INTRODUCTION TO C

History of C Language
➢ The base or father of programming languages is 'ALGOL.' It was first
introduced in 1960.
➢ 'ALGOL' was used on a large basis in European countries. 'ALGOL'
introduced the concept of structured programming to the developer
community.
➢ In 1967, a new computer programming language was announced called
as 'BCPL' which stands for Basic Combined Programming Language. BCPL
was designed and developed by Martin Richards, especially for writing
system software. This was the era of programming languages.
➢ in 1970 a new programming language called 'B' was introduced by Ken
Thompson that contained multiple features of 'BCPL.' This programming
language was created using UNIX operating system at AT&T and Bell
Laboratories. Both the 'BCPL' and 'B' were system programming
languages.

➢ In 1972, a great computer scientist Dennis Ritchie created a new

programming language called 'C' at the Bell Laboratories. It was created
from 'ALGOL', 'BCPL' and 'B' programming languages. 'C' programming
language contains all the features of these languages and many more
additional concepts that make it unique from other languages.

Elements of C Programming Language

As every language has some basic geometrical rules and elements, similarly
C language has some elements and rules for building a program which has
some meaning.

Character Set: In Real world to communicate with people we use language like
Hindi English Urdu extra which is constructed and Defined by some characters,
words extra. Similarly in C programming language we have various characters
to communicate with the computer in order to produce a meaningful program
and can produce an output.

Character Set In C Language

 Type Set

Lowercase a-z

Uppercase A-Z

Digits 0-9

special characters !,@,#,$,%

White space space, tab, and new lines

Keywords:
They are 32 Keywords in C language whose meaning has already being defined.

32 keywords in C language

Auto do goto signed unsigned break

void else int case static double

sizeof enum long struct char if

while const extern register continue volatile

defualt for typeodef float short return

union const

Data types:
Each variable in C has an associated data type. Each data type requires
different amounts of memory and has some specific operations which can be
performed over it. Let us briefly describe them one by one:
Following are the examples of some very common data types used in C:
• char: The most basic data type in C. It stores a single character and requires
a single byte of memory in almost all compilers.
• int: As the name suggests, an int variable is used to store an integer.
• float: It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point
value) with single precision.
• double: It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point
value) with double precision.
Different data types also have different ranges upto which they can store
numbers. These ranges may vary from compiler to compiler.

Data types Storage size Value range

char 1 byte a-z, A-z, special characters (-128 to 127)

Unsigned char 1 byte a-z, A-z, special character(0 to 255)

int 2-4 bytes -32768 to 32767 or -214748348 to 2147483647

unsigned int 2-4 bytes 0 to 65535 or 0 to 4294967295

short 2 bytes -32768 to 32767

unsigned short 2 bytes 0 to 65535

long 4 bytes -2147483648 to 2147483647

unsigned long 4 bytes 0 to 4294967295

float 4 bytes 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal place

double 8 bytes 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 15 decimal place

long double 10 bytes 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal place

 VARIABLES IN C
A variable is a name of the memory location. It is used to store data. Its value
can be changed, and it can be reused many times.

It is a way to represent memory location through symbol so that it can be easily

identified.

Let's see the syntax to declare a variable:

The example of declaring the variable is given below:

int a;
float b;
char c;

Here, a, b, c are variables. The int, float, char are the data types.

We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:

int a=10,b=20;//declaring 2 variable of integer type

float f=20.8;
char c='A';

Rules for defining variables

o A variable can have alphabets, digits, and underscore.

o A variable name can start with the alphabet, and underscore only. It can't
start with a digit.
o No whitespace is allowed within the variable name.
o A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword, e.g. int,
float, etc.

Valid variable names:

int a;
int _ab;
int a30;

Invalid variable names:

int 2;
int a b;
int long;

Types of Variables in C

There are many types of variables in c:

1. local variable
2. global variable

Local Variable

A variable that is declared inside the function or block is called a local variable.

It must be declared at the start of the block.

void function1()
{
int x=10;//local variable
}

You must have to initialize the local variable before it is used.

Global Variable

A variable that is declared outside the function or block is called a global

variable. Any function can change the value of the global variable. It is available
to all the functions.

It must be declared at the start of the block.

int value=20;//global variable

void function1()
{
int x=10;//local variable
}

BASIC STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM

Any C program is consists of 6 main sections. Below you will find brief
explanation of each of them.

Basic Structure of C Program

Documentation Section

This section consists of comment lines which include the name of programmer,
the author and other details like time and date of writing the program.
Documentation section helps anyone to get an overview of the program.

The documentation section contains a set of comment including the name of

the program other necessary details. Comments are ignored by compiler and
are used to provide documentation to people who reads that code. Comments
are be giving in C programming in two different ways:
 1. Single Line Comment
2. Multi Line Comment
// This is single line comment

/*This is

multi line

comment

*/

Link Section

The link section consists of the header files of the functions that are used in the
program. It provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from the
system library.

The link section consists of header files while contains function prototype of
Standard Library functions which can be used in program. Header file also
consists of macro declaration. Example:

#include <stdio.h>

In the above code, stdio.h is a header file which is included using the
preprocessing directive #include. Learn more about header files in C programming.

Definition Section

All the symbolic constants are written in definition section. Macros are known
as symbolic constants.

The definition section defines all symbolic constants. A symbolic constant is a

constant value given to a name which can’t be changed in program. Example:

#define PI 3.14
In above code, the PI is a constant whole value is 3.14

Global Declaration Section

The global variables that can be used anywhere in the program are declared in
global declaration section. This section also declares the user defined functions.

int a=10;

main() Function Section

The main () function section is the most important section of any C program.
The compiler start executing C program from main() function.
The main() function is mandatory in C programming. It has two parts:
Declaration Part – All the variables that are later used in the executable
part are declared in this part.

Execuitable Part – This part contains the statements that are to be executed by
the compiler

main()

-----------

-----------

Subprogram Section

The subprogram section contains all the user defined functions that are used to
perform a specific task. These user defined functions are called in the main()
function.
 C - Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or
logical functions. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides the following
types of operators −

• Arithmetic Operators
• Relational Operators
• Logical Operators
• Bitwise Operators
• Assignment Operators

Arithmetic Operators
The following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by the C language.
Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

+ Adds two operands. A + B = 30

− Subtracts second operand from the first. A − B = -10

* Multiplies both operands. A * B = 200

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator. B/A=2

% Modulus Operator and remainder of after an integer division. B%A=0

++ Increment operator increases the integer value by one. A++ = 11

-- Decrement operator decreases the integer value by one. A-- = 9

//Working of arithmetic operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 9,b = 4, c;
 c = a+b;
printf("a+b = %d \n",c);
c = a-b;
printf("a-b = %d \n",c);
c = a*b;
printf("a*b = %d \n",c);
c = a/b;
printf("a/b = %d \n",c);
c = a%b;
printf("Remainder when a divided by b = %d \n",c);
return 0;
}

Output

a+b = 13
a-b = 5
a*b = 36
a/b = 2
Remainder when a divided by b=1

// Working of increment and decrement operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 100;
float c = 10.5, d = 100.5;

printf("++a = %d \n", ++a);

printf("--b = %d \n", --b);
printf("++c = %f \n", ++c);
printf("--d = %f \n", --d);

return 0;
}

Output

++a = 11
--b = 99
++c = 11.500000
--d = 99.500000

Relational Operators
The following table shows all the relational operators supported by C. Assume
variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20 then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Exampl

== Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not. If yes, then the (A == B)
condition becomes true. is not
true.

!= Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not. If the values are not (A != B)
equal, then the condition becomes true. is true.

> Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (A > B)
operand. If yes, then the condition becomes true. is not
true.

< Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand. If (A < B)
yes, then the condition becomes true. is true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of (A >= B)
right operand. If yes, then the condition becomes true. is not
true.

<= Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right (A <= B)
operand. If yes, then the condition becomes true. is true.

// Working of relational operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10;
 printf("%d == %d is %d \n", a, b, a == b);
printf("%d == %d is %d \n", a, c, a == c);
printf("%d > %d is %d \n", a, b, a > b);
printf("%d > %d is %d \n", a, c, a > c);
printf("%d < %d is %d \n", a, b, a < b);
printf("%d < %d is %d \n", a, c, a < c);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", a, b, a != b);
printf("%d != %d is %d \n", a, c, a != c);
printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", a, b, a >= b);
printf("%d >= %d is %d \n", a, c, a >= c);
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", a, b, a <= b);
printf("%d <= %d is %d \n", a, c, a <= c);

return 0;
}

Output

5 == 5 is 1
5 == 10 is 0
5 > 5 is 0
5 > 10 is 0
5 < 5 is 0
5 < 10 is 1
5 != 5 is 0
5 != 10 is 1
5 >= 5 is 1
5 >= 10 is 0
5 <= 5 is 1
5 <= 10 is 1

Logical Operators
Following table shows all the logical operators supported by C language. Assume
variable A holds 1 and variable B holds 0, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Exampl

 && Called Logical AND operator. If both the operands are non-zero, then the (A && B
condition becomes true. is false.

|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any of the two operands is non-zero, then (A || B) i

the condition becomes true. true.

! Called Logical NOT Operator. It is used to reverse the logical state of its !(A &&
operand. If a condition is true, then Logical NOT operator will make it false. B) is
true.

// Working of logical operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, b = 5, c = 10, result;

result = (a == b) && (c > b);

printf("(a == b) && (c > b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a == b) && (c < b);

printf("(a == b) && (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a == b) || (c < b);

printf("(a == b) || (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = (a != b) || (c < b);

printf("(a != b) || (c < b) is %d \n", result);

result = !(a != b);

printf("!(a != b) is %d \n", result);

result = !(a == b);

printf("!(a == b) is %d \n", result);

return 0;
}

Output

(a == b) && (c > b) is 1
(a == b) && (c < b) is 0
(a == b) || (c < b) is 1
(a != b) || (c < b) is 0
!(a != b) is 1
!(a == b) is 0

Assignment Operators
The following table lists the assignment operators supported by the C language −
Show Examples

Operator Description Example

= Simple assignment operator. Assigns values from right side operands to C=A+B
left side operand will assig
the value
of A + B
to C

+= Add AND assignment operator. It adds the right operand to the left C += A is
operand and assign the result to the left operand. equivalen
to C = C
A

-= Subtract AND assignment operator. It subtracts the right operand from the C -= A is
left operand and assigns the result to the left operand. equivalen
to C = C
A

*= Multiply AND assignment operator. It multiplies the right operand with the C *= A is
left operand and assigns the result to the left operand. equivalen
to C = C
A

/= Divide AND assignment operator. It divides the left operand with the right C /= A is
operand and assigns the result to the left operand. equivalen
to C = C
A
 %= Modulus AND assignment operator. It takes modulus using two operands C %= A i
and assigns the result to the left operand. equivalen
to C = C
%A

<<= Left shift AND assignment operator. C <<= 2

is same
as C = C
<< 2

>>= Right shift AND assignment operator. C >>= 2

is same
as C = C
>> 2

&= Bitwise AND assignment operator. C &= 2 is

same as
C=C&2

^= Bitwise exclusive OR and assignment operator. C ^= 2 is

same as
C=C^2

|= Bitwise inclusive OR and assignment operator. C |= 2 is

same as
C=C|2

// Working of assignment operators

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 5, c;

c = a; // c is 5
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c += a; // c is 10
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c -= a; // c is 5
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c *= a; // c is 25
printf("c = %d\n", c);
c /= a; // c is 5
 printf("c = %d\n", c);
c %= a; // c = 0
printf("c = %d\n", c);

return 0;
}

Output

c = 5
c = 10
c = 5
c = 25
c = 5
c = 0

Bitwise Operators
Bitwise operator works on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for
&, |, and ^ is as follows −

p q p&q p|q p^q

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 1 1

Assume A = 60 and B = 13 in binary format, they will be as follows −

A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101
-----------------
A&B = 0000 1100
A|B = 0011 1101
A^B = 0011 0001
~A = 1100 0011
The following table lists the bitwise operators supported by C. Assume variable 'A'
holds 60 and variable 'B' holds 13, then −
Show Examples

Operator Description Examp

& Binary AND Operator copies a bit to the result if it exists in both (A & B) = 12,
operands. 0000 1100

| Binary OR Operator copies a bit if it exists in either operand. (A | B) = 61, i.

0011 1101

^ Binary XOR Operator copies the bit if it is set in one operand but not (A ^ B) = 49, i
both. 0011 0001

~ Binary One's Complement Operator is unary and has the effect of (~A ) = ~(60),
'flipping' bits. 0111101

<< Binary Left Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved left by A << 2 = 240
the number of bits specified by the right operand. 1111 0000

>> Binary Right Shift Operator. The left operands value is moved right by
A >> 2 = 15 i.
the number of bits specified by the right operand.
0000 1111

Bitwise AND operator

Bitwise AND operator is denoted by the single ampersand sign (&). Two integer
operands are written on both sides of the (&) operator. If the corresponding bits of
both the operands are 1, then the output of the bitwise AND operation is 1;
otherwise, the output would be 0.

For example,

We have two variables a and b.

a =6;
b=4;
The binary representation of the above two variables are given below:
a = 0110
b = 0100
When we apply the bitwise AND operation in the above two variables, i.e., a&b, the
output would be:
Result = 0100

As we can observe from the above result that bits of both the variables are
compared one by one. If the bit of both the variables is 1 then the output would be
1, otherwise 0.

Let's understand the bitwise AND operator through the program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=6, b=14; // variable declarations
printf("The output of the Bitwise AND operator a&b is %d",a&b);
return 0;
}

In the above code, we have created two variables, i.e., 'a' and 'b'. The values of
'a' and 'b' are 6 and 14 respectively. The binary value of 'a' and 'b' are 0110 and
1110, respectively. When we apply the AND operator between these two variables,

a AND b = 0110 && 1110 = 0110

Output : The output of the Bitwise AND operator a&b is 6

Bitwise OR operator
The bitwise OR operator is represented by a single vertical sign (|). Two
integer operands are written on both sides of the (|) symbol. If the bit value of any
of the operand is 1, then the output would be 1, otherwise 0.

For example,

We consider two variables,

a = 23;
b = 10;
The binary representation of the above two variables would be:
a = 0001 0111
b = 0000 1010
When we apply the bitwise OR operator in the above two variables, i.e., a|b , then t
he output would be:
Result = 0001 1111

As we can observe from the above result that the bits of both the operands are
compared one by one; if the value of either bit is 1, then the output would be 1
otherwise 0.

Let's understand the bitwise OR operator through a program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=23,b=10; // variable declarations
printf("The output of the Bitwise OR operator a|b is %d",a|b);
return 0;
}

Output :The output of the Bitwise OR operator a|b is 31

Bitwise exclusive OR operator

Bitwise exclusive OR operator is denoted by (^) symbol. Two operands are written
on both sides of the exclusive OR operator. If the corresponding bit of any of the
operand is 1 then the output would be 1, otherwise 0.

For example,

We consider two variables a and b,

a = 12;
b = 10;
The binary representation of the above two variables would be:
a = 0000 1100
b = 0000 1010
When we apply the bitwise exclusive OR operator in the above two variables (a^b), t
hen the result would be:
Result = 0000 1110

As we can observe from the above result that the bits of both the operands are
compared one by one; if the corresponding bit value of any of the operand is 1, then
the output would be 1 otherwise 0.
Let's understand the bitwise exclusive OR operator through a program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=12,b=10; // variable declarations
printf("The output of the Bitwise exclusive OR operator a^b is %d",a^b);
return 0;
}

Output : The output of the Bitwise exclusive OR operator a^b is 6

Bitwise complement operator

The bitwise complement operator is also known as one's complement
operator. It is represented by the symbol tilde (~). It takes only one operand or
variable and performs complement operation on an operand. When we apply the
complement operation on any bits, then 0 becomes 1 and 1 becomes 0.

For example,

If we have a variable named 'a',

a = 8;
The binary representation of the above variable is given below:
a = 1000
When we apply the bitwise complement operator to the operand, then the output wo
uld be:
Result = 0111

As we can observe from the above result that if the bit is 1, then it gets changed to
0 else 1.

Let's understand the complement operator through a program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=8; // variable declarations
printf("The output of the Bitwise complement operator ~a is %d",~a);
return 0;
}

Output : The output of the Bitwise complement operator ~a is :-9

Bitwise shift operators
Two types of bitwise shift operators exist in C programming. The bitwise shift
operators will shift the bits either on the left-side or right-side. Therefore, we can
say that the bitwise shift operator is divided into two categories:

o Left-shift operator

o Right-shift operator

Left-shift operator

It is an operator that shifts the number of bits to the left-side.

Syntax of the left-shift operator is given below:

Operand << n

Where,

Operand is an integer expression on which we apply the left-shift operation.

n is the number of bits to be shifted.

In the case of Left-shift operator, 'n' bits will be shifted on the left-side. The 'n' bits
on the left side will be popped out, and 'n' bits on the right-side are filled with 0.

For example,

Suppose we have a statement:

int a = 5;
The binary representation of 'a' is given below:
a = 0101
If we want to left-
shift the above representation by 2, then the statement would be:
a << 2;
0101<<2 = 00010100

Let's understand through a program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=5; // variable initialization
printf(": %d ", a<<2);
 return 0; The value of a<<2 is
}

Output: The value of a<<2 is :20

Right-shift operator

It is an operator that shifts the number of bits to the right side.

Syntax of the right-shift operator is given below:

Operand >> n;

Where,

Operand is an integer expression on which we apply the right-shift operation.

N is the number of bits to be shifted.

In the case of the right-shift operator, 'n' bits will be shifted on the right-side. The
'n' bits on the right-side will be popped out, and 'n' bits on the left-side are filled
with 0.

For example,

Suppose we have a statement,

int a = 7;
The binary representation of the above variable would be:
a = 0111
If we want to right-
shift the above representation by 2, then the statement would be:
a>>2;
0000 0111 >> 2 = 0000 0001

Let's understand through a program.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=7; // variable initialization
printf("The value of a>>2 is : %d ", a>>2);
return 0;
}
Output: The value of a>>2 is : 1

C Format Specifier
The Format specifier is a string used in the formatted input and output functions.
The format string determines the format of the input and output. The format string
always starts with a '%' character.

The commonly used format specifiers in printf() function are:

Format Description
specifier

%d or %i It is used to print the signed integer value where signed integer means that
variable can hold both positive and negative values.

%u It is used to print the unsigned integer value where the unsigned integer me
the variable can hold only positive value.

%o It is used to print the octal unsigned integer where octal integer value alway
with a 0 value.

%x It is used to print the hexadecimal unsigned integer where the hexadecimal

Value always starts with a 0x value. In this, alphabetical characters are pri
small letters
such as a, b, c, etc.

%X It is used to print the hexadecimal unsigned integer, but %X prints the alpha
characters in uppercase such as A, B, C, etc.

%f It is used for printing the decimal floating-point values. By default, it prints t

values
after '.'.

%e/%E It is used for scientific notation. It is also known as Mantissa or Exponent.

%g It is used to print the decimal floating-point values, and it uses the fixed pre
i.e., the value after the decimal in input would be exactly the same as the va
the output.

%p It is used to print the address in a hexadecimal form.

 %c It is used to print the unsigned character.

%s It is used to print the strings.

%ld It is used to print the long-signed integer value.

Example

#include <stdio.h>

main() {

char ch = 'B';

printf("%c\n", ch); //printing character data

//print decimal or integer data with d and i

int x = 45, y = 90;

printf("%d\n", x);

printf("%i\n", y);

float f = 12.67;

printf("%f\n", f); //print float value

printf("%e\n", f); //print in scientific notation

int a = 67;

printf("%o\n", a); //print in octal format

printf("%x\n", a); //print in hex format

char str[] = "Hello World";

printf("%s\n", str);

printf("%20s\n", str); //shift to the right 20 characters including the string

printf("%-20s\n", str); //left align

printf("%20.5s\n", str); //shift to the right 20 characters including the string, and print string
up to 5 character
 printf("%-20.5s\n", str); //left align and print string up to 5 character

Output

B
45
90
12.670000
1.267000e+001
103
43
Hello World
Hello World
Hello World
Hello
Hello

C Input and Output

Input means to provide the program with some data to be used in the program
and Output means to display data on screen or write the data to a printer or a file.

C programming language provides many built-in functions to read any given input and to
display data on screen when there is a need to output the result.

scanf() and printf() functions

The standard input-output header file, named stdio.h contains the definition of the
functions printf() and scanf(), which are used to display output on screen and to take input from
user respectively.

#include<stdio.h>

void main()
{
// defining a variable
int i;
/*
displaying message on the screen
asking the user to input a value
*/
printf("Please enter a value...");
/*
reading the value entered by the user
*/
 scanf("%d", &i);
/*
displaying the number as output
*/
printf( "\nYou entered: %d", i);
}
When you will compile the above code, it will ask you to enter a value. When you will enter
the value, it will display the value you have entered on screen.

You must be wondering what is the purpose of %d inside the scanf() or printf() functions. It is
known as format string and this informs the scanf() function, what type of input to expect and
in printf() it is used to give a heads up to the compiler, what type of output to expect.

Format String Meaning

%d Scan or print an integer as signed decimal number

%f Scan or print a floating point number

%c To scan or print a character

%s To scan or print a character string. The scanning ends at whitespace.

We can also limit the number of digits or characters that can be input or output, by adding a
number with the format string specifier, like "%1d" or "%3s", the first one means a single
numeric digit and the second one means 3 characters, hence if you try to input 42,
while scanf() has "%1d", it will take only 4 as input. Same is the case for output.

In C Language, computer monitor, printer etc output devices are treated as files and the
same process is followed to write output to these devices as would have been followed to
write the output to a file.

NOTE : printf() function returns the number of characters printed by it, and scanf() returns the
number of characters read by it.

getchar() & putchar() functions

The getchar() function reads a character from the terminal and returns it as an integer. This
function reads only single character at a time. You can use this method in a loop in case you
want to read more than one character. The putchar() function displays the character passed to
it on the screen and returns the same character. This function too displays only a single
character at a time. In case you want to display more than one characters,
use putchar() method in a loop.

#include <stdio.h>

void main( )
{
int c;
printf("Enter a character");
/*
Take a character as input and
store it in variable c
*/
c = getchar();
/*

display the character stored

in variable c

*/

putchar(c);

When you will compile the above code, it will ask you to enter a value. When you will enter
the value, it will display the value you have entered.

gets() & puts() functions

The gets() function reads a line from stdin(standard input) into the buffer pointed
to str pointer, until either a terminating newline or EOF (end of file) occurs. The puts() function
writes the string str and a trailing newline to stdout.

str → This is the pointer to an array of char where the C string is stored.

#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{
/* character array of length 100 */
char str[100];
printf("Enter a string");
gets( str );
puts( str );
 return 0;
}
When you will compile the above code, it will ask you to enter a string. When you will enter
the string, it will display the value you have entered.

Escape Sequence in C
An escape sequence in C language is a sequence of characters,It is composed
of two or more characters starting with backslash \. For example: \n represents
new line.

List of Escape Sequences in C

Escape Sequence Meaning

\a Alarm or Beep

\b Backspace

\f Form Feed

\n New Line

\r Carriage Return

\t Tab (Horizontal)

\v Vertical Tab

\\ Backslash

\' Single Quote

\" Double Quote

\? Question Mark

\nnn octal number

 \xhh hexadecimal number

\0 Null

Example

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number=50;

printf("You\nare\nlearning\n\'c\' language\n\"Do you know C language\"");

return 0;
}

Output:

You
are
learning
'c' language
"Do you know C language"

Decision Control Statements

Decision making structures require that the programmer specifies one or

more conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a
statement or statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be
true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition is
determined to be false.
Show below is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in
most of the programming languages −
C programming language provides the following types of decision making
statements.

Sr.No. Statement & Description

1 if statement

An if statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one or more

statements.

2 if...else statement

An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which executes when

the Boolean expression is false.

3 nested if statements

You can use one if or else if statement inside another if or else if statement(s).

4 switch statement

A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values
 5 nested switch statements

You can use one switch statement inside another switch statement(s).

o If statement
o If-else statement
o If else-if ladder
o Nested if

If Statement

The if statement is used to check some given condition and perform

some operations depending upon the correctness of that condition. It is mostly
used in the scenario where we need to perform the different operations for the
different conditions. The syntax of the if statement is given below.

if(expression)
{
//code to be executed
}

Flowchart of if statement in C

Let's see a simple example of C language if statement.

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;
printf("Enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number%2==0){
printf("%d is even number",number);
}
return 0;
}
Output
Enter a number:4
4 is even number
enter a number:5
//Program to find the largest number of the three.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a, b, c;
printf("Enter three numbers?");
scanf("%d %d %d",&a,&b,&c);
if(a>b && a>c)
{
printf("%d is largest",a);
}
if(b>a && b > c)
{
printf("%d is largest",b);
}
if(c>a && c>b)
{
printf("%d is largest",c);
}
if(a == b && a == c)
{
printf("All are equal");
}
}

Output

Enter three numbers?

12 23 34
34 is largest

If-else Statement

The if-else statement is used to perform two operations for a single

condition. The if-else statement is an extension to the if statement using which,
we can perform two different operations, i.e., one is for the correctness of that
condition, and the other is for the incorrectness of the condition. Here, we must
notice that if and else block cannot be executed simiulteneously. Using if-else
statement is always preferable since it always invokes an otherwise case with
every if condition. The syntax of the if-else statement is given below.

if(expression)
{
//code to be executed if condition is true
}
else
{
//code to be executed if condition is false
}

Flowchart of the if-else statement in C

 Let's see the simple example to check whether a number is even or odd
using if-else statement in C language.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number%2==0)
{
printf("%d is even number",number);
}
else
{
printf("%d is odd number",number);
}
return 0;
}

Output

enter a number:4
4 is even number
enter a number:5
5 is odd number
//Program to check whether a person is eligible to vote or not.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int age;
printf("Enter your age?");
scanf("%d",&age);
if(age>=18)
{
printf("You are eligible to vote...");
}
else
{
printf("Sorry ... you can't vote");
}
} Output
Enter your age?18
You are eligible to vote...
Enter your age?13
Sorry ... you can't vote

If else-if ladder Statement

The if-else-if ladder statement is an extension to the if-else statement. It

is used in the scenario where there are multiple cases to be performed for
different conditions. In if-else-if ladder statement, if a condition is true then the
statements defined in the if block will be executed, otherwise if some other
condition is true then the statements defined in the else-if block will be
executed, at the last if none of the condition is true then the statements
defined in the else block will be executed. There are multiple else-if blocks
possible. It is similar to the switch case statement where the default is executed
instead of else block if none of the cases is matched.

if(condition1)
{
//code to be executed if condition1 is true
}
else if(condition2)
{
//code to be executed if condition2 is true
}
else if(condition3)
{
//code to be executed if condition3 is true
}
...
else{
//code to be executed if all the conditions are false
}

Flowchart of else-if ladder statement in C

The example of an if-else-if statement in C language is given below.

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
if(number==10){
printf("number is equals to 10");
}
else if(number==50){
printf("number is equal to 50");
}
else if(number==100){
printf("number is equal to 100"); }
else{
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
return 0;
}

Output

enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50
//Program to calculate the grade of the student according to the specified
marks.
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int marks;
printf("Enter your marks?");
scanf("%d",&marks);
if(marks > 85 && marks <= 100)
{
printf("Congrats ! you scored grade A ...");
}
else if (marks > 60 && marks <= 85)
 {
printf("You scored grade B + ...");
}
else if (marks > 40 && marks <= 60)
{
printf("You scored grade B ...");
}
else if (marks > 30 && marks <= 40)
{
printf("You scored grade C ...");
}
else
{
printf("Sorry you are fail ...");
}
}

Output:

Enter your marks?50

You scored grade B ...

C Switch Case Statement

The switch statement in C is an alternate to if-else-if ladder statement
which allows us to execute multiple operations for the different possible values
of a single variable called switch variable. Here, We can define various
statements in the multiple cases for the different values of a single variable.

The syntax of switch statement in C language is given below:

switch(expression)
{
case value1:
//code to be executed;
break; //optional
case value2:
//code to be executed;
 break; //optional
......
default:
code to be executed if all cases are not matched;
}

Rules for switch statement in C language

1) The switch expression must be of an integer or character type.

2) The case value must be an integer or character constant.

3) The case value can be used only inside the switch statement.

4) The break statement in switch case is not must. It is optional. If there is no

break statement found in the case, all the cases will be executed present after
the matched case. It is known as fall through the state of C switch statement.

Let's try to understand it by the examples. We are assuming that there are
following variables.

int x,y,z;
char a,b;
float f;

Valid Switch Invalid Switch Valid Case Invalid Case

switch(x) switch(f); case 3: case 2.5;

switch(x>y) switch(x+2.5) case 'a': case x;

switch(a+b-2) case 1+2: case x+2;

switch(func(x,y)) case 'x'>'y'; case 1,2,3;

Flowchart of switch statement in C

Functioning of switch case statement

First, the integer expression specified in the switch statement is evaluated.

This value is then matched one by one with the constant values given in the
different cases. If a match is found, then all the statements specified in that
case are executed along with the all the cases present after that case including
the default statement. No two cases can have similar values. If the matched
case contains a break statement, then all the cases present after that will be
skipped, and the control comes out of the switch. Otherwise, all the cases
following the matched case will be executed.

//Let's see a simple example of c language switch statement.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
switch(number){
case 10: printf("number is equals to 10");
break;
case 50:
printf("number is equal to 50");
break;
case 100:
printf("number is equal to 100");
break;
default:
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
return 0;
}

Output

enter a number:4
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100
enter a number:50
number is equal to 50

//Switch case example 2

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int x = 10, y = 5;
switch(x>y && x+y>0)
{
case 1:
printf("hi");
break;
case 0:
printf("bye");
break;
default:
printf(" Hello bye ");
}
}

Output

hi
C Switch statement is fall-through

In C language, the switch statement is fall through; it means if you

don't use a break statement in the switch case, all the cases after the matching
case will be executed.

Let's try to understand the fall through state of switch statement by the
example given below.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int number=0;
printf("enter a number:");
scanf("%d",&number);
switch(number){
case 10:
printf("number is equal to 10\n");
case 50:
printf("number is equal to 50\n");
case 100:
printf("number is equal to 100\n");
default:
printf("number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100");
}
return 0;
}

Output

enter a number:10
number is equal to 10
number is equal to 50
number is equal to 100
number is not equal to 10, 50 or 100

Nested switch case statement

 We can use as many switch statement as we want inside a switch
statement. Such type of statements is called nested switch case statements.
Consider the following example.

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int i = 10;
int j = 20;
switch(i)
{
case 10:
printf("the value of i evaluated in outer switch: %d\n",i);
case 20:
switch(j)
{
case 20:
printf("The value of j evaluated in nested switch: %d\n",j);
}
}
printf("Exact value of i is : %d\n", i );
printf("Exact value of j is : %d\n", j );
return 0;
}

Output

the value of i evaluated in outer switch: 10

The value of j evaluated in nested switch: 20
Exact value of i is : 10
Exact value of j is : 20

LOOPS IN C

In programming, a loop is used to repeat a block of code until the specified

condition is met.
 C programming has three types of loops:

1.for loop

2.while loop

3.do...while loop

1.for loop:

The for loop in C language is used to iterate the statements or a part of the
program several times.

The syntax of the for loop is:

for (initializationStatement; testExpression; updateStatement)

{
// statements inside the body of loop
}

How for loop works?

• The initialization statement is executed only once.

• Then, the test expression is evaluated. If the test expression is evaluated to

false, the for loop is terminated.
• However, if the test expression is evaluated to true, statements inside the body
of the for loop are executed, and the update expression is updated.
• Again the test expression is evaluated.

This process goes on until the test expression is false. When the test expression
is false, the loop terminates.
for loop Flowchart

Example 1: for loop

// Print numbers from 1 to 10

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int i;
for (i = 1; i < 11; ++i)
{
printf("%d ", i);
}
return 0;
}

Output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. i is initialized to 1.
2. The test expression i < 11 is evaluated. Since 1 less than 11 is true, the body
of for loop is executed. This will print the 1 (value of i) on the screen.
3. The update statement ++i is executed. Now, the value of i will be 2. Again, the
test expression is evaluated to true, and the body of for loop is executed. This
will print 2 (value of i) on the screen.
4. Again, the update statement ++i is executed and the test expression i < 11 is
evaluated. This process goes on until i becomes 11.
5. When i becomes 11, i < 11 will be false, and the for loop terminates.

Example 2: for loop

// Program to calculate the sum of first n natural numbers

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int num, count, sum = 0;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
// for loop terminates when num is less than count
for(count = 1; count <= num; ++count)
{
sum += count;
}
printf("Sum = %d", sum);
return 0;
}

Output

Enter a positive integer: 10

Sum = 55
NESTED FOR LOOPS IN C
C programming allows to use one loop inside another loop.

Syntax

The syntax for a nested for loop statement in C is as follows −

for( init; condition; increment )
{

for( init; condition; increment )

{
statement(s);
}
statement(s);
}

Example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int n;// variable declaration
printf("Enter the value of n :");
// Displaying the n tables.
for(int i=1;i<=n;i++) // outer loop
{
for(int j=1;j<=10;j++) // inner loop
{
printf("%d\t",(i*j)); // printing the value.
}
printf("\n");
}

Explanation of the above code

 o First, the 'i' variable is initialized to 1 and then program control passes to
the i<=n.
o The program control checks whether the condition 'i<=n' is true or not.
o If the condition is true, then the program control passes to the inner
loop.
o The inner loop will get executed until the condition is true.
o After the execution of the inner loop, the control moves back to the
update of the outer loop, i.e., i++.
o After incrementing the value of the loop counter, the condition is
checked again, i.e., i<=n.
o If the condition is true, then the inner loop will be executed again.
o This process will continue until the condition of the outer loop is true.

Output:

EXAMPLE -2

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
for (int i=0; i<2; i++)
{
for (int j=0; j<4; j++)
{
printf("%d, %d\n",i ,j);
}
}
return 0;
}
Output:

0, 0
0, 1
0, 2
0, 3
1, 0
1, 1
1, 2
1, 3
2.while loop in C

While loop is also known as a pre-tested loop. In general, a while loop

allows a part of the code to be executed multiple times depending upon a given
boolean condition. It can be viewed as a repeating if statement. The while loop
is mostly used in the case where the number of iterations is not known in
advance.

Syntax of while loop in C language

The syntax of while loop in c language is given below:

while(condition){
//code to be executed
}
Flowchart of while loop in C

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=1;
while(i<=10){
printf("%d \n",i);
i++;
}
return 0;
}
Output:

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=1,number=0,b=9;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&number);
while(i<=10){
printf("%d \n",(number*i));
i++;
}
return 0;
}
Output:

3.do while loop in C

The do while loop is a post tested loop. Using the do-while loop, we can
repeat the execution of several parts of the statements. The do-while loop is
mainly used in the case where we need to execute the loop at least once. The
do-while loop is mostly used in menu-driven programs where the termination
condition depends upon the end user.

do while loop syntax

The syntax of the C language do-while loop is given below:

do{
//code to be executed
}while(condition);

Example

#include <stdio.h>
int main () {

/* local variable definition */

int a = 10;

/* do loop execution */
do {
printf("value of a: %d\n", a);
a = a + 1;
}while( a < 20 );

return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result
−
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

Arrays

An array is a collection of similar data items stored at contiguous memory

locations and elements can be accessed randomly using indices of an
array. They can be used to store collection of primitive data types such as int,
float, double, char, etc of any particular type.
Why do we need arrays?
We can use normal variables (v1, v2, v3, ..) when we have a small number of
objects, but if we want to store a large number of instances, it becomes difficult
to manage them with normal variables. The idea of an array is to represent
many instances in one variable.
Properties of an Array
The array contains the following properties.

o Each element of an array is of same data type and carries the same size,
i.e.,

int = 2 bytes.

o Elements of the array are stored at contiguous memory locations where

the first element is stored at the smallest memory location.
o Elements of the array can be randomly accessed since we can calculate
the address of each element of the array with the given base address and
the size of the data element.

Advantages of an Array

1) Code Optimization: Less code to the access the data.

2) Ease of traversing: By using the for loop, we can retrieve the elements of an
array easily.

3) Ease of sorting: To sort the elements of the array, we need a few lines of
code only.

4) Random Access: We can access any element randomly using the array.

Disadvantage of an Array
 1) Fixed Size: Whatever size, we define at the time of declaration of the
array, we can't exceed the limit. So, it doesn't grow the size dynamically
like LinkedList which we will learn later.

Array types:
There are mainly three types of the arrays:
One Dimensional (1D) Array
Multidimensional Array

One Dimensional Array:

The number of subscript or index determines the dimensions of
the array. An array of one dimension is known as a one-dimensional array or 1-
D array

Declaration of an Array

We can declare an array in the c language in the following way.

1.data_type array_name[array_size];

Now, let us see the example to declare the array.

2. int marks[5];

Here, int is the data_type, marks are the array_name, and 5 is the array_size.

Initialization of an Array

The simplest way to initialize an array is by using the index of each element. We
can initialize each element of the array by using the index.

Consider the following example.

//int marks[5];
marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
marks[1]=60;
marks[2]=70;
marks[3]=85;
marks[4]=75;
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int i=0;
int marks[5];//declaration of array
marks[0]=80;//initialization of array
marks[1]=60;
marks[2]=70;
marks[3]=85;
marks[4]=75;
//traversal of array
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}//end of for loop
return 0;
}

Output:

80

60
70

85

7570 E

e Array Declaration with Initialization

We can initialize the array at the time of declaration

1. int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};

In another case, there is no requirement to define the size. So it may also be

declare in the below format

2. int marks[]={20,30,40,50,60};

Let's see the C program to declare and initialize the array in C.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=0;
int marks[5]={20,30,40,50,60};//declaration and initialization of array
//traversal of array
for(i=0;i<5;i++){
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}
return 0;
}

Output :20 30 40 50 60

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int marks[5],i;
printf("\n ENTER MARKS:");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
 {
scanf("%d",&marks[i]);
}
printf("\n ENTERED MARKS:");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("%d \n",marks[i]);
}
return 0;
}
Output:
ENTER MARKS:90
63
72
45
54
ENTERED MARKS:90
63
72
45
54
Two Dimensional Array
The two-dimensional array can be defined as an array of arrays. The 2D
array is organized as matrices which can be represented as the collection of
rows and columns.

Declaration of two dimensional Array

The syntax to declare the 2D array is given below.

1. data_type array_name[rows][columns];

Consider the following example.

2. int x [3][3];

Here, the first 3 is the number of rows, and next 3 is the number of columns.
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main(){
int i=0,j=0;
int arr[4][3]={{1,2,3},{2,3,4},{3,4,5},{4,5,6}};
//traversing 2D array
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("arr[%d] [%d] = %d \n",i,j,arr[i][j]);
}//end of j
}//end of i
return 0;
}

Output:

arr[0] [0] = 1

arr[0] [1] = 2

arr[0] [2] = 3

arr[1] [0] = 2

arr[1] [1] = 3
arr[1] [2] = 4

arr[2] [0] = 3

arr[2] [1] = 4

arr[2] [2] = 5

arr[3] [0] = 4

arr[3] [1] = 5

arr[3] [2] = 6

Example:
#include <stdio.h>
void main ()
{
int arr[3][3],i,j;
for (i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for (j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("Enter a[%d][%d]: ",i,j);
scanf("%d",&arr[i][j]);
}
}
printf("\n printing the elements ....\n");
for(i=0;i<3;i++)
{
printf("\n");
for (j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("%d\t",arr[i][j]);
}
}
}

Output:
Enter a[0][0]: 10

Enter a[0][1]: 20

Enter a[0][2]: 30

Enter a[1][0]: 40

Enter a[1][1]: 50

Enter a[1][2]: 60

Enter a[2][0]: 70

Enter a[2][1]: 80

Enter a[2][2]: 90

printing the elements ....

10 20 30

40 50 60

70 80 90

Matrix addition
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int m, n, c, d, first[10][10], second[10][10], sum[10][10];

printf("Enter the number of rows and columns of matrix\n");

scanf("%d%d", &m, &n);
printf("Enter the elements of first matrix\n");

for (c = 0; c < m; c++)

for (d = 0; d < n; d++)
 scanf("%d", &first[c][d]);

printf("Enter the elements of second matrix\n");

for (c = 0; c < m; c++)

for (d = 0 ; d < n; d++)
scanf("%d", &second[c][d]);

printf("Sum of entered matrices:-\n");

for (c = 0; c < m; c++) {

for (d = 0 ; d < n; d++) {
sum[c][d] = first[c][d] + second[c][d];
printf("%d\t", sum[c][d]);
}
printf("\n");
}

return 0;
}

Output:
Enter the number of rows and columns of matrix
2
2
Enter the elements of first matrix
1
2
3
4
Enter the elements of second matrix
1
2
3
3

Sum of entered matrices:-

2 4
6 7
Strings
 ➢ The string can be defined as the one-dimensional array of characters
terminated by a null ('\0').
➢ The character array or the string is used to manipulate text such as word
or sentences.
➢ Each character in the String occupies one byte of memory, and the last
character must always be’ \0’.
➢ The termination character ('\0') is important in a string since it is the only
way to identify where the string ends.
➢ When we define a string as char s[10], the character s[10] is implicitly
initialized with the null in the memory.

There are two ways to declare a string in c language.

1. By char array
2. By string literal

Let's see the example of declaring string by char array in C language.

char ch[10]={'b', 'h', 'a', 'v', 'm', 'a', 'n', 'y', 'u', 'n', '\0'};

As we know, array index starts from 0, so it will be represented as in the figure

given below.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10

b h a v m a n y u n \0

While declaring string, size is not mandatory. So we can write the above code as
given below:

char ch[]={'b', 'h', 'a', 'v', 'm', 'a', 'n', 'y', 'u', 'n', '\0'};

We can also define the string by the string literal in C language.

For example:

char ch[]="bhavmanyun";

In the above case, ‘\0’ will be appended at the end of the string by the compiler.

Difference between char array and string literal

 There are two main differences between char array and literal.

o In character Array We need to add the null character '\0' at the end of
the array by ourself
o In string literal we don’t need to add null character the compiler itself
appended at the end of the string.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char ch[11]={'b', 'h', 'a', 'v', 'm', 'a', 'n', 'y', 'u', 'n', '\0'};
char ch2[11]="bhavmanyun";
printf("Char Array Value is: %s\n", ch);
printf("String Literal Value is: %s\n", ch2);
return 0;
}

Output :

Char Array Value is: bhavmanyun

String Literal Value is: bhavmanyun

Traversing String

➢ Traversing the string is one of the most important aspects in any of the
programming languages.
➢ We may need to manipulate a very large text which can be done by
traversing the text.
➢ Traversing string is somewhat different from the traversing an integer
array.
➢ We need to know the length of the array to traverse an integer array,
whereas we may use the null character in the case of string to identify
the end the string and terminate the loop.

Hence, there are two ways to traverse a string.

 o By using the length of string
o By using the null character.

Let's discuss each one of them.

Using the length of string

Let's see an example of counting the number of vowels in a string.

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[11] = "Bhavmanyun";
int i = 0;
int count = 0;
while(i<11)
{
if(s[i]=='a' || s[i] == 'e' || s[i] == 'i' || s[i] == 'u' || s[i] == 'o')
{
count ++;
}
i++;
}
printf("The number of vowels %d",count);
}

Output: The number of vowels 3 of vowels 3umber of vowels

Using the null character

Let's see the same example of counting the number of vowels by using the
null character.

#include<stdio.h>

void main ()
{
char s[11] = "Bhavmanyun";
int i = 0;
int count = 0;
 while(s[i] !=NULL)
{
if(s[i]=='a' || s[i] == 'e' || s[i] == 'i' || s[i] == 'u' || s[i] == 'o')
{
count ++;
}
i++;
}
printf("The number of vowels %d",count);
getch();
}
Output:The number of vowels 3 of vowels

Accepting string as the input

Till now, we have used scanf to accept the input from the user.
However, it can also be used in the case of strings but with a different scenario.

Consider the below code which stores the string while space is encountered.

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[20];
printf("Enter the string?");
scanf("%s",s);
printf("You entered %s",s);
}

Output:

Enter the string?ant

You entered ant

➢ It is clear from the output that, the above code will not work for space
separated strings.
➢ To make this code working for the space separated strings, the minor
changed required in the scanf function, i.e., instead of writing
scanf("%s",s), we must write: scanf("%[^\n]s",s) which instructs the
compiler to store the string s while the new line (\n) is encountered.
Let's consider the following example to store the space-separated strings.

#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[20];
printf("Enter the string?");
scanf("%[^\n]s",s);
printf("You entered %s",s);
}

Output:

Enter the string?siddartha

You entered siddartha

➢ Here we must also notice that we do not need to use address of (&)
operator in scanf to store a string
➢ Since string s is an array of characters and the name of the array, i.e., s
indicates the base address of the string (character array) therefore we
need not use & with it.

gets() and puts() functions

The gets() and puts() are declared in the header file stdio.h. Both the
functions are involved in the input/output operations of the strings.

gets() function

➢ The gets() function enables the user to enter some characters followed
by the enter key.
➢ All the characters entered by the user get stored in a character array.
➢ The null character is added to the array to make it a string.
➢ The gets() allows the user to enter the space-separated strings. It returns
the string entered by the user.
Example:
//Reading string using gets()
#include<stdio.h>
void main ()
{
char s[30];
printf("Enter the string? ");
gets(s);
printf("You entered %s",s);
}
Output:
Enter the string? cse
You entered cse

C puts() function

➢ The puts() function is very much similar to printf() function.

➢ The puts() function is used to print the string on the console which is
previously read by using gets() or scanf() function.

Let's see an example to read a string using gets() and print it on the console
using puts().

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char name[50];
printf("Enter your name: ");
gets(name); //reads string from user
printf("Your name is: ");
puts(name); //displays string
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter your name: anand
Your name is: anand

C String Functions

There are many important string functions defined in "string.h" library.

No Function Description
.

1) strlen(string_name) returns the length of string name.

2) strcpy(destination, source) copies the contents of source string to destination string.

3) strcat(first_string, concats or joins first string with second string.

second_string)
The result of the string is stored in first string.

4) strcmp(first_string, compares the first string with second string.

second_string)
If both strings are same, it returns 0.

5) strrev(string) returns reverse string.

6) strlwr(string) returns string characters in lowercase.

7) strupr(string) returns string characters in uppercase.

String Length: strlen() function

The strlen() function returns the length of the given string. It

doesn't count null character '\0'.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char ch[20]={'s', 'i', 'd', 'd', 'a', 'r', 't', 'h', 'a', 't', '\0'};
printf("Length of string is: %d",strlen(ch));
return 0;
}

Output:

Length of string is: 10

Copy String: strcpy()

The strcpy(destination, source) function copies the source string in

destination.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char ch[20]={'s', 'i', 'd', 'd', 'a', 'r', 't', 'h', 'a', '\0'};
char ch2[20];
strcpy(ch2,ch);
printf("Value of second string is: %s",ch2);
return 0;
}

Output:

Value of second string is: siddartha

String Concatenation: strcat()

The strcat(first_string, second_string) function concatenates two strings and

result is returned to first_string.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
 {
char ch[10]={'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};
char ch2[10]={'c', '\0'};
strcat(ch,ch2);
printf("Value of first string is: %s",ch);
return 0;
}

Output: Value of first string is: helloc

Compare String: strcmp()

The strcmp(first_string, second_string) function compares two string and

returns 0 if both strings are equal.

Here, we are using gets() function which reads string from the console.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str1[20],str2[20];
printf("Enter 1st string: ");
gets(str1);//reads string from console
printf("Enter 2nd string: ");
gets(str2);
if(strcmp(str1,str2)==0)
printf("Strings are equal");
else
printf("Strings are not equal");
return 0;
}

Output:

Enter 1st string: ant

Enter 2nd string: ant
Strings are equal
Reverse String: strrev()
 The strrev(string) function returns reverse of the given string.

Let's see a simple example of strrev() function.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str[20];
printf("Enter string: ");
gets(str);//reads string from console
printf("String is: %s",str);
printf("\nReverse String is: %s",strrev(str));
return 0;
}

Output:

Enter string: ant

Reverse String is: tna
String Lowercase: strlwr()

The strlwr(string) function returns string characters in lowercase.

Let's see a simple example of strlwr() function.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str[20];
printf("Enter string: ");
gets(str);//reads string from console
printf("String is: %s",str);
printf("\nLower String is: %s",strlwr(str));
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter string:ANT
Lower String is: ant
String Uppercase: strupr()

The strupr(string) function returns string characters in uppercase.

Let's see a simple example of strupr() function.

#include<stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main()
{
char str[20];
printf("Enter string: ");
gets(str);//reads string from console
printf("String is: %s",str);
printf("\nUpper String is: %s",strupr(str));
return 0;
}
Output:
Enter string:ant
String is:ant
Lower String is: ANT