

o Control Channel (for busy tone signalling).

 Advantage: Eliminates hidden and exposed terminal problems.

3. Adaptive BTMA (A-BTMA)

 Dynamically adjusts busy tone duration based on network conditions.

 Reduces idle time and improves efficiency.

4. Asymmetric BTMA (ATMA)

 Instead of a continuous busy tone, the receiver sends acknowledgment signals to

inform other nodes.

 Reduces control overhead while maintaining collision avoidance.

Comparison of BTMA Variants

Variant Channels Used Key Feature Limitation

Single-Channel 1 (same for data Hidden terminal

Simple, easy to implement
BTMA & busy tone) issue

Dual-Channel 2 (separate data Solves hidden/exposed terminal More hardware

BTMA & busy tone) problems complexity

Adjusts busy tone duration

Adaptive BTMA 2 Slightly complex
dynamically

Asymmetric Uses receiver acknowledgment Might introduce

2
BTMA instead of continuous busy tone minor delays

Q8. Soft Reservation of Channel

What is Soft Reservation?

Soft reservation is a channel access mechanism used in wireless networks where nodes can
temporarily reserve a communication channel while allowing flexibility for higher-priority
transmissions. Unlike hard reservation, which strictly allocates a channel, soft reservation
permits interruptions based on priority.

🔹 Key Characteristics:

 Non-rigid allocation: Allows other users to use the channel if no transmission occurs.

 Priority-based access: Higher-priority data can take over the reserved channel.

 Collision avoidance: Reduces contention while ensuring fair access.

Soft Reservation Multiple Access with Priority Assignment (SRMA/PA) Protocol

How SRMA/PA Handles Priority Data?

The SRMA/PA (Soft Reservation Multiple Access with Priority Assignment) protocol is
designed to handle real-time and high-priority data efficiently in wireless networks.
Working Mechanism of SRMA/PA:

1. Channel Reservation Phase:

o A node sends a reservation request to indicate its intent to transmit.

o Other nodes recognize this reservation but do not block the channel
completely.

2. Priority Assignment:

o Each node has a priority level assigned to its data packets.

o Higher-priority data can preempt ongoing or reserved lower-priority

transmissions.

3. Transmission Phase:

o If no higher-priority data arrives, the reserved node proceeds with

transmission.

o If a higher-priority node requests access, the lower-priority node backs off,

allowing urgent data to be transmitted.

Priority Handling in SRMA/PA

Scenario Action Taken

Other nodes defer transmission but stay alert for

A node reserves a channel
priority updates.

A higher-priority node requests Lower-priority node backs off, allowing urgent

access transmission.

No high-priority requests during

Reserved node proceeds with transmission.
reservation

Collision detected Nodes use exponential backoff to retry later.

🔹 Advantage: Ensures critical data (e.g., emergency messages, real-time traffic) gets
priority while maintaining efficient channel utilization.

Q9.

T-MAC (Timeout-MAC) Protocol: Features for Energy Efficiency and Delay Reduction

Introduction to T-MAC Protocol

T-MAC (Timeout-MAC) is an energy-efficient Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol
designed for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It improves upon S-MAC by dynamically
adjusting the active period of nodes based on network traffic.

🔹 Key Goal: Reduce energy consumption by minimizing idle listening while maintaining good
network performance.

Key Features of T-MAC for Energy Efficiency and Delay Reduction

1. Adaptive Duty Cycle (Timeout Mechanism)

 Nodes remain active only for a short time and go to sleep if no activity is detected
within a predefined timeout.

 Reduces idle listening, which is a major source of energy wastage.

2. Early Sleeping to Save Energy

 If a node detects no incoming data within the timeout period, it sleeps early.

 Saves energy by avoiding unnecessary waiting.

3. Handling Variable Traffic Load

 In low traffic, nodes sleep longer, reducing energy use.

 In high traffic, active periods are extended to prevent delays.

4. Collision Avoidance with RTS-CTS

 Uses Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) handshaking to reduce
collisions.

 Helps avoid hidden terminal problems.

5. Reduced Delay via Adaptive Wakeup

 Instead of fixed sleep intervals (as in S-MAC), nodes wake up only when needed.

 This reduces latency in handling time-sensitive data.

6. Support for Variable Traffic Patterns

 Works well in networks with bursty and variable data transmission.

 Nodes stay awake when traffic is high and sleep more in low-traffic periods.

Comparison of T-MAC vs. S-MAC

Feature T-MAC S-MAC

Duty Cycle Adaptive (timeout-based) Fixed

Energy Efficiency High (reduces idle listening) Moderate

Delay Handling Lower (adaptive wakeup) Higher

Traffic Adaptability Efficient for bursty traffic Not as adaptable

Early Sleeping Yes No

Conclusion

T-MAC significantly improves energy efficiency by dynamically adjusting sleep schedules

while reducing delay through adaptive wake-ups. This makes it ideal for wireless sensor
networks where power conservation is crucial.

Features of S-MAC (Sensor-MAC) Protocol for Energy Efficiency and Delay Reduction

S-MAC (Sensor-MAC) is a medium access control (MAC) protocol designed specifically for
wireless sensor networks (WSNs). It focuses on energy efficiency while maintaining
reasonable delay performance.

Features of S-MAC for Energy Efficiency

1. Periodic Sleep and Wake Schedule (Duty Cycling)

o Each node follows a fixed sleep-wake schedule, reducing unnecessary energy

consumption.

o Nodes synchronize schedules to minimize idle listening.

2. Listen Interval Optimization

o Nodes listen to the channel for a short period before going back to sleep.

o Saves energy by avoiding long idle listening.

3. Message Passing for Data Transmission

o Instead of sending multiple small packets, S-MAC sends larger messages in

bursts.
 o Reduces overhead and saves energy.

4. Overhearing Avoidance

o If a node is not the intended recipient, it switches to sleep mode, reducing

power wastage.

5. Adaptive Sleeping Mechanism

o Nodes can adjust sleep duration based on traffic conditions.

o Helps in balancing energy efficiency and data latency.

Features of S-MAC for Delay Reduction

1. Synchronization Among Nodes

o Nodes coordinate their sleep schedules, so transmissions are aligned.

o Reduces delays caused by waiting for a receiver to wake up.

2. RTS-CTS for Collision Avoidance

o Uses Request to Send (RTS) and Clear to Send (CTS) to prevent hidden
terminal problems.

o Reduces retransmissions, minimizing delay.

3. Adaptive Listening

o If a node detects ongoing traffic, it stays awake longer to receive data.

o Helps reduce latency in high-traffic scenarios.

4. Message Fragmentation and Reassembly

o Large messages are split into fragments and sent sequentially.

o Improves throughput and prevents large delays due to lost packets.

Comparison of Energy Efficiency vs. Delay Handling in S-MAC

Feature Energy Efficiency Delay Reduction

Duty Cycling ✅ Yes ❌ Can cause delays

Overhearing Avoidance ✅ Yes ❌ May delay responses

Adaptive Listening ✅ Yes ✅ Yes

Feature Energy Efficiency Delay Reduction

RTS-CTS Collision Avoidance ✅ Saves energy ✅ Reduces retransmission delay

📌 Conclusion:

 S-MAC is highly energy-efficient but may introduce delays in low-traffic conditions

due to fixed sleep schedules.

 Adaptive Listening helps reduce delay in high-traffic conditions.

Q10. Duty Cycle in S-MAC and T-MAC Protocols

The duty cycle in MAC protocols refers to the fraction of time a node spends in an active
state (listening, transmitting, or receiving) versus a sleep state to conserve energy. Both S-
MAC (Sensor-MAC) and T-MAC (Timeout-MAC) employ periodic sleep schedules but differ
in how they manage active periods and energy efficiency.

1. Duty Cycle in S-MAC (Sensor-MAC)

Key Features:

 Fixed Duty Cycle: Nodes follow a fixed sleep and wake cycle regardless of traffic
conditions.

 Synchronization: Nodes synchronize their sleep schedules to reduce collisions and

overhearing.

 Energy Efficiency: Reduces idle listening but may introduce delay if packets arrive
when the node is asleep.

Transmission States in S-MAC

1. Listening (Active Period): Nodes wake up and listen for RTS/CTS or data packets.

2. Transmit/Receive: If data transmission occurs, the node stays active.

3. Sleep: After a fixed period, nodes enter a sleep state even if there’s more traffic.

S-MAC Duty Cycle Diagram

📌 How to Draw:
 1. Draw a timeline with periodic active and sleep intervals.

2. Label Active, Transmit/Receive, and Sleep states.

3. Show that sleep cycles occur at fixed intervals.

2. Duty Cycle in T-MAC (Timeout-MAC)

Key Features:

 Adaptive Duty Cycle: The active period ends early if no activity is detected (timeout-
based).

 Traffic-Based Adaptation: Nodes remain awake only if there is network activity.

 Energy Efficiency: Higher than S-MAC due to dynamic early sleeping.

Transmission States in T-MAC

1. Listening (Active Period): Similar to S-MAC, but the node waits for traffic only for a
short timeout.

2. Transmit/Receive: If data is received, the node stays active.

3. Early Sleep: If no activity is detected, the node sleeps earlier than in S-MAC.

T-MAC Duty Cycle Diagram

📌 How to Draw:

1. Draw a timeline similar to S-MAC.

2. Mark active periods that shorten based on traffic (adaptive timeout).

3. Show early sleeping compared to S-MAC.

Comparison of Duty Cycles in S-MAC vs. T-MAC

Feature S-MAC T-MAC

Duty Cycle Type Fixed Adaptive (Timeout-based)

Idle Listening Higher Lower

Energy Consumption Moderate Low (better efficiency)

Delay Higher (fixed sleep period) Lower (adaptive wake-up)