G202 Geology

Debris flow in the Columbia River gorge Fault on US 97 north of Chiloquin

Lab Manual
Winter Term 2004
Written by
Dr. Bob Reynolds
Central Oregon Community College
 Table of Contents

Page
Lab and Lecture Activities
Lab 1: Topographic Maps 3
Lab 2: Earthquakes and Faults 11
Lab 3: Geologic Maps and Folds 19
Lab 4. Mass Wasting 27
Lab 5: Local Field Trip: Faults in Bend 31
Lab 6: Coastal Geology 35
Lab 7: Rivers 41
Lab 8: Geologic Hazards Poster Session 47
Lab9: Glaciers 50
Lab 10: Groundwater 55
Miscellaneous Handouts
Advise for Studying and Taking Exams 60
Test 1 Study Guide 61
Test 2 Study Guide 63
Lecture Handouts 65

2
 Lab 1: Topographic Maps
Name: ________________________

Introduction. The landforms that develop at the surface of the Earth form are a direct result of geologic processes.
Most landforms are large features that stand out in contrast to their surroundings, such as mountain ranges or canyons.
Because they are so large, it is sometimes difficult get a full sense of the landform as you hike around it in the field. Maps
provide a convenient way to view an entire landform. In order to begin to understand how landforms develop, we must first
learn to recognize their shapes and dimensions as displayed on maps.

We will be looking at a wide variety of landforms in this class, therefore it is important to learn how to use
topographic maps so that we can better interpret the landforms that we see. Maps are nothing more than a compact way of
displaying on a flat piece of paper spatial information that occurs over a large land area. Some maps are very simple and
others are quite complex. Planimetric maps, for example, emphasize spatial relationships such as the location of towns,
rivers and roads. They are best suited for route finding. State highway maps and national forest maps are good examples of
planimetric maps. Topographic maps, on the other hand, are more complex. They show spatial information together with
elevation, thus giving the user a sense of the shape and dimension of the land surface. We will be using topographic maps
throughout this quarter to aid in geologic interpretation.

Most topographic maps display five categories of information. These include a legend, scale, direction, elevation
and locational coordinates. Each of these is described separately. The legend of a map lists the title of the map, and
identifies various symbols that are used to portray features on the map. Symbols are used to portray cultural features such as
roads, towns, campgrounds and dams or natural features such as mountain peaks, rivers, dunes and glaciers .

The scale of a map provides a means of measuring the distance to and size the of landforms displayed on the map.
Scale can be expressed in three different, but related ways. A first type of scale is called a bar scale. It is nothing more than
a small ruler with distances labeled in both English and metric units. The second type of scale is called a verbal scale. In
this method the scale is expressed in words, for example, 1 in = 2000 ft. This means that an inch on the map equals 2000 ft
on the ground. Note that the map units (inches) are different than the ground units (feet). third scaling method is called the
representative fraction (RF), which is a ratio of a distance on the map to the equivalent ground distance: (Dmap/Dground).
Identical distance units must be used in both the numerator and the denominator of an RF. For example, an RF of 1:24,000
means that 1 inch on the map equals 24,000 inches on the ground. Using conversions such as 12 in = 1 ft and/or 5280 ft = 1
mi the RF can be converted to a verbal scale. The RF scale is usually listed at the bottom of the map near the bar scale.

Direction on topographic maps is provided by an arrow that points to Earth’s geographic north pole and is called
True North. In most cases this arrow parallels the edge of the map with the top of the map located in the north direction.
Compasses, however do not point towards true north, rather they point towards Magnetic North, which is the pole of the
Earth's magnetic field. This pole is not which is not coincident with the geographic north pole. Depending upon where you
are on the planet, the difference between true north and magnetic north can be quite substantial. This difference between the
two poles is called the magnetic declination. If you are going to use a map and compass together for navigation, you must
compensate for declination.

Locational coordinate systems are provided on topographic maps in order to accurately locate a parcel of land or a
specific point of interest. The U. S. Public Land Survey system (US PLSS) is the most commonly used system (see figure
below). It consists of a system of grids 6 square miles in area. The grids are referenced to a baseline (latitude) and principal
meridian (longitude). The baseline and principal meridian for all maps in Oregon and Washington intersect in Portland.
Each 6 square mile parcel is called a township and is referenced to the baseline and principal meridian by Tiers (north -
south rows) and Ranges (east - west columns). Townships are further subdivided into smaller 1 square mile parcels called
sections which are numbered 1-36. Sections can be further subdivided into units small enough to allow exact location of a
feature by quartering the section as many times as necessary. On topographic maps the Tiers and Ranges appear at the
margin of the map and the sections are overlain on the map and numbered in red. The proper notation for describing the
location of a specific area is written beginning with the smallest subdivision. For example, the shaded part of the figure
below would be correctly written as SW 1/4, SW 1/4, Sec 28, T1N, R3E.

3
 US Public Land Survey System

R3W R2W R1W R1E R2E R3E R4E

T2 N pr i nci pal mer i di an

T1 N
base l i ne
T1 S

6 mi l es

6 5 4 3 2 1

7 8 9 10 11 12

18 17 16 15 14 13
T ow ns hi p
6 miles 19 20 21 22 23 24

30 29 28 27 26 25

31 32 33 34 35 36

1mi l e

NW 1 / 4 NE 1 / 4
( 160 acr es)

Se c t i on

1 mile
Sec 2 8
( 640 acr es)

SW 1 / 4
SE 1/ 4
SE 1 / 4

Elevation, or height above a reference (usually sea level) is the most useful information presented on topographic
maps. Elevation can be represented by shading, color layers or more commonly by the use of contour lines. Contour lines
are continuous lines drawn on a map to represent a specific elevation, such as 100 ft.; that is, every point on the 100 ft
contour line is exactly 100 ft above sea level. On most maps, the contour interval, or vertical height between contours, is
listed at the bottom of the map. For example, a 40 ft contour interval indicates that each successive contour line is 40 ft
above the previous contour line. Because contours connect points of equal elevation, they never cross one another or split in
two. Contour lines with the elevation printed on them are called index contours.

The pattern of contour lines across a map help in interpreting the topography. For example closely spaced contour
lines indicate a steep slope, whereas as widely spaced contour lines indicate gently sloping ground. When contour lines
cross streams they form a "V" -shaped pattern, with the apex of the "V" pointing in the up stream direction. Enclosed
depressions, such as craters or pits, are represented by a contour line with hachures (tick marks) that point into the
depression. Relief is the numerical difference between two locations on a topographic map and can be determined using
contour lines.

Part A. Reading Topographic Maps. Examine one of the four plastic relief topographic maps and answer the
accompanying questions in the spaces below.
Map name: __________________________________
1. ______________________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________________

4
5. ______________________________________________________________________

Part B. Computerized Topographic Maps.

Insert the CD titled Oregon Disk 5 of 8: Bend into the CD drive. Use the mouse cursor to open the program by clicking on
the following icons in order: START – Programs – Class Applications – Geology -TOPO!. Now select open the Oregon
file from the TOPO! folder. A state map of Oregon will appear. The tool bar at the top has icon displayed that serve various
functions on the map. The following list briefly explains the function of each icon.

5
6
 There are five levels of map magnification that can be viewed. The Zoom tool (magnifying glass) from the tool
bar menu at the top of the page is used to increase or decrease the size of the map. Position the magnifying glass over Bend
and left click the mouse. A larger map showing central Oregon will appear. Position the magnifying glass over Bend and left
click the mouse again. A still bigger map centered on Bend will appear. Repeat this two more times to see the largest map
available for Bend.

Select the Traveling tool icon from the menu bar. Your mouse cursor will become a white arrow. Move the cursor
to the left edge of the page, then left click and hold down on the mouse. This will scroll the map page to the left (west) thus
allowing you to see more of the map. Using the same technique you can roll up (north) down (south) or right (east) to view
other parts of the map that are not currently on the screen. Also notice that the latitude, longitude and elevation of the
current arrow location are displayed in the lower right corner of the page, just off the map.

1. Find Awbrey Butte and position the traveling arrow over the “radio facility”. What is its elevation?

2. Next position the traveling arrow over the “Mirror Pond. What is its elevation? What is the relief between Mirror Pond
and the radio facility on Awbrey Butte?

3. Select the compass tool from the menu bar. An anchor will appear on the screen in place of the white arrow. Use the
mouse to position the anchor at Mirror Pond. Click the mouse to hold the anchor at this location then move the cursor to the
radio facility and click the mouse again. A blue line connecting these two points will appear on the map, together with the
compass directions and distance from Mirror Pond to the top of the butte. Record this information.

4. Examine the portion of the Deschutes River that flows around Awbrey Butte. Near the butte, which part of the Deschutes
river canyon is steeper (east or north)? How do you know?

5. Now look at Tumalo Creek which is located on the west side of Awbrey Butte. What direction is Tumalo Creek flowing?
List two pieces of evidence that support your answer.

6. The map you are working with has an RF of 1:24,000. Convert the RF scale to a verbal scale of inches on the map to
distance outdoors in feet.

7. Select the Zoom tool, then right click with the mouse. Highlight the level 3 map and click on it. This map has an RF of
1:500,000. Convert the RF scale to a verbal scale of inches on the map to distance outdoors in feet.

8. Now place the magnifying glass over Bachelor Butte and click. The level 4 map will appear centered on Mt Bachelor.
This map has an RF of 1:100,000. Convert the RF scale to a verbal scale of inches on the map to distance outdoors in feet.

9. Select the Route tool from the tool bar menu. The cursor will now look like a pencil. Place the pencil in Section 36
located southwest of Bachelor Butte. Click the mouse once, then slowly slide the mouse in a straight line to the northeast
over the highest part of Bachelor Butte. As you do so a blue route line will form behind the cursor. Continue sliding the
cursor northeast over the top of Tumalo Mountain to the first unlabeled section northeast of the summit of Tumalo Mt. Click
the mouse again to end the route. If you don’t like your line you can move the cursor over top of it until the white distance
box appears. At this position if you press the delete key you can erase the line and start again. Once you have a good route
line that includes both of the summits of Bachelor Butte and Tumalo Mt, you will next need to make a cross sectional
profile of the route. To do so, mouse the pencil next to the route line until the white distance box appears on screen. Right
click the mouse and then click on build profile. After a few seconds the profile will appear at the bottom of the screen
7
showing elevation (vertical axis) and distance (horizontal axis). As you move the cursor over the profile notice that the
distance and elevation are displayed at the bottom of the screen. If you stop and click on a part of the profile, a yellow dot
will appear on both the profile and map. Use this technique to locate and record the distance and elevation of the highest
point of your route as it crosses the summit of Bachelor Butte.

10. Finally you will want to prepare your map for printing and then save your map. First click on the Print tool. A dialogue
box will appear on the right side of the screen next to your map. Click on the Custom… button under Magnification. A
new dialogue box will appear. Click on Print map at scale 24000 then select okay. In the include portion of the dialogue
box check all of the boxes so that each of these items are saved and printed with your map. Finally, to save your map select
the File pull down menu from the top of the screen. Select Save As. A window will appear on the screen that has the words
TOPO! located in the top white dialogue box. In the file name dialogue box type lab1your name (ex: lab1reynolds) then
click on save. Email your map to me as an attachment. From the File menu select exit to quit the program.

Part C. Construction of a topographic map.

Use the point elevation data on the diagram below to sketch in the contour lines. Use a pencil not a pen! Use a
contour interval of 20 ft beginning at sea level. Because not all of the point elevation data is a multiple of 20 ft, you will
need to estimate the location of contour lines between some data points. As you construct your topographic map bear in
mind that contour lines never cross each other, they form closed loop around the tops of hills, and they deflect in a "V"
shaped pattern upstream when crossing rivers. Each contour should consist of a smooth continuous line and should be
labeled (ex. 60 ft).
A
80
0
70 70
40 90
100 60
60 100
150
105
95 100
30
75
45 60 80
50
0 20
.

Rive r 75
50
35 57 69
Ocean 5

25 55 80
65
40
10 0 85

30 70
155 100 50
0 11 0
70

50 80 90
80 90

B 8
Part D. Topographic Profiles.

Often times in geology it is important to get an idea of the overall relief across an area so that we can see the "lay of
the land". This is best determined by making a topographic profile or cross section across the map. In order to construct a
topographic profile, a line of cross section must first be drawn across the map as shown in the top part of the figure below.
Next, a strip of paper is placed next to the cross section line. The location and elevations of each contour line that intersects
the strip of paper are recorded on the paper. This data is then transferred to a rectangular graph of horizontal lines that
represent elevations, as shown in the lower part of the figure below. All points on the graph are then connected by a
smooth line. The result is a profile of the relief along the cross section line.

topographic map showing cross section line

transfer of contour data and completed profile for above map

9
Go back to the page that contains the topographic map that you created from point data. Use the next page of this lab manual
to construct a profile across line A-B.

A B
160

140

120

100

80

60
40

20
0

10
 Lab 2: Earthquakes and Faults
Name: ________________________

Introduction. Faults and earthquakes are closely related phenomena. Both are very common and often associated with
plate tectonics. For example, hundreds of thousands of earthquakes occur every year on the planet, mostly along plate
boundaries. In this lab we will study some basic aspects of faults and earthquakes.

Part A. Faults. As you read this section, examine the accompanying diagrams below. A fault is defined as a break in the
rocks along which movement has occurred. In order to determine the type of movement we must define the various parts of
the fault. The fault plane is the zone in the rock that has broken. Although we like to think of it as a flat plane, in reality it
is often a curved or irregularly shaped surface. The fault trace is the edge of the fault plane when viewed at the surface
(map view) or in cross section (side view). Relative movement arrows are drawn next to the fault trace on the view that
best shows which way the rocks have moved. The fault plane divides the rock into two blocks. The block that has moved
upward in relation to the other block is called the up thrown block and is labeled with a "U". The block that has moved
downward is called the down thrown block and is labeled with a "D". For fault planes that are tilted, we define the block
that is positioned above the fault plane the hanging wall and the block underneath the fault plane the foot wall. Because the
rocks near a fault are highly fractured, the top of the up thrown block usually weathers quickly down to the level of the top of
the down thrown block. As more time passes and weathering continues the surface expression may eventually go entirely
un-noticed. Cross section exposures therefore provide the best means of examining old faults.

We are now ready to name specific types of faults. Four types of faults are possible depending upon the type of
movement. A normal fault occurs when the hanging wall moves down. Normal faults form as a result of tensional stress.
A reverse fault occurs when the hanging wall moves upward. Reverse faults form as a result of compressional stress. A
special type of reverse fault in which the tilt angle of the fault plane angle is small (30 degrees or less) is called a thrust
fault. Finally, if the fault plane is vertical and the rocks have moved side by side (as a result of shear stress) the fault is
called a strike slip fault. If the strike slip movement causes the opposite block to move to the left then the fault is called a
left-lateral strike slip fault. If the strike slip movement causes the opposite block to move to the right then the fault is called
a right-lateral strike slip fault. Additional background material relating to faults can be found in your text.

Normal fault
fault trace
map view

ne hanging
lt pla
fau foot wall
down thrown hanging wall wall
hanging wall
block
foot wall up thrown
block
tensional
cross section stress

Reverse fault Thrust fault

hanging
wall hanging
wall foot
foot wall
wall

compressional
stress

11
 right lateral
strike slip left lateral
fault strike slip
fault

Shear stress

Fault models. Select a wooden model. Orient the block so that the label is facing up and the block with 2 parts is facing to
the left. Draw the map and cross section views of this block. Label the oldest and youngest rock layers shown on the cross
section. What general observation can you make concerning the dip (downward tilt) direction of the rocks and the relative
age of the rocks?

map view

cross section

Next, create a fault by elevating the left block (the one with 2 parts). Draw the cross section view that contains the fault
trace. Place symbols that show the relative movement of the blocks.

12
Finally, erode the top side of the left block (remove the upper piece of that block) and then draw the map view.

map view

Compare the 2 map views of the blocks before and after erosion. What effect has erosion had with respect to the occurrence
of rock layers? _____________________________________
_____________________________ What type of fault is this? _______________ What kind of tectonic stress would
produce this type of fault (tension or compression)? ________________ Would this type of fault make the crust locally
thicker or thinner? ____________________.

Field Occurrence of Faults. The location of old faults can often be determined using topographic maps and air photos,
together with field examination of rock outcrops. Faults stand out on topographic maps and air photos as unusually straight
ridges or hill sides, or as straight segments of valleys or river channels. Where streams cross a fault, river channels may be
offset. In some cases the stream channel will suddenly stop, in other cases a spring may appear. The vertical offset of a
ridge or the lateral offset of a river channel can provide important clues regarding how much movement has occurred along
the fault, the type of stress involved and even the age of the fault.

Once a suspected fault is identified from topographic maps and air photos, field examination of the site is used to
make additional observations. In the field, a fault may be very obvious or deceptively subtle, especially if it is an old
extensively weathered fault. Field observations that support the presence of a fault include: (1) offset rock layers or stream
channels (2) a sudden change in topographic relief from a few feet to several tens of feet. (3) the sudden disappearance
or appearance of a new rock layer, or stream (4) highly contorted or fractured rock layers near the fault zone, (5) a
highly weathered zone of intensely rotten, weak or stained rock, 6) springs or other linear zone of moisture in an otherwise
dry area (often marked by plants). It is important to measure all of the evidence present, including the amount of offset and
the orientation (compass bearing and amount of tilt) of the fault plane.

You will be provided with a topographic map (next page) that shows a portion of the San Andreas fault in
California. Examine it closely and then answer the following questions. Draw a heavy line across the map where you think
the trace of the fault occurs.

List two pieces of evidence from the map that help you to locate the position of the fault.

___________________________ ___________________________
Along this section of the San Andreas fault primarily strike slip movement has occurred episodically over the past 3700
years. Based upon evidence that you see from the map determine the specific type of strike slip fault.
________________________________________.

Measure the maximum amount of lateral and vertical offset along the fault and determine the rate of movement in
inches/year.

Measured vertical offset (ft x 12) = _________ in. rate (offset / time) = ___________ in/yr
Measured lateral offset (meters x 3.2808 x 12) = ________ in. rate (offset / time) = ___________ in/yr

13
14
15
 Oregon Geologic Map

Examine the Oregon State Geologic Map and then answer the following questions.
1. What part of the state has a large concentration of thrust faults? ______________________
What general direction do these fault traces strike? __________________________________
What type of stress conditions have produced these faults (tension or compression) and from what direction were the forces
exerted? __________________________________________
2. Which part of the state has a large concentration of normal faults? ____________________ What general direction do
these fault traces strike? __________________________________
What type of stress conditions have produced these faults (tension or compression) and from what direction were the forces
exerted? __________________________________________

Part B. Earthquakes. Earthquakes result from the sudden release of stored energy within the Earth. The energy travels
away from the focus of the earthquake in all directions as seismic energy wave fronts, not too unlike the ripple waves that
result from dropping a stone into water. There are several different kinds of waves and they all travel at different velocities.
A seismograph is an instrument that measures ground motion caused by the moving energy waves. P- waves are the fastest
and arrive first, followed later by the S-waves. We can use these differences in seismic wave arrival time to locate the
focus of an earthquake. To do this we must first determine the individual arrival times of each of the waves. This data is
plotted on a travel time chart (shown below). Once plotted, we can read the distance to the earthquake from the curves on
the chart. That distance represents a radial distance from the seismograph station to the earthquake epicenter and tells us that
the earthquake is located somewhere along a circle around us. That doesn't help much, so to pinpoint the exact location we
need at least 3 overlapping seismometer stations. Their overlapping circles will occur at only one point, the epicenter of the
earthquake.

To locate the epicenter of an earthquake, examine the seismograph profiles and travel time charts provided by your
instructor. For each of the 3 stations mark the point of first arrival of each of the P and S waves. Next, record the numerical
difference in arrival time between P and S waves in seconds using the scale provided for each seismogram, and record this
information below. Next, make a bar representing the arrival time difference and superimpose this on the travel time chart at
a location where it just touches the P and S reference lines. Read down to the X-axis and record the distance. Now with a
compass (or string and pencil), scribe a circle of radius equal to that distance on your map for that seismic station. Repeat
the procedure for each station. Mark and label the epicenter location of the earthquake on your map.

The magnitude of an earthquake is directly related to the amount of energy released. It is recorded on the
seismograph by the amount of pen deflection. A seismograph located close to a given earthquake will result in a large pen
deflection, whereas one far away will result in a small amount of pen deflection. In order for different seismograph stations
to record the same magnitude of an earthquake we need to compensate or calibrate for differences in distance and pen
deflection. This was done by Charles Richter several decades ago and is the basis for earthquake magnitude measurements
used today. Re-examined the seismograph profiles again. For each, Measure the peak to peak height (in millimeters) at the
point of maximum pen deflection for the S-wave arrivals. Divide these numbers by 2 and record in the chart below. Next,
use the nomograph to determine the Richter-scale magnitude for each location and record these in your table.

Station P-S arrival time Epicenter S-wave peak to S-wave ½ Richter

difference (sec) distance (km peak height (mm) height (mm) magnitude

16
 0 1 2 3 4 5

seconds
Berkley (BRK)

Mt Hamilton (MHC)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Pilarcitos Creek (PCC)

0 2 4 6 8 10

17
 .

S-wave
Time (1 second divisions)

P wave

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance (kilometers)

18
 Earthquake location map

0 10 20 30 40

th
km

Nor
.

Calaveras fault MHC

fault
Hayward
BRK
OAK
ult
s fa
rea
San Francisc
o bay And
San
SF
PCC

Pacific ocean

500 7
100
400
6 50
300
pen deflection (mm)

20
5
200 10
magnitude
distance (km)

4 5
100 2
60 3
1
40 0.5
2
0.2
1
20 0.1
5 0

nomogaph for Richter magnitude calculation

0

19
Earthquake hazard maps. Faults often represent the surface expression of an earthquake and provide valuable information
regarding the rate and extent of recent and ancient earthquake activity. In addition, faults help geologists assess the
earthquake hazard potential of an area. Examine the earthquake hazard map of Oregon and then to answer the following
questions.

1. Which part of Oregon has the largest concentration of faults that have been active in the last 20,000 years? Why do you
think this is so?

2. What is the age of movement on most of the faults in Deschutes County?

3. Examine the peak ground acceleration maps. What is meant by peak ground acceleration? What specific earthquake
hazard are these maps are trying to show.

4. Summarize the important seismic regions shown on the peak ground acceleration maps

5. What is the predicted peak ground acceleration for Bend with a frequency of once/1000 yr? What are the anticipated
corresponding Mercalli Intensity values and Uniform Building Code designations?

peak ground acceleration: _________Mercalli Intensity values: ____________Uniform Building Code: ______________

Summary Rules for Interpreting Faults

1. Rock layers dip in the direction of the “V” made by the contacts when crossing a valley.
2. Rock layers dip towards younger age rocks (unless overturned).
3. The strike of rock units generally parallels geologic contacts.
4. Steep dipping rock layers will show a narrower map outcrop than shallow dipping layers.
5.Normal fault = hanging wall down
6.Reverse fault = hanging wall up
7.Thrust fault = shallow dipping fault plane with hanging wall up
8. Strike slip fault = vertical fault plane with horizontal movement
9.Erosion of faults:
uplifted block exposes older rocks as they erode
the contacts between rock layers shift in the direction that the layers are dipping

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 Lab 3: Geologic Maps and Folds
Name: ________________________

Introduction. In this lab you will become familiar a type of geologic structure called folds. Folds are important geologic
structures because they trap oil and natural gas, channel ore bearing fluids and are associated with geologic hazards. Recall
from last quarter that a geologic map displays the distribution and age of rocks and geologic structures, in addition to
providing location and elevation data. These maps contain an immense amount of information and are used in a variety of
important applications. While working with folds you will need several different colors of Playdough, a rolling pin and a 10
inch length of dental floss. Supplemental reading material relating to this lab can be found in your text.

Rocks exposed at the surface of the Earth often show some sort of layering. In a sequence of layered rocks, the
oldest layers or units usually occur at the bottom of the sequence and the youngest occur at the top. This type of sequencing
allows us to determine the relative age of each of the rock units and is a powerful tool for interpreting the geologic history of
a region, even when the rock units have been deformed by faulting and folding.

map view

youngest

oldest
cross section

The boundaries between different rock units or layers are called geologic contacts. When contacts are exposed at
the surface, they are drawn on a map as solid lines where the boundary between different rock units is certain and dashed
where inferred. In order to understand geologic structures such as faults and folds geologists use map views and cross
sections to display various views of a structure. Depending upon how the rock is deformed and subsequently eroded,
complex patterns of geologic contacts can be developed at the surface and therefore displayed on a map view. Bear in mind
that geologic contacts are different than topographic contours. In many cases the geologic contacts are completely
independent of the topography.

Recall from lecture that strike and dip refers to the spatial orientation of rock layers. The strike is an imaginary
line where a rock unit intersects a horizontal plane at the surface of the outcrop. Its purpose is to show the trend of a
particular part of rock unit across the surface of the Earth. Strike is represented by a compass direction. The strike often
closely parallels the contact between different rock units. The dip (or tilt) of a rock unit is always perpendicular to strike
and represents the downward angle made from an imaginary horizontal plane down to the top surface of the rock layer.
Strike and dip symbols look like short “T’s”. They are placed on the map view only.

contacts

60

strike & dip symbol .

dip strike
(compass direction
e (angle and direction
rik from map view)
st dip from cross section)

60

21
Part A. Tilted Rocks. Tilted rocks are the simplest form of geologic structure. By careful examination of tilted rock units
we can get a good sense of how thick the rock units are, develop a general relationship between thickness and angle of dip,
and also establish a general relationship between relative age and dip direction. The true thickness of a rock layer is
measured perpendicular to the geologic contacts, whereas the apparent thickness of a rock unit is any other cut across the
geologic contacts that is not. Because of irregular patterns of erosion, most surface exposures of tilted rocks show apparent
rock unit thickness.

surface or map view

3'-10"
appearent thickness

true thickness
2'-6"

cross section

1. Roll out 2 layers of “rock” about 1 inch thick each. Stand them on end so that they have a strike of north and a dip of 90o.
Draw the rock layers on the left set of blocks below, being careful to accurately display the rock thickness on the side and top
views. Next, tilt your rock layers to a dip of about 20o East, then erode the top edges with dental floss to make a horizontal
surface. Now draw the rock layers on the right set of blocks below, being careful to accurately display the rock thickness.
Compare the map views of both cases.

north north
map view map view

cross section cross section

What general relationship exists between the angle of dip and the apparent thickness of rock units as seen on the map view?

Which view (map or cross section) provides the best view for determining the true thickness of tilted rock units?

22
Part B. Folds. Folds are a type of plastic deformation that occurs in rocks. Folds develop in rocks that are naturally weak or
in rocks that are deeply buried and thereby subjected to considerable heat and pressure. Compression is the most common
type of stress associated with folds. There are 2 general forms of folds. If the rock layers bend upward the fold is called an
anticline and the limbs dip (tilt) away from the hinge of the fold. Seldom are complete folds found in outcrops. Usually
they are extensively eroded. If you erode an anticline, the map pattern will consist of parallel bands of rock layers with
older rock layers exposed in the middle and younger rock layers to the outside. Conversely, if the rock layers bend
downward the fold is called an syncline and the limbs dip (tilt) towards the hinge of the fold. If you erode a syncline, the
map pattern will consist of parallel bands of rock layers with younger rock layers exposed in the middle and older rock layers
to the outside.
ne
pla
ial plane of erosion
ax fold axis

upright anticline and associated fold terminology upright syncline eroding a fold

Most folded rocks are not as symmetrical and complete as these figures show. More commonly, the entire fold is
both tilted and partly eroded. Such folds are called plunging folds. The map view of a plunging anticline will show a
curved pattern to the rock layers. The point where the contacts between rock layers wrap around is called the nose of the
fold and is coincident with the plunge or tilt of the entire fold. The map view of a plunging syncline will show a curved
pattern to the contacts between rock layers as well. However, the nose is in the opposite direction of the plunge of the entire
fold. Age relationships are still valid for plunging folds.

ion plane of erosion

ct
dire
nge
plu
plunge angle

plunging anticlines and associated fold terminology

1.Roll 3 "rock" layers of about 1/2 inch thick and 3-4 inches square. Stack your rock layers upon one another. Construct an
upright anticline. Next, use the dental floss to erode through the top 1/4-1/3 of the fold so as to expose the inner layers.
Draw a map and cross section view (end view perpendicular to the axial plane) of the eroded fold in the boxes below.
Number the relative ages of the layers (1 = oldest)
map view

cross section

23
Add a fold axis to the map view. Looking at the map view, what general relationship do you observe between the age of the
rock layers and the center of the fold?_______________ ____________________________ With respect to the hinge of the
fold, which way do the limbs of the fold tilt? ______________

2. Roll 3 "rock" layers of about 1/2 inch thick and 3-4 inches in size. square. Stack your rock layers. Now construct an
upright syncline. Next, use the dental floss to erode through the top 1/4-1/3 of the fold so as to expose the inner layers.
Draw a map and cross section view (end view perpendicular to the axial plane) of the eroded fold in the boxes below.
Number the relative ages of the layers (1 = oldest)

map view

cross section

Add a fold axis to the map view. Looking at the map view, what general relationship do you observe between the age of the
rock layers and the center of the fold?________________ ________________________ With respect to the hinge of the
fold, which way do the limbs of the fold tilt? ______________

3. Roll 3 "rock" layers of about 1/2 inch thick and 3-4 inches in size. square. Stack your rock layers. Now construct a
plunging anticline. Next, use the dental floss to erode through the top 1/4-1/3 of the fold so as to expose the inner layers.
Draw a map and cross section view (end view perpendicular to the axial plane) of the eroded fold in the boxes below.
Number the relative ages of the layers (1 = oldest)

24
 map view

cross section

Add a fold axis plunge arrow to the map view. Looking at the map view, what general relationship do you observe between
the way the rock layers wrap around and the direction of the plunge?_______________________________

4. Erosion often makes folds and other geologic structures look more complicated than they really are (especially the strike
of the geologic contacts). However, patterns of erosion created by river valleys can help us determine which way the rocks
are dipping. Construct an upright anticline from 3 layers. Use dental floss to erode a flat surface that will expose at least 2
of the layers. Draw a map view of the eroded view in the left set of blocks below. Place strike and dip symbols on the map
view showing the attitude of the layers on each limb of the fold. Next, use dental floss to cut a river valley perpendicular
to the hinge of the fold exposing all 3 layers. Draw a map view of the river eroded anticline in the right set of blocks. Be
careful to accurately record the position of the contacts.

map view map view

Looking at the map view, what general relationship exists between the direction of dip of the rock units and the “V” pattern
of the geologic contacts as eroded by the river valley ?

Looking at the map view, what general relationship exists between the distribution of the relative age of the rocks in the
anticline and the “V” pattern of the geologic contacts eroded by the river valley

Part C. Interpreting Real Geologic Maps. Geologic maps display a variety of information about rocks, including structure,
age and specific rock types, all of which are superimposed upon a topographic base map. Together this information provides
25
a detailed summary of the geology of a given area. The legend of a geologic map lists the rock units, or formations and
their description in chronological order, beginning with the oldest formation at the bottom. Each rock formation is coded by
a color, pattern and set of letters. Structural symbols such as fold, faults and strike and dip also appear in the legend.

Oregon Geologic Map

Examine your Oregon state geologic map and then answer the following questions.
Locate the formation labeled Tcg in the north central part of the map. What rock type is it? ______________
What is the age of the rock? ____________
Look closely for symbols that indicate folding. What types of folds are present?
_____________________________________
What is the general strike of these folds? ________________________
What is the general direction of compression? _________________________

Devil’s Fence, Montana

What specific type of large geologic structure is located on the eastern half of the map? ____________________
What 2 pieces of geologic evidence supports your interpretation?
___________________________________ _____________________________________

Locate and identify rock types and absolute ages of “gd” and “ad”. What are their relative ages with respect to the
structure that you identified earlier (younger or older?)? Hint which one has been deformed by the structure?

Map symbol Rock type Geologic age Relative age with respect to
the large fold
ad

gd

Complete the following maps by adding geologic contacts where appropriate. Next, add fold axes and identify the type of
fold present. (ls = limestone ss = sandstone sh = shale cgl = conglomerate)

specific fold type: _____________________

26
 ss 45 sh
45

ls
20
cgl
45
cgl

ss ls
20

sh cgl
20 20

specific fold type: _____________________

15 15
20
sh ls
ss

cgl
5
ss 5
10
sh
ss
ls
sh
20
20 15

27
 Summary Rules for Interpreting Folds

1. Rock layers dip in the direction of the “V” made by the contacts when crossing a valley.

2. Rock layers dip towards younger age rocks (unless overturned).

3. The strike of rock units generally parallels geologic contacts.

4. Steep dipping rock layers will show a more narrow map outcrop than shallow dipping layers.

5. Synclines: young rocks are in the middle of the fold; limbs dip towards each other

6. Anticlines: old rocks are in the middle of the fold; limbs dip away from each other

7. Plunging folds:
contacts between rock layers are not parallel as seen on the map view

anticlines plunge towards the nose of the fold

synclines plunge away from the nose of the fold

28
 Lab 4 : Mass Wasting
Name: ________________________

Part A. Examine the map mass wasting distribution map of the US provided with this lab. Identify 3 different regions where
mass wasting occurrence is relatively high. For each region, suggest possible triggers and factors that may explain the high
occurrence of mass wasting in these regions.
region possible triggers contributing factors
____________________ ___________________ ____________________________
____________________ ___________________ ____________________________
____________________ ___________________ ____________________________

Part B. Examine any 3 of the case studies provided. For each try to determine as many of the major factors involved as
possible by looking at the maps, cross sections, photos and accompanying text.

Location: ________________________

1. Trigger (s): ___________________________

2. Contributing factors: _____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

3. Size (dimensions or volume): ___________________

4. Rate of movement: _____________________

5. Property damage ($, deaths and/or types): __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

6. Type of mass wasting: _________________________

Location: ________________________

1. Trigger (s): ___________________________

2. Contributing factors: _____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

3. Size (dimensions or volume): ___________________

4. Rate of movement: _____________________

5. Property damage ($, deaths and/or types): __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

6. Type of mass wasting: _________________________

29
Location: ________________________

1. Trigger (s): ___________________________

2. Contributing factors: _____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________________

3. Size (dimensions or volume): ___________________

4. Rate of movement: _____________________

5. Property damage ($, deaths and/or types): __________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

6. Type of mass wasting: _________________________

Part C. Lake San Christobal. Examine the maps and photographs of the Lake San Christobal, CO. quadrangle and then
answer the following questions. Color photos of this mass wasting site can be seen at the following web location:
http://landslides.usgs.gov/slumtrip

1. Use colored pencils, tracing paper and the stereo glasses to outline the boundary of the slide area and deposit. Label the
source area and place arrows on the map to show direction of movement.

2. What is the average length and width of the slide deposit? L = __________ W = __________

3. How has this mass wasting event changed the surrounding valley?

4. Using 1/4 square mile blocks, estimate the area affected by the slide and the area of the slide deposit

Area affected = ____________ Area of deposit = ____________

5. What factors and triggers might have contributed to this slide?

6. Type of mass wasting: ________________________

7. What mitigation measures would you recommend for the future?

30
Topographic map of Lake San Cristobal, CO.

31
Part D. Gros Ventre. Examine the maps, photographs and summary of the Gros Ventre, WY. area and then answer the
following questions.

1. Use a colored pencils, tracing paper and the stereo glasses to outline the boundary of the slide and the slide deposit. Label
the source area and place arrows on the map to show direction of movement.

2. What is the average length and width of the slide deposit? L = __________ W = __________

3. How has this mass wasting event changed the surrounding valley?

4. What secondary devastation was associated with this mass wasting event, how long after the mass wasting event did it
occur, and what were the results?

5. Area affected: ____________ Volume of deposit: _________________

Maximum thickness of deposit: ______________________

6. What factors made this area prone to failure?

7. What triggers may have contributed to the failure?

8. Type of mass wasting: ________________________

9. What mitigation measures would recommend for the future?

Ecola State Park, OR

Use the handouts presented in lab to assist in answering the following questions

1. How large was the 1961 mass wasting event? How many other mass wasting scars are present in the area?

2. What was the largest measurable vertical offset of rock? How fast was the rock mass observed to be moving?

3. Which type of mass wasting does this example most likely represent?

4. What factors and triggers might have contributed to this slide?

32
 Lab 5: Local Field Trip - Faults in Bend
Name: _______________________

Introduction. I will lead you to several locations where you will work in groups to gather information regarding the
outcrops. As you gather information, answer the associated questions for each deposit. Fifty percent of your grade for this
field trip will be based upon you willingness to take an active role in making measurements, observations,
contributing to discussions and asking questions.

The location of old faults can often be determined using topographic maps and air photos, together with field
examination of rock outcrops. Faults stand out on topographic maps and air photos as unusually straight ridges or hill sides,
or as straight segments of valleys or river channels. Where streams cross a fault, river channels may be suddenly offset. In
other cases the stream channel will suddenly stop or a spring may appear. The vertical offset of a ridge or the lateral offset of
a river channel can provide important clues regarding how much movement has occurred along the fault, the type of stress
involved and even the age of the fault.

Once a suspected fault is identified from topographic maps and air photos, field examination of the site is used to
make additional observations. In the field, a fault may be very obvious or deceptively subtle, especially if it is an old fault.
Field observations that support the presence of a fault include: 1) offset rock layers 2) a sudden change in topographic relief
from a few feet to several tens of feet) 3) the sudden disappearance or appearance of a new rock layer, 4) highly contorted
rock layers, 5) a highly weathered zone of intensely rotten, weak or stained rock, 6) springs or other linear zone of moisture
in an otherwise dry area (often marked by plants).

It is important to measure whenever possible all of the evidence present, including the amount of offset and the
orientation (compass bearing and amount of tilt) of the fault plane. Geologists use a compass and clinometer to measure
strike and dip of rock layers, fault planes and geologic contacts. At our first stop I will show you how to use the compass
and clinometer to take measurements. You will record strike and dip, locations and fault traces on topographic base map
provided n lab.

Brother’s fault Near Tumalo State Park. Mark this location on your map.

Record the US PLSS to location to the nearest ¼ section: ___________________________________________

1. Sketch and label the outcrop.

2. List the all of the field evidence that you can find for a fault at this location.

3. How wide is the fault zone?

33
4. What is the strike and dip of this fault?

5. How much vertical offset has occurred on this fault?

6. What kind of fault is this?

7. What kind of rocks are cut by the fault?

8. Use the appropriate fault symbol to properly orient the fault on your map.

Shevlin Park fault north of Shevlin Park. Mark this location on your map.

Record the US PLSS to location to the nearest ¼ section: ___________________________________________

1. Sketch and label the outcrop.

2. List the all of the field evidence that you can find for a fault at this location.

3. How wide is the fault zone?

4. What is the strike and dip of this fault?

5. How much vertical offset has occurred on this fault?

34
6. What kind of fault is this?

7. What specific kinds of rocks are cut by the fault?

8. Use the appropriate fault symbol to properly orient the fault on your map.

Tumalo fault at the Deschutes river. Mark this location on your map.

Record the US PLSS to location to the nearest ¼ section: ___________________________________________

1. Sketch and label the outcrop.

2. List the all of the field evidence that you can find for a fault at this location.

3. How much vertical offset has occurred on this fault?

4. What kind of rocks are cut by the fault?

5. Use the appropriate fault symbol to properly orient the fault on your map.

Summary.

1. What is the general strike of the faults that we’ve seen today?

2. List the types of faults observed today.

3. What type of regional stress can account for these faults?

35
Topographic map of the west side of Bend, Oregon

36
 Lab 6: Coastal Geology
Name: ________________________

Introduction. In this lab you will examine several maps that show different types of coasts and coastal features. The goal is
to be able to identify primary and secondary coasts and the features associated with them. Your notes from lecture will be
very helpful. In addition we will take a look at coastal erosion and long term sea level changes that have occurred along the
Oregon coast. You will also examine several features of the Oregon coast in order to become familiar with the geology of
our coast.

Part A: Coastal Types. Examine any 5 available topographic maps. For each map, look at the areas highlighted and try to
identify the general (ex: primary vs. secondary) and specific type of coast (ex: erosional: drowned river valley). Please do
not write on the map. Consult the accompanying coastal landform diagrams and your lecture notes as you work through
each map.

1. Map name: __________________________ Location on map: ________________________

Active or Passive continental margin (circle one)
General Type of coast: Primary or Secondary subcategory _______________________
specific landform(s) _______________________________________________________________

2. Map name: __________________________ Location on map: ________________________

Active or Passive continental margin (circle one)
General Type of coast: Primary or Secondary subcategory _______________________
specific landform(s) _______________________________________________________________

3. Map name: __________________________ Location on map: ________________________

Active or Passive continental margin (circle one)
General Type of coast: Primary or Secondary subcategory _______________________
specific landform(s) _______________________________________________________________

4. Map name: __________________________ Location on map: ________________________

Active or Passive continental margin (circle one)
General Type of coast: Primary or Secondary subcategory _______________________
specific landform(s) _______________________________________________________________

5. Map name: __________________________ Location on map: ________________________

Active or Passive continental margin (circle one)
General Type of coast: Primary or Secondary subcategory _______________________
specific landform(s) _______________________________________________________________

37
Part B. Long Term Sea level Change

Examine the following diagram which shows 100 yr average tide gauge data for several coastal locations around the world.
Use a ruler to draw a “best fit” straight line through each data set.

1. What general trend do you observe f6r all data sets/

2. Calculate the slope (y2-y1 /x2 - x1) of the best fit lines between 1900 and 1960 for the east and west coasts of North
America. What is the significance of the slope?

East Coast: ______________ West Coast: ________________

3. What is the maximum amount sea level rise for the past 100 years along the east coast of North America ?

4. What is the predicted sea level increase for the East coast of North America in 200 years? (hint: multiply slope times
years)

100 yr. Regional Tide Gauge Data.

38
5. Now examine the map of the US showing rates of sea level rise. What general relationship do you observe between sea
level rise and the type of continental margin?

US Rates of Sea Level Rise

6. Next, examine the chart showing sea level change for the past 10,000 years. Relative to today’s seal level what were the
sea levels at the following times:

10,000 ybp: _____________ 6,000 ybp: _____________ 2,000 ybp: ___________________

Describe the two general trends in sea level rise over the past 10,000 years.

Record of Sea Level Change for the Past 10,000 yr

39
7. Finally, examine the last chart showing sea level for the past 40,000 years. Relative to today, what was the position of sea
level at the following times:

40,000 ybp: _______ 29,000 ybp: _______ 18,000 ybp: _________ 10,000 ybp: _________

What do you think is a primary cause of these variations?

40, 000 yr. Record of Sea Level Change

Gulf - Atlantic coast sea level curve

years before present (x 1000)
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
0
mean sea level (m)

50

100

150
interglacial Wisconsin ice age interglacial

8. On the coastal bathymetric map of Oregon shown below mark the depth contours that correspond to each of the sea levels
that you determined in #7 (depth contours: 1 fathom = 6 ft or 2 m). How far west of the present coastline was the coast
during each of these times:

40,000 ybp: approximate distance west of current coast line = __________ miles

18,000 ybp: approximate distance west of current coast line = __________ miles

10,000 ybp: approximate distance west of current coast line = __________ miles

40
 Bathymetric map
70
of the 80 Siletz bay
Oregon coast
90
60

10
100
Yaquina bay
30
40

He
ce
30 20

ta b
a nk
Alsea bay

s
80 50

90
60 50
70 s
a nk
lb
al
50 ew
on
St 60

100 50
70
60 80 Siuslaw bay
50
90

40

10

scale 100
North
5 miles
Umpqua bay
depth contours in fathoms 20

(1 fathom = 2 meters or 6 feet)

30

41
Part C. Analysis of sand. Use the microscopes to examine 3 of the samples of sand provided by your instructor.

A. Location: _________________________________ Color: _________________________________

Minerals present: ___________________________________________________________________

Rock Fragments: ____________________________________________________________________

Size range of mineral and rock fragments: ____________________________________________

Shape of mineral and rock fragments: ________________________________________________

Biologic materials: __________________________________________________________________

Type of depositional site: ____________________________________________________________

Source of materials: ________________________________________________________________

B. Location: _________________________________ Color: _________________________________

Minerals present: ___________________________________________________________________

Rock Fragments: ____________________________________________________________________

Size range of mineral and rock fragments: ____________________________________________

Shape of mineral and rock fragments: ________________________________________________

Biologic materials: __________________________________________________________________

Type of depositional site: ____________________________________________________________

Source of materials: ________________________________________________________________

C. Location: _________________________________ Color: _________________________________

Minerals present: ___________________________________________________________________

Rock Fragments: ____________________________________________________________________

Size range of mineral and rock fragments: ____________________________________________

Shape of mineral and rock fragments: ________________________________________________

Biologic materials: __________________________________________________________________

Type of depositional site: ____________________________________________________________

Source of materials: ________________________________________________________________

42
 Lab 7: Rivers
Name: ________________________

Introduction. In this lab you will examine several maps of rivers in order to become familiar with river landforms. In
addition, you will make measurements of several river properties and interpret river flooding data.

Use the topographic maps of the Bend 7.5 quadrangle to answer the following questions.
1. What is the gradient (ft/mile) of the Deschutes between river miles 170 and 172?

2. What is the gradient (ft/mile) of the Deschutes between river miles 165 and 169?

3. Why are the gradients at these two reaches of the river different?

Examine the plots of river discharge for the Little Deschutes and Deschutes rivers and then answer the following questions.

1. What is a typical range of spring non-flood discharge for the Little Deschutes?

2. What is a typical range of fall non-flood discharge for the Little Deschutes?

3. Between 1988 and 1994 how many large flood events occurred and what were their associated discharges?

4. What is a typical range of annual non-flood related discharges for the Deschutes near Madras?

5. When was the largest flood on the Deschutes and what was its associated discharge?

43
44
Determining Flood frequency.

You will use a stream flow data set for the John Day River to make a prediction about the severity of flood events.
There is much interest in being able to predict when and how severe a flood event might be along a stream or river,
especially in populated areas. We can use mathematics to help assign probabilities of a particular flood level occurring in a
given year. The reliability of these probabilities depends on how far back and how accurate the records are for a stream.
The longer the records go back in time the better the predictions for future events.

The process uses the peak annual discharge which is defined as the maximum mean one-day discharge of a stream
for each year for all the years that the records are kept. If the records are kept for N years then we can rank each of the
maximum discharge events from 1 to N according to the magnitude of each event with 1 assigned to the largest and N
assigned to the smallest maximum discharge. Another way of looking at the rank of an event is that its rank number tells you
how many years, in the N years, that the maximum discharge was at least that of the maximum discharge for that year. So an
event with rank 1 only occurred once in the N years while an event with rank N says that the maximum discharge for all
years in the N years was at least that of the event ranked N. To find the recurrence interval for each event we can use the
formula:
( N + 1)
RI =
M
where RI is the recurrence interval of an event, N is the number of years, and M is the rank of the event (M ranges from 1 to
N). Note that 1/RI is the probability of the event occurring in any one year.

Instructions for computer data set.

Turn on the computer by pressing the circular button located in the middle of the box beneath the table. Once the
computer has gone through its start up procedures a blue screen will appear with several icons. Use the mouse pointer to
click on the icon titled “John Day peak flow.xls”. This will open your file in a spreadsheet program called Excel. Two
columns of data are shown. The A column lists each year for which flow data is available. The B column lists the
corresponding peak annual discharge in cubic feet per second (cfs) for that year. The first thing that you will need to do is
sort the two data sets by peak annual stream flow. To do this highlight the numerical data in both columns A and B by
placing the cursor over the first data cell in column A. Click and hold the mouse while dragging over the data cells in both A
and B columns until all the data cells are highlighted in gray. Let go of the mouse button. All of the data cells in the A and
B columns should remain highlighted in gray. Next move your cursor up to the top of the sheet and click on the Data pull
down menu. Select Sort and click on it. A small gray window will appear on the screen. From this window
change the sort by Year to sort by Peak Annual Stream by clicking on the black triangle next to the word “year” Peak
annual stream should now be highlighted. Now click the button next to descending, then press okay. The computer will
rearrange the data in the two columns to display the data from highest peak annual stream flow to lowest, together with the
corresponding year. In column C enter the rank of each peak annual stream flow starting with the number 1 and continuing
until the last data set has a rank.

Next you need to input the recurrence interval formula into the first row of column D. To do so click on the first
data cell of column D. Type in the following: = (73+1)/C3. Press return. This is formula is telling the computer to add one
to the number of years in your data set then divide by the corresponding rank from column C. The number 74 should appear
in the cell where you typed the formula. Now click on the same cell again, move your cursor up to the Edit pull down menu
and select Copy. Next click and drag your cursor over the remaining empty cells in column D to highlight them. Once they
are highlighted, use your cursor to select Paste from the Edit pull down menu. The empty cells is column D should all have
numbers in them now. To format the numbers, Click on the D at the top of the column then select Cells from the Format
pull down menu. A small menu box will appear on the screen. In the Category window click on number and then set the
decimal places to “2”. Now press okay. Your data set is now complete and ready for plotting. Use the Save As command
from the File pull down menu to save your spreadsheet with your name on it (ex: John Day peak flow breynolds)

Graphing your data.

Click on the Chart Wizard button at the top of the spreadsheet. A box called Step 1 - Chart Type will appear on
the screen A series of graph types will be shown. Select the XY (scatter) graph by clicking on it. Step 2: - Chart Source
Data. Click on the tab called Series. Click on X-values then use your mouse to highlight the recurrence interval data set
(column D numbers only). Repeat this step for Y-values to highlight the peak annual stream flow values (column B numbers
only). Press the Next button, move to Step 3 – Chart options. In each of the three white blanks type in the name of your
chart and the labels for your X and Y axes, then press the Next button to skip Step 4 and then press Finish. A graph should
now appear on the screen. You can move by clicking on the graph and dragging it to another location on the page. You can
also change the size of the graph by clicking on it and then clicking and dragging on one of the black squares that appear
around the perimeter of the graph.
45
 You will need to change the scale of the X abd Y axes. To do this click on one of the scale numbers on the X-axis.
A dialogue window called Format Axes will appear on the screen. Click on the tab called Scale. Set the maximum X-value
to 500 then press okay. Repeat these steps for the Y-axis setting the maximum value to 60000. To have the computer draw a
best fit line through the data on your graph, first click on your graph to highlight it, then go to the Chart pull down menu
and select “Add Trendline”. A dialog box will appear on the screen. Under Type select the logarthmic option. Next click
on the Options tab. Check that the trendline name is checked at “automatic”. Now set Forecast - Backward to500 units
and check the Display equation on chart box. Next, click on “okay”. Your graph will be drawn with a best fit line
through the data with the line passing through the Y axis and the formula for the best fit line displayed on the graph. Cool!

The equation on your graph represents the best fit line of your data. The X in the formala is the data of the X axis
(recurrence interval) and the Y in the formula in the y data of your graph (peak annual stream flow) To predict what any
peak annual flow will be for a corresponding recurrence interval first select a recurrence interval and put it in the X location
of the formula. Crunch the numbers in your calculator to obtain the answer.

2) Write your equation of best fit line:

3) Read from your graph the predicted discharge for each of the following;

50 year flood? _____________________100 yr flood? _____________________500 yr flood? _____________________

4. Use the formula to calculate these same numbers

50 year flood? _____________________100 yr flood? _____________________500 yr flood? _____________________

Discussion Questions:

1. How well do you think that the graph of the equation of best fit models the actual data points? What are some limiting
factors?

2. In general, what is a one hundred year flood?

3. What does recurrence interval mean?

4. Percent probability is determined as the inverse of the flood frequency. For example, a 1 once in 20 yr flood (20/1) would
have a 5 % probability of occurring ((1/20)*100) = 5%. What are the probabilities associated with each of the following
floods ?

5 yr: _______________ 10 yr _______________ 20 yr _________________

50 yr ______________ 100 yr ______________ 500 yr ________________

46
Compare and contrast discharge and velocity.

What does the rank of a river mean?

In addition to flood analysis, what other reasons would someone want to know river discharge?

Rates of river erosion and deposition

The Niagara river began cutting a gorge and developing water falls about 10,000 yr ago. Measure the distance from the
Niagara escarpment to Niagara Falls on the accompanying map.

Use this data to calculate the average rate of retreat of Niagara Falls.
distance: ______________ km rate (distance x 1000 / time): ___________ m/yr

The Colorado River cut the 7000 ft deep Grand Canyon in about 9 million years. How fast was this canyon cut?

47
The amount of sediment that a stream carries is proportional to the velocity and availability of sediment. Use the chart below
to answer the following questions.

Over what range of velocities is clay size sediment transported?

Over what range of velocities is sand size sediment transported?

Over what range of velocities is gravel size sediment transported?

Which sediment size(s) has/have the lowest threshold of erosion?

Which sediment size(s) has/have the highest threshold of erosion? Why?

1000
erosion
of sediment
Stream velocity (cm/sec)

100
old
eros
ion resh
th
.
d
ol

10
sh

transportation
re
th

of sediment
n
tio
si
po

1 deposition
de

of sediment

0
clay silt sand gravel
increasing grain size

48
 Lab 8: Geologic Hazard Poster Session

Assignment. Much of this quarter centers on geologic processes that affect the surface of the Earth. Many of these
processes have a direct and devastating impact on humans. With this in mind, you will team up with one other person to
conduct background research on a specific geologic hazard. You will summarize your findings in the form of a poster that
you will present to the class during the last lab. Scientific posters provide a concise and visually appealing way to
summarized research on a particular topic. In this class, your poster will summarize your background research in a specific
geologic hazard. You can choose a topic from any of the hazards area that we’ve studied this quarter including earthquakes,
mass wasting, floods, glaciers, coastal erosion or groundwater contamination (volcanic eruption are not included). Some
topic suggestions are provided below. You may work by yourself or together with one other student. You must have your
topic approved by me, otherwise you will not get credit for your poster. This assignment is worth 100 points and will be
graded by both the instructor and your fellow students.

Researching your topic and preparing your poster: You may use a combination of library (books, magazines) and
internet (web sites )resources as background information. The information that you gather will be used by you to synthesize
and summarize all that is known and relevant about your topic. You should consult at least 3 different sources (only one web
site will count). Your poster represents a summary of your research. As such, it should provide important information about
what you found out. Your finished poster should be well organized, easy to follow and read, and professional in appearance.
All of your information should fit on to a 3ft x 3 ft space. The following are some guidelines to use in preparing your poster
for public viewing.

Title: What geologic hazard/event did you investigate?

Use lettering that can be read from a 5ft distance
Keep it concise and to the point, yet attracts attention
Include names of members in your group
Background:
Where is this hazard/event located?
What are its main features and landforms?
When did it happen?
What populations or sensitive areas were affected?
Hazards:
Summarize the characteristics of the hazard/event
Show data in the form of tables, charts, pictures, and maps. Each should have a label that identifies it
What types of monitoring were/are used? Were there any warning signs?
Has/were there any mitigation efforts; if so what were/are they?
Summary:
Include a paragraph highlighting the importance and significance of this hazard/event.
List of References:
List alphabetically by author's last name and include book/article title, year of publication
For Web sites, list author, title of home page and WWW address

Evaluation of Poster:

A. Clarity: (50%)
1. Organization
Easy to follow format: obvious where to start inspecting the poster and clear easy to follow organization
Clear writing style, use of complete sentences and correct grammar and spelling
2. Students demonstrate knowledge of the topic and ability to answer questions

B. Content (50%)
1. Factual
Quality and detail of information id correct and informative
Data, graphs, photos and maps are relevant, useful, clearly displayed and explained

2. Complete
Have you covered the most important aspects of the hazard?

49
Here are a few example topic ideas. You may select one of these or come up with a creative topic of your own from any
where in the world. Regardless, you must have your topic approved by me before starting your research.

Earthquakes:
1906 San Francisco Earthquake
1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake
1964 Alaskan Earthquake
1999 Nisqually Earthquake
2002 Denali Alaska Earthquake
1960 Chile Earthquake
1999 Chi-Chi Taiwan Earthquake

Mass Wasting:
1959 Hebden lake landslide
1903 Frank Slide, Alberta
Winter 2000 Oregon coastal highway 101 mass wasting
Giant submarine mass wasting at Hawaii
Mass wasting on Mars
Vaiont Dam failure, Italy
Yosemite National Park rock falls

Flood Events:
1996 Willamette river flooding
1993 upper Mississippi valley flooding

50
 Student Evaluation of a Poster

Name: _______________________ Title of Poster that you evaluated: _________________________________________

After examining one of the posters, complete the following chart and answer the following questions

Score
Question
Easy to follow format: obvious where to start inspecting the poster and clear easy to follow
organization

(4 = excellent; 3 = very good, but nor perfect; 2 = average, somewhat disorganized; 1 = very difficult to follow or
incomplete)
Clear writing style: use of complete sentences and correct grammar and spelling.

(4 = excellent;
3 = very good, but not perfect; 2 = average, some errors; 1 = numerous errors)
Student presenters are helpful and engaging and demonstrate knowledge of the topic and
ability to answer questions.

(4 = excellent; 3 = very good, but not perfect; 2 = average, stumbled a bit; 1 = unprepared /unable to answer basic
questions)
Quality and detail of information is thorough, correct and informative.

(4 = excellent; 3 = very good, but not perfect; 2 = average, some things could be more thoroughly explained; 1=
inadequate or incomplete)
Data, graphs, photos and maps are relevant, useful, clearly displayed and explained.

(4 = excellent, 3 = very good, but not perfect; 2 = average, needs more/better visual aids; 1 = inadequate or incomplete
visual aids)
Covers the most important aspects of the hazard.

(4 = excellent; 3 = very good, but not perfect; 2 = average, something seems to be missing; 1 = inadequate or
incomplete)
Total score

List 2 different specific errors or negative aspects of the poster and provide specific suggestions as to how these could be
corrected or improved.

List 2 different specific positive aspects of the poster that you evaluated.

51
 Lab 9: Glaciers
Name: ________________________

Introduction. In this exercise you will examine several maps and photographs of glaciers in order to identify and quantify
several important characteristics of glaciers. In addition, you will apply all that you’ve learned in the past two quarters to
interpreting landforms on our neighboring planets.

Alpine Glaciers

Part A. Laminated photographs of alpine glaciation

Photo A. List 3 alpine glacial land forms visible on the photograph.

1. ______________________ 2. ______________________ 3. ______________________

Photo B. List alpine glacial ice features visible on the photograph.

1. ______________________ 2. ______________________ 3. ______________________

Identify the 9 numbered ice and glacial land forms the visible on the accompanying set of photographs.
1. ______________________ 2. ______________________ 3. ______________________
4. ______________________ 5. ______________________ 6. ______________________
7. ______________________ 8. ______________________ 9. ______________________

Part B. Topographic map interpretation of alpine glaciers.

Skagway topographic map. Examine the map and then answer the following questions.
1. What is the relief (elevation change) between the head and terminus of Muir glacier?___________________.
2. How long is Muir Glacier? __________________
3. If surface ice from Muir glacier moves down slope at 2 feet/day, about how long will it take for ice from the head of the
glacier to reach the terminus (5280 ft/mi and 365 days/yr). ______________
4. What mountain is located at the head of Muir glacier and what is its elevation? __________
5. How many tributary glaciers feed into Melbern glacier? ____________
6. What mountain range is the source of the Grande Pacific glacier? ___________________
7. What is the maximum relief (elevation change) between the head and terminus of the Grande Pacific
glacier?_____________________.

Bend 1:100,000 map

1. List the names of 4 alpine glaciers present in the Cascades.
________________ ________________ ________________ ________________
2. List the names of 4 tarns present in the Cascades.
________________ ________________ ________________ ________________
3. What is the general shape of the valleys to which the tarns supply melt water? ______________________
4. What is the lowest elevation to which glaciers exist in the Cascades? _____________
5. Which side of the Cascades has the most U-shaped valleys? _________________

52
Mt Bachelor map Examine the glacier map of the Mt Bachelor area provided in lab.

1. Where was the alpine ice cap the thickest? ____________________________

2. How close to Bend and down which river valley did the ice advance?

Movement of glaciers. Look at the map of Rhone glacier shown below. The ice movement for an 8 year period is shown
by the displacement of a line of stakes positioned across the glacier together with the positions of the terminus of the glacier.
Use the ice stake locations to determine the average annual rate of down slope movement of the glacier’s eastern edge and
center at the two stake locations. Also determine the rate of movement of the terminus. Remember that rate is distance
divided by time.

Rhone glacier, Switzerland

Stake Set B

North
Stake Set A

1878
1876

1880
Glacier Head

1882
1882
1880

1874
1876
1874

1878

1882

1878

1874

0 scale 3000 Positions of glacier

terminus
feet 1818

stake set A stake set A stake set B stake set B glacier

terminus
center edge center edge

time
interval
(yr)
distance of
change (ft)

annual rate
of change
(ft/yr.)
Based upon the data, is the glacier advancing, retreating or both? Explain.

Part C. Continental Glaciation

Whitewater map. Using the topographic map provided in lab outline in colored pencil the extent of the terminal moraine
shown on this map.

In what direction did the ice sheet retreat (north is at the top of the map)? ______________

What kind of glacial landforms are Blue Spring Lake and Spring Lake? _________________
53
Passadumkeag map. Using the topographic map provided in lab outline in colored pencil the extent of the 2 eskers shown
on this map (hint: look for the occurrence of gravel pits).

In what direction did the ice sheet retreat (north is at the top of the map)?

Examine the glaciation maps of North America provided with this lab.
1. In what part of the US did continental glaciation reach the farthest south?

2. In the Pacific Northwest, how far south did a continuous continental ice sheet extend?

3. List 3 locations (by state) in the western US where large lakes formed.
__________________ _____________________ ____________________

4. Radiocarbon age dates suggest that the margins of the continental ice sheet advanced southward from northern Canada at
rates ranging from 150-1000 ft/yr. Use this data to calculate the minimum and maximum amount of time for an ice sheet to
advance from the southern edge of Hudson Bay to southern shore of Lake Erie near the city of Cleveland, point “C”.
Determine the distance from the accompanying map. There are 5280 ft/mile. Also, rate = distance / time. Rearrange this
equation to solve for time.

distance in miles: ______________ minimum time: ______________

distance in feet: ______________ maximum time: ______________

54
Changes in sea level. The present continental ice sheets cover about 8 million square miles of area with an average
thickness of about 3/4 mile. If the ice sheets were to completely melt how much water would this yield ? (water occupies
0.91 the volume of ice)

Water volume equivalent of ice sheets =(area x thickness) * (water-ice volume ratio =__________ cubic miles

The total surface area of the oceans is about 140 million square miles. How much could the level of the oceans rise if all the
continental ice melted?

sea level rise = water volume equivalent of ice sheets / area of the oceans x 5280 ft /mi = ____________ ft

Use your sea level rise answer to outline the position of the east coast if all continental ice melted (on the map provided
below of the eastern United States). Use the elevations of cities as guides in drawing your coast line.

55
Evidence for gigantic glacial outburst floods in eastern Washington

Examine the articles relating to the Missoula flood and then answer the following questions

1. List 2 different erosional features that are used as evidence of giant catastrophic flooding.

2. List 2 different depositional features that are used as evidence of giant catastrophic flooding.

3. What is the significance of the deposits in the Burlingame canyon?

4. When did the floods occur? How many possible floods were there during this time interval?

5. What was the estimated discharge rate for the flood events?

6. Where in the west is the origination site for the floods? What is the evidence that supports this location?

7. How did glaciation contribute to the flooding?

8. Sketch out the path and area affected by the flooding on the accompanying map of the PNW. Be sure to show the location
of the continental ice sheet, the lake, and flooded region.

Canada

C la
rk F
k. R
.
Washington Montana

Columbia R.

Idaho
Wy oming
Oregon
Sn a
ke R
.

56
 Lab 10: Groundwater
Name: ________________________

Introduction. In this lab you will examine phenomena related to groundwater and make porosity and permeability estimates
and measurements in different types of rocks. In addition, you will examine the erosional and depositional landforms
associated with deserts.

Porosity and Permeability.

Porosity is a measure of the amount of pore space in a sediment or rock. The pore space can include intergranular
spaces(between grains), vesicular (gas bubble space in lavas) of fracture spaces (cracks in the rock). We measure porosity
by comparing the total volume of rock or sediment to the volume of pore space in the material. For example, a sediment with
40 percent porosity means that 40 % of the sediment volume consists pore space. Permeability refers to the connectivity of
pore spaces. Permeability is expressed by a experimentally determined quantity called hydraulic conductivity. Together
porosity and hydraulic conductivity determine how readily water will flow through a rock or sediment.

1. Identify the rocks and sediments in the tray. Next, check off the probable type of porosity present. Under the comments
column to decide if the rock could be a possible aquifer (check if yes).

rock Porosity
sediment comments
intergranular vesicular fractures

2. Now lets measure the porosity in sediment. Place 100 ml of sediment in beaker. Record this value as total sediment
volume. Next fill a graduated cylinder with water then slowly pour the water into the beaker of sediment until the water
totally saturated the sediment. Record how much water (in ml) that you poured into the sediment.

Sample identification: __________________________

Where did the water go?____________________

Calculate the porosity by dividing the water volume added by the sediment volume.

sediment volume: _________________ ml water volume: __________________

porosity = (water volume / sediment volume)* 100 % = ________________

3. Place a small sample of your sediment on a glass slide and then put it under the microscope. Record the following
observations.

size range of the sediment: ______________________

57
shape of grains: _______________________________

rock/mineral types present: ______________________________________________________

4. Next we’ll measure the hydraulic conductivity of the sediment that you analyzed in question 2. Hydraulic conductivity is
a measure of the rate at which water flows through sediment or rock. Obtain a clear cylinder, filter paper, rubber band, stop
watch and 200 ml of sediment. Set up a sediment column as shown on the diagram. Record the water column ht sediment ht
and cross sectional area of the clear cylinder (in metric units). Pour water into the cylinder to fill it to the proper water
height and begin timing the flow of water through the sediment. Record the time it takes for all the water to flow through the
column.

h
1'-4"
L
11"

sediment length (L): _______________ cm water height (h): ________________ cm

cross sectional area of cylinder (A = π r2): _______________cm2 Time(t): ___________ s

Calculate the flow “Q” of the water through the sediment Q = ((h x A) / t): __________ cm3 /s

Now calculate hydraulic conductivity “K” from the following formula:

K = (Q/(A*h/L)) = _____________________ cm/s x 864 = _________________ m/day

Effect of groundwater depletion. Read the text and examine the map of the Santa Clara valley prior to answering the
following questions.

The Santa Clara valley was the first area in the United States where land subsidence due to groundwater overdraft
was recognized. The valley is a large structural trough filled with over 1500 ft of alluvium. Coarse sand and gravel aquifers
predominate near the valley margins, but the major part of the central valley alluvium is fine grained silt and clay. Below a
depth of 200 ft the ground water is confined by layers of clay, except near the margins of the valley. Initially wells as far
south as Santa Clara were artesian (free flowing) because the hydraulic gradient was such that the water pressure level was
above he ground surface. Extensive pumping for irrigation resulted in a lower of the water pressure level by 150-200 ft by
1965. most of the wells tapping the artesian system range from 500-1000 ft in depth. Well yields in the valley range from
500-1500 gallon per minute.
58
a) Where is the area of highest subsidence? _________________________
b) What was the total subsidence at San Jose from 1934-1967? What was the annual rate of subsidence for this period?
_____________

c) Circle the area on the map where subsidence would be most noticeable.
d) Would you expect much subsidence to occur in the darker shaded areas of the map? Why?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________

Land subsidence 1934-1967 in the Santa Clara valley, CA

Santa Clara Valley, CA

San Francisco
Bay alluvium bedrock
fault
subsidence
contour in ft
Menlo Park

Sunnyvale

Santa Clara
San Jose
8
4 6 8
2

0.5
0.1
0 3 6

miles

Water Table and Flow Direction Lines.

Clear Creek map. Examine the accompanying map showing the subsurface elevation of the water table.

1. Using the black dots located at the 800 ft level of the water table, draw a network of several groundwater flow direction
lines on the map, each perpendicular to the water table contours. On the basis of the water table contours and the flow line
network is there reasonable evidence that underground seepage from the dump has contaminated the Jones farm well?
Explain.

59
2. Is there reasonable evidence that underground seepage from the dump has contaminated the Smith farm well? Explain.

3. Is it possible that the waste from the animal corral on the Jones property could be responsible for polluting the Jones well,
Clear Creek or the Smith well? Explain.

60
Water table at Clear Creek

61
 Advice for Studying and Taking Exams
Studying strategies. You should review your notes regularly. Pay particular attention to key concepts and examples
presented by the instructor. Answer the study questions several days prior to the exam. Review the homework and in class
example problems.

Answering essay questions. There are certain key words that you ought to understand to correctly answer any essay
question. All answers should be written in complete, legible sentences. Gross grammar and spelling errors or illegible
writing will result in no points. In general it is okay to include drawings, provided they are used as a supplement to what
is written.

Compare and contrast means to tell what characteristics of the data or concepts are similar and what characteristics are
different. Both the similarities and differences must be included in the correct answer.

Discuss in detail means to state what the concept is, its characteristics, how it works and why it’s important. Basically,
tell me everything you've learned about the concept.

Discuss by example means to state what the concept is and use an example to explain how the concept works.

Describe means to state the characteristics or components of the concept or idea.

Define (or What is) means to simply state the definition.

List means to simply jot down in non-sentence form the items that are requested.

Explain means to state why the data or causes support a concept. A complete explanation will also include the
supporting information and the concept.

Answering multiple choice questions. Read the leading question or statement carefully. Underline what it is that you are
asked to choose. Read all possible choices carefully. Compare what is contained in the answer with what you've underlined
in the question. Is it a perfect match?

Fill in the blank drawings. Fill in the blank drawings are designed to test your ability to visually associate appropriate
terms with various landforms and processes. First look at what the theme or topic of the drawing is about. Next, look
closely at each individual feature shown on the drawing. What specifically is the arrow pointing towards? In most cases
there is only one possible answer. When studying for this part of the test it is best to review the figures and photos in your
book, lecture handouts, and lab materials.

62
 Exam 1 Study Guide
Format: 150 points
multiple choice (40-50 questions)
essay (1 question, 25-30 points)
fill in the blank drawings (20-30 points)

Example essay questions and other things to know

The following questions are provided to give you an idea of how I organize and phrase questions. This is not
necessarily a complete list of questions, nor is it a guarantee that any of these exact questions will appear on a test.

Geologic Structures, Mt Building

1. Describe the characteristics of the 4 main types of faults in terms of movement, stress conditions and changes crustal
thickness.
2. Describe the factors that influence whether rocks will fault or fold?
3. Describe (not just list) 3 different ways that mountain ranges can form.
4. Compare and contrast active and passive continental plate margins.

Other things to know

3 types of stress, 3 types of strain

ID 4 types of faults
upright and plunging folds
anticlines and synclines
field evidence for faulting
strike and dip (what does it tell you?)
location of faults and folds in Oregon and Pacific Northwest
specific types of faults associated with the 3 types of plate margins
types of mountain ranges
mt ranges in Oregon and the Pacific Northwest
main mt building processes
topographic contours (what they can tell you)
relationship between tilt dip of rock and relative age of rocks
geologic contact
strike and dip
rule of “V”
difference between a geologic contact and a topographic contour
identifying types of plunging folds on maps

Earthquakes

1. Describe in detail the elastic rebound theory.

2. Describe the characteristics of the 4 main types of energy waves
3. Discuss in detail how earthquakes are located and Richter magnitudes are measured.
4. Compare and contrast the Richter and Mercalli scales as measurements of earthquakes
5.Describe 4 different types of hazards associated with earthquakes.
6.Discuss specifically where earthquakes most commonly occur on and within the planet and why this is so.

Other things to know

4 main types of energy waves
focus vs epicenter
Richter scale vs Mercalli scale
Seismograph
Relationship between magnitude and pen deflection
types of earthquake hazards
occurrence of earthquakes at diverging plate margins
occurrence of earthquakes at converging plate margins
occurrence of earthquakes in the Pacific northwest

63
 Mass wasting
1. What is mass wasting?
2. Describe the 4 factors that affect mass movement.
3. Describe 4 different triggering events for mass movement
4. Discuss the 5 different types of mass wasting in terms of size, velocity and nature of movement.
5. Discuss 3 different actions that can be taken to reduce the possibility of mass wasting.

Other things to know

4 triggering mechanisms
5 types of mass wasting
Areas prone to mass wasting

64
 Exam 2 Study Guide
Format: 150 points
multiple choice (40-50 questions)
essay (1 question, 25-30 points)
fill in the blank drawings (20-30 points)

Example essay questions and other things to know

The following questions are provided to give you an idea of how I organize and phrase questions. This is not
necessarily a complete list of questions, nor is it a guarantee that any of these exact questions will appear on a test.

Coastal Geology

1. What are primary coasts? Describe the characteristics of 4 different primary coasts.
2. What are secondary coasts? Describe the characteristics of 3 different secondary coasts.
3. What are the main characteristics of beaches ? Which part of the beach is most important to erosion and deposition?
4. Compare and contrast the two different types of sand movement along coasts.
5. Describe 2 different things that humans do to control sand movement along the coast. What are the long term effects of
each?
6. Discuss the 3 factors the control long term global changes in sea level.

Other things to know

drowned river and glacial valleys
deltas
coastal terraces,
head, sea arch, sea stack
barrier islands
spit, tombolo
jetty, groin, offshore break water
long shore beach, pocket beach
foreshore, backshore,

Rivers

1. What's the definition of a river? What are 3 characteristics of the long profile of a river?
2. What is a flood and how do rivers deal with flooding?
3. Describe 2 different human modifications to rivers and the effects these modifications can have on the potential for
flooding.
4. Describe the 4 components of a rivers load?

Other things to know

gradient, velocity, discharge
bed load, saltation, suspension, dissolved load
base level, graded stream, flood, river hydrograph
meanders, cut offs, oxbow lakes, braided channel, point bar, island bar
levees, flood plain, deltas
Groundwater

1. What is ground water, how much of it is there and where does it come from?
2. Discuss the 3 characteristics of the rock that are most important in evaluating ground water reservoirs.
3. Discuss, in detail, 3 different examples of groundwater quality issues.

Other things to know

hydraulic gradient, recharge, artesian flow
water table, porosity, permeability, aquifer, aquiclude, cone of depression

65
 Glaciers

1. What are glaciers? How do glaciers form?

2. Describe the 2 environments where glaciers form.
3. Describe the 2 mechanisms by which glaciers move.
4. Compare and contrast the main types of glaciers in terms of their landforms and deposits.
5. Describe in detail 3 different effects of continental glaciation.
6. Discuss the occurrence of glaciation throughout geologic time.
7. Explain in detail 3 different possible causes for the onset of global episodes of glaciation.

Other things to know

definition of a glacier
2 general environments of glacier occurrence
alpine glacier erosional landforms, ice surface features, water features and depositional landforms
continental glacier erosional landforms, ice surface features, water features and depositional landforms
causes for the onset of global episodes of glaciation
evidences for past climate changes
important glacial events in the PNW

Deserts

1. Discuss 3 different characteristics of a desert. List 3 different locations where deserts are commonly found,
2. Discuss 4 different causes of deserts. Discuss the role of each of the following desert erosional agents: wind, water,
gravity.
3. Describe the characteristics of 3 different types of dunes in terms of morphology and conditions important to their
formation

Other things to know

ephemeral streams, alluvial fans, playas, common types of dunes

66
 Lecture Handouts
The following pages include structured overviews of the major topics to be covered in this class, together with diagrams and
drawings that I will refer to during lecture. They are intended to aid you in organizing your notes and to reduce stress among
those who are artistically challenged.
Ductile Rock Deformation

Before

After

Brittle Rock Deformation

Before After

67
 Types of Faults

Normal fault
fault trace
map view

ne hanging
lt pl a
fa u foot wall
down thrown hanging wall wall
block hanging wall

foot wall up thrown

block
tensional
cross section stress

Reverse fault Thrust fault

hanging
wall hanging
wall foot
foot wall
wall

compressional
stress

right lateral
strike slip left lateral
fault strike slip
fault

Shear stress

68
Fold Nomenclature

axial plane

axis of fold

plane of erosion geologic contacts

4 (dashed)

3
4
4 4
2 3 2 3 3 2
3

2 4 2 4
1 3 1

3
1 1
1
2

upright folds before and after erosion

axial plane

plunge angle
axis of fold

4 geologic contacts
plane of erosion
(dashed)
3
4 3 2
2
2 3 4
3 2 1 4
1 2 3

plunging fold before and after erosion

Map 4

Rock Units Rock Units

young
young

old
old

map view of plunging folds

69
Earthquakes Overview Elastic Rebound

max.
Causes ?
rupture
What are they ? Energy paths

Stress (applied force)

X

stic
pla

Earthquakes

tic
Locating & Hazards

elas
measuring
Relationship to 0
0 max.
plate tectonics Strain (rock deformation)
Theory

Types of Earthquake waves / Locating Earthquakes

time

P S

30
time (min)

e
w av
S-
20

S = 13.7 min
ave
10 P-w
P = 7.1 min
focus
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
distance ( km)

70
 Coasts
Types Issues
Primary Secondary long term sea
level change
erosional erosional human
depositional modification
depositional
volcanic coastal erosion
biologic
tectonic importance

100 year Flood Plot

3000
500 year Flood
2500

Definitions River Profiles

& Patterns
River Discharge (cfs)

2000 100 year Flood

50 year Flood
1500
River Rivers River
Erosion Deposition 1000

500
Floods
Human Control Importance 0
1 10 100 1000
of Rivers Recurrence Interval (yr)

River Hydrograph
natural peak lag time

urbanized
peak lag urbanized river
time response
River discharge
and Rainfall

shorter lag higher

time discharge .

natural river
response

Period Time (hrs)

of
Rainfall

71
 Definition 4 types
slide
Mass
Wasting fall creep
triggering factors affecting
types of
events mass wasting mass wasting
prevention
&
mitigation
flow slump

rock fluids in
strength the rock undercutting earthquakes
Factors Affecting
Mass Wasting triggering
events
topographic others? excess
relief precipitation others?

original position
original position

Fall
Slide

original position

Slump Creep

Flow

72
 Groundwater
Definition Reserviors
Origin
well

Groundwater
sand

Groundwater in Water Quality basalt

Central Oregon Issues

Bend Groundwater

Groundwater Stratigraphy of Bend

Porosity /
Age Rock types permeability
Newberry 0
< 1 my basalt Fair: fractures /
lavas interbeds
150

2-8 my Deschutes pumice, Good:

formation sand, gravel intergranular
1000
15 my Columbia river basalt Fair: fractures /
basin lavas interbeds

25 my John Day welded tuff Poor: tight

formation
40 my Clarno
formation welded tuff Poor: tignt

Glaciers Overview Ice Movement

definitions past glaciations

types

causes ice
Glaciers &
Glaciations
glaciations rock
in the PNW frequency &
duration
importance

73
 Alpine Glacier Landforms & Deposits

5
7 6

8
10
9 14

12 11

13

74
 Deep Ice Core Gases
methane carbon dioxide temp. change Present
Interglaciation

Last
Glaciation

Last
Interglaciation

300 700 180 300 -10 +2

Oxygen isotope variations

in deep sea sediment cores
higher 18 O /16O ratio carbon dioxide blanket
last glaciation present

short long
wavelength wavelength
0.5 my UV radiation radiation (heat)
is trapped
Interglaciations

Earth
Glaciations

1.0 my

1.5 my

2.0 my

75
Types of sand dunes

76