UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS.

TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

INTRODUCTION
It may be recalled that a d.c. generator can be run as a d.c. motor. In like manner, an alternator may operate as a
motor by connecting its armature winding to a 3-phase supply. It is then called a synchronous motor. As the name
implies, a synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed (Ns = 120f/P) i.e., in synchronism with the revolving field
produced by the 3-phase supply. The speed of rotation is, therefore, tied to the frequency of the source. Since the
frequency is fixed, the motor speed stays constant irrespective of the load or voltage of 3- phase supply. However,
synchronous motors are not used so much because they run at constant speed (i.e., synchronous speed) but
interesting is that they possess other unique electrical properties.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
A synchronous motor is a machine that operates at synchronous speed and converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. It is fundamentally an alternator operated as a motor. Like an alternator, a synchronous motor
has the following two parts:
(i) a stator which houses 3-phase armature winding in the slots of the stator core and receives power from a 3-
phase supply [See (Fig. (2.1)].
(ii) a rotor that has a set of salient poles excited by direct current to form alternate N and S poles. The exciting
coils are connected in series to two slip rings and direct current is fed into the winding from an external
exciter mounted on the rotor shaft. The stator is wound for the same number of poles as the rotor poles. As
in the case of an induction motor, the number of poles determines the synchronous speed of the motor:

Figure 2.1
An important drawback of a synchronous motor is that it is not self-starting and auxiliary means have to be used for
starting it.

Unique Features of Synchronous Motor

Some salient features of a synchronous motor are:
(i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed or not at all. Its speed is constant (synchronous speed) at all
loads. The only way to change its speed is to alter the supply frequency (Ns = 120 f/P).
(ii) The outstanding characteristic of a synchronous motor is that it can be made to operate over a wide range of
power factors (lagging, unity or leading) by adjustment of its field excitation. Therefore, a synchronous motor
can be made to carry the mechanical load at constant speed and at the same time improve the power factor of
the system.

Prepared By Eng. M.S. Paul – 0707707050 Electrical Lecturer – The Meru national polytechnic
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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

(iii) Synchronous motors are generally of the salient pole type.

(iv) A synchronous motor is not self-starting and an auxiliary means has to be used for starting it. We use either
induction motor principle or a separate starting motor for this purpose. If the latter method is used, the machine
must be run up to synchronous speed and synchronized as an alternator.

THE OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

Operating Principle
The fact that a synchronous motor has no starting torque can be easily explained.
(i) Consider a 3-phase synchronous motor having two rotor poles NR and SR. Then the stator will also be
wound for two poles NS and SS. The motor has direct voltage applied to the rotor winding and a 3-phase
voltage applied to the stator winding. The stator winding produces a rotating field which revolves round the
stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P). The direct (or zero frequency) current sets up a two-pole field
which is stationary so long as the rotor is not turning. Thus, we have a situation in which there exists a pair
of revolving armature poles (i.e., NS - SS) and a pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR - SR).
(ii) Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions A and B as shown in Fig. (2.2 (i)). It is clear that
poles NS and NR repel each other and so do the poles SS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the
anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle (or ½ f = 1/100 second), the polarities of the stator
poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor poles remain the same as shown in Fig. (2.2 (ii)). Now SS
and NR attract each other and so do NS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the clockwise
direction. Since the stator poles change their polarities rapidly, they tend to pull the rotor first in one
direction and then after a period of half-cycle in the other. Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to
start.

Figure 2.2
Hence, a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor cannot start by itself.

Making Synchronous Motor Self-Starting

A synchronous motor cannot start by itself. In order to make the motor self-starting, a squirrel cage winding (also
called damper winding) is provided on the rotor. The damper winding consists of copper bars embedded in the pole
faces of the salient poles of the rotor as shown in Fig. (2.3). The bars are short-circuited at the ends to form in effect
a partial squirrel cage winding. The damper winding serves to start the motor.
 To start with, 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding while the rotor field winding is left unenergized.
The rotating stator field induces currents in the damper or squirrel cage winding and the motor starts as an
induction motor.
 As the motor approaches the synchronous speed, the rotor is excited with direct current. Now the resulting
poles on the rotor face poles of opposite polarity on the stator and a strong magnetic attraction is set up

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

between them. The rotor poles lock in with the poles of rotating flux. Consequently, the rotor revolves at
the same speed as the stator field i.e., at synchronous speed.
 Because the bars of squirrel cage portion of the rotor now rotate at the same speed as the rotating stator
field, these bars do not cut any flux and, therefore, have no induced currents in them. Hence squirrel cage
portion of the rotor is, in effect, removed from the operation of the motor.

Figure 2.3
NB
 Due to magnetic interlocking between the stator and rotor poles, a synchronous motor can only run at
synchronous speed. At any other speed, this magnetic interlocking (i.e., rotor poles facing opposite polarity
stator poles) ceases and the average torque becomes zero. Consequently, the motor comes to a halt with a
severe disturbance on the line.
 It is important to excite the rotor with direct current at the right moment. For example, if the d.c. excitation
is applied when N-pole of the stator faces Npole of the rotor, the resulting magnetic repulsion will produce
a violent mechanical shock. The motor will immediately slow down and the circuit breakers will trip. In
practice, starters for synchronous motors arc designed to detect the precise moment when excitation should
be applied.

Equivalent Circuit
Unlike the induction motor, the synchronous motor is connected to two electrical systems; a d.c. source at the rotor
terminals and an a.c. system at the stator terminals.
1) Under normal conditions of synchronous motor operation, no voltage is induced in the rotor by the stator field
because the rotor winding is rotating at the same speed as the stator field. Only the impressed direct current is
present in the rotor winding and ohmic resistance of this winding is the only opposition to it as shown in Fig.
(2.4 (i)).
2) In the stator winding, two effects are to be considered, the effect of stator field on the stator winding and the
effect of the rotor field cutting the stator conductors at synchronous speed.

Figure 2.4
(i) The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is accounted for by including an inductive
reactance in the armature winding. This is called synchronous reactance Xs. A resistance Ra must be considered to
be in series with this reactance to account for the copper losses in the stator or armature winding as shown in Fig.
(2.4 (i)). This resistance combines with synchronous reactance and gives the synchronous impedance of the
machine.
(ii) The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by the synchronously-revolving field of the
rotor as shown in Fig. (2.4 (i)).

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

This generated e.m.f. EB is known as back e.m.f. and opposes the stator voltage V. The magnitude of Eb depends
upon rotor speed and rotor flux  per pole. Since rotor speed is constant; the value of Eb depends upon the rotor flux
per pole i.e. exciting rotor current If.
Fig. (2.4(i)) shows the schematic diagram for one phase of a star-connected synchronous motor while Fig. (2.4(ii))
shows its equivalent circuit. Referring to the equivalent circuit in Fig. (2.4(ii)).
Net voltage/phase in stator winding is

A synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that E b = V. If the field excitation
is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is said to be over-excited if the field excitation
is such that Eb > V. As we shall see, for both normal and under excitation, the motor has lagging power factor.
However, for over-excitation, the motor has leading power factor.
Motor on Load
In d.c. motors and induction motors, an addition of load causes the motor speed to decrease. The decrease in speed
reduces the counter e.m.f. enough so that additional current is drawn from the source to carry the increased load at a
reduced speed. This action cannot take place in a synchronous motor because it runs at a constant speed (i.e.,
synchronous speed) at all loads.
What happens when we apply mechanical load to a synchronous motor? The rotor poles fall slightly behind the
stator poles while continuing to run at synchronous speed. The angular displacement between stator and rotor poles
(called torque angle a) causes the phase of back e.m.f. Eb to change w.r.t. supply voltage V. This increases the net
e.m.f. Er in the stator winding. Consequently, stator current Ia (= Er/Zs) increases to carry the load.

Figure 2.5
The following points may be noted in synchronous motor operation:
(i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed at all loads. It meets the increased load not by a decrease in
speed but by the relative shift between stator and rotor poles i.e., by the adjustment of torque angle a.
(ii) If the load on the motor increases, the torque angle a also increases (i.e., rotor poles lag behind the stator poles
by a greater angle) but the motor continues to run at synchronous speed. The increase in torque angle a causes a
greater phase shift of back e.m.f. Eb w.r.t. supply voltage V. This increases the net voltage Er in the stator
winding. Consequently, armature current Ia (= Er/Zs) increases to meet the load demand.
(iii) If the load on the motor decreases, the torque angle a also decreases. This causes a smaller phase shift of Eb
w.r.t. V. Consequently, the net voltage Er in the stator winding decreases and so does the armature current Ia
(= Er/Zs).

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

Various Torques of Synchronous Motor

a) Starting Torque
It is developed by the motor when full voltage is applied to its stator (armature) winding. It is also known as
Breakaway torque. Its value may be as low as 10% as in the case of centrifugal pumps and as high as 200 to 250%
of full-load torque as in the case of loaded reciprocating two-cylinder compressors

b) Running Torque
It’s the torque developed by the motor under running conditions. Its determined by the horse-power and speed of
the driven machine. The peak horsepower determines the maximum torque that would be required by the driven
machine. The motor must have a breakdown or maximum running torque greater than this value in order to avoid
stalling.

c) Pull-in Torque
A synchronous motor is started as induction motor till it runs 2 to 5% below the synchronous speed. Afterwards,
excitation is switched on and the rotor pulls into step with the synchronously-rotating stator field. The amount of
torque at which the motor will pull into step is called the pull-in torque.

d) Pull-out Torque
The maximum torque which the motor can develop without pulling out of step or synchronism is called the pull-out
torque.
Normally, when load on the motor is increased, its rotor progressively tends to fall back in phase by some angle
(called load torque) behind synchronously-revolving stator magnetic field through it keep running synchronously.
Motor develops maximum torque when its rotor is retarded by an angle of 900. Any further increase in load will
cause the motor to pull out of step (or synchronism) and stop.

Effect of Changing Field Excitation at Constant Load

Figure 2.7
In a d.c. motor, the armature current Ia is determined by dividing the difference between V and Eb by the armature
resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous motor, the stator current (Ia) is determined by dividing voltage-phasor
resultant (Er) between V and Eb by the synchronous impedance Zs.
One of the most important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the field excitation, it can be made
to operate from lagging to leading power factor. Consider a synchronous motor having a fixed supply voltage and
driving a constant mechanical load. Since the mechanical load as well as the speed is constant, the power input to
the motor (=3 VIa cos ) is also constant. This means that the in-phase component Ia cos f drawn from the supply
will remain constant. If the field excitation is changed, back e.m.f Eb also changes. This results in the change of
phase position of Ia w.r.t. V and hence the power factor cos f of the motor changes. Fig. (2.6) shows the phasor

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

diagram of the synchronous motor for different values of field excitation. Note that extremities of current phasor Ia
lie on the straight-line AB.

(i) Under excitation

The motor is said to be under-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb < V. Under such conditions, the current Ia
lags behind V so that motor power factor is lagging as shown in Fig. (2.7(i)). This can be easily explained. Since Eb
< V, the net voltage Er is decreased and turns clockwise. As angle  (= 90°) between Er and Ia is constant, therefore,
phasor Ia also turns clockwise i.e., current Ia lags behind the supply voltage. Consequently, the motor has a lagging
power factor.
(ii) Normal excitation
The motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. This is shown in Fig. (2.7 (ii)).
Note that the effect of increasing excitation (i.e., increasing Eb) is to turn the phasor Er and hence Ia in the anti-
clockwise direction i.e., Ia phasor has come closer to phasor V. Therefore, p.f. increases though still lagging. Since
input power (=3 V Ia cos ) is unchanged, the stator current Ia must decrease with increase in p.f.
Suppose the field excitation is increased until the current Ia is in phase with the applied voltage V, making the p.f.
of the synchronous motor unity [See Fig. (2.7 (iii))]. For a given load, at unity p.f. the resultant Er and, therefore,
are minimum.
(iii) Over excitation
The motor is said to be overexcited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. Under-such conditions, current Ia
leads V and the motor power factor is leading as shown in Fig. (2.7 (iv)). Note that Er and hence Ia further turn
anti-clockwise from the normal excitation position. Consequently, Ia leads V. From the above discussion, it is
concluded that if the synchronous motor is under-excited, it has a lagging power factor. As the excitation is
increased, the power factor improves till it becomes unity at normal excitation. Under such conditions, the current
drawn from the supply is minimum. If the excitation is further increased (i.e., over excitation), the motor power
factor becomes leading.
Note. The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as the power factor becomes poor, either
leading or lagging.
POWER FACTOR OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
In an induction motor, only one winding (i.e., stator winding) produces the necessary flux in the machine. The
stator winding must draw reactive power from the supply to set up the flux. Consequently, induction motor must
operate at lagging power factor.
But in a synchronous motor, there are two possible sources of excitation; alternating current in the stator or direct
current in the rotor. The required flux may be produced either by stator or rotor or both.
(i) If the rotor exciting current is of such magnitude that it produces all the required flux, then no magnetizing
current or reactive power is needed in the stator. As a result, the motor will operate at unity power factor.
(ii) If the rotor exciting current is less (i.e., motor is under-excited), the deficit in flux is made up by the stator.
Consequently, the motor draws reactive power to provide for the remaining flux. Hence motor will operate
at a lagging power factor.
(iii) If the rotor exciting current is greater (i.e., motor is over-excited), the excess flux must be counterbalanced
in the stator. Now the stator, instead of absorbing reactive power, actually delivers reactive power to the 3-
phase line. The motor then behaves like a source of reactive power, as if it were a capacitor. In other words,
the motor operates at a leading power factor.
To sum up, a synchronous motor absorbs reactive power when it is under excited and delivers reactive power to
source when it is over-excited.

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

Synchronous Condenser
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore, behaves as a capacitor. An over-
excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as synchronous condenser. When such a machine is
connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices that operate at low lagging power factor, the leading
kVAR supplied by the synchronous condenser partly neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads.
Consequently, the power factor of the system is improved. Fig. (2.8) shows the power factor improvement by
synchronous condenser method. The 3 -  load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos L. The
synchronous condenser takes a current Im which leads the voltage by an angle m. The resultant current I is the
vector sum of Im and IL and lags behind the voltage by an angle f. It is clear that f is less than L so that cos  is
greater than cos L. Thus, the power factor is increased from cos L to cos . Synchronous condensers are generally
used at major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement.
Advantages
(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be changed by any
amount. This helps in achieving stepless control of power factor.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.

Figure 2.8

Disadvantages
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 RVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the same rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, then-fore, an auxiliary equipment has to be provided
for this purpose.
The V Curves and Inverted V Curves of Synchronous Motor
The performance characteristics of a synchronous motors is obtained by v-curves and inverted v- curves.
Synchronous machines have parabolic type characteristics (the graph drawn is in the shape of parabolic).
If excitation is varied from low ( under excitation ) to high ( over excitation ) value, then current Ia also changes i.e.,
becomes minimum at unity p.f. and then again increases. But at starting lagging current becomes unity and then

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

becomes leading in nature. V-curves and inverted V-curves of a synchronous motor are used to analyze
efficiency on no-load and on-load conditions.

V-Curves of Synchronous Motor:

If the armature current Ia is plotted against excitation or field current for various load conditions, we obtain a set of
curves known as ' V-Curves ' clue to their shape similar to English letter V.
In the below figure V-Curve of a synchronous motor shows how armature current Ia changes with excitation for the
same input, at no-load, half full-load and full-load.

Figure 2.9
From V-Curves it is observed that, the armature current has large values both for low and high values of excitation
(through it is lagging for low excitation and leading for higher excitation). In between, it has minimum value
corresponding to unity power factor (normal excitation).
Inverted V-Curves of Synchronous Motor:
If the power factor is plotted against excitation for various load conditions, we obtain a set of curves known as '
Inverted V-Curves '.

Figure 2.10

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

The inverted V-Curves of synchronous motor shows how the power factor varies with excitation. From inverted V-
curves it is observed that, the power factor is lagging when the motor is under excited and leading when it is over
excited. In between, the power factor is unity.

METHODS OF STARTING SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

As we know that synchronous motors are not self-starting so to make them start automatically, we employ
mechanism to rotate rotor near to the speed of synchronous speed, so it attains synchronous speed. The following
are some five methods to start the synchronous motor;

1) Slip Ring Induction Motor

In this method, an external rheostat can be introduced in series with the rotor circuit. So, when the stator is excited,
the motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to resistance added in the rotor provides high starting torque.

Figure 2.11
The resistance is then gradually cut off, as motor gathers speed. When motor attains speed near synchronous. d.c.
excitation is provided to the rotor, then motors get pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at synchronous speed.
The damper winding is shorted by shorting the slip rings. The initial resistance added in the rotor not only provides
high starting torque but also limits high inrush of starting current. Hence it acts as a motor resistance starter.

2) Using Damper Winding

This is the most used method of starting the synchronous motor. In addition to the normal field winding
an additional winding consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces. Ends of the copper bars are
short-circuited with the help of end rings. This winding is called damper winding. This damper winding acts as a
squirrel cage rotor of an induction motor.

Figure 2.11

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UNIT: ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS. TOPIC 4: 3-PHASE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE II

First synchronous motor runs as induction motor due to the damper winding at sub synchronous speed. Then d.c.
supply is given to the field winding. At some instant motor gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at a
synchronous speed. As the rotor rotates at synchronous speed, the relative motion between damper winding and the
rotating magnetic field is zero. Hence when motor is running as the synchronous motor, there cannot be any
induced e.m.f. in the damper winding. So damper winding is active only at the start, to run the motor as an
induction motor at start.
3) Pony Motor Method / Induction Motor
Pony motors are small motors mostly induction motors, which are used to run the rotor near to the synchronous
speed. Once the rotor attains the synchronous speed, the d.c. excitation to the rotor is switched on. Pony motors are
connected to the shaft of the synchronous motor only up to it attains synchronous speed. Once the synchronism is
established pony motor is decoupled. The motor then continues to rotate as the synchronous motor.

Figure 2.12

4) Using Small D.C. Machine

This is also similar to pony motor method with some advantages. Mostly this method employed for large
synchronous motors. For synchronous motor, a dc machine will be connected. This dc machine is used as a d.c.
motor to rotate the synchronous motor at a synchronous speed. Once the motor starts running as a synchronous
motor, the same d.c. the machine acts as a d.c. generator to supply dc to the rotor syn. motor. This has some
advantages like low power usage and easy starting.

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