1580 – Laboratory ManuaL Physics

Class XI
ISBN 978-93-5007-062-8
FOREWORD
First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
June 2010 Asadha 1932  No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
Reprinted photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex
December 2012 Pausha 1934 publisher.
 This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be
body concerning all aspects of refinement of School Education. It has recently
April 2018 Chaitra 1940 lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent,
June 2019 Jyeshtha 1941 in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published. developed textual material in Physics for Higher Secondary stage which is based

Laboratory Manual July 2019 Shraavan 1941

October 2019 Kartika 1941
July 2020 Ashadha 1942
 The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised
price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is
incorrect and should be unacceptable.
on the National Curriculum Framework (NCF)–2005. NCF recommends that
children’s experience in school education must be linked to the life outside school
October 2021 Ashwin 1943 so that learning experience is joyful and fills the gap between the experience at
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
home and in community. It recommends to diffuse the sharp boundaries between

PHYSICS
DIVISION, NCERT
PD 2T RPS
NCERT Campus different subjects and discourages rote learning. The recent development of syllabi
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© National Council of Educational New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
and textual material is an attempt to implement this basic idea. The present
Research and Training, 2010 Laboratory Manual will be complementary to the textbook of Physics for Class
108, 100 Feet Road
Hosdakere Halli Extension XI. It is in continuation to the NCERT’s efforts to improve upon comprehension
Banashankari III Stage
of concepts and practical skills among students. The purpose of this manual is
Class XI Bangalore 560 085

Navjivan Trust Building

Phone : 080-26725740

not only to convey the approach and philosophy of the practical course to students
P.O.Navjivan and teachers but to provide them appropriate guidance for carrying out
Ahmedabad 380 014 Phone : 079-27541446
experiments in the laboratory. The manual is supposed to encourage children to
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Opp. Dhankal Bus Stop reflect on their own learning and to pursue further activities and questions. Of
Panihati
course, the success of this effort also depends on the initiatives to be taken by
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the principals and teachers to encourage children to carry out experiments in
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Maligaon the laboratory and develop their thinking and nurture creativity.
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` 195.00 The methods adopted for performing the practicals and their evaluation will
determine how effective this practical book will prove to make the children’s life
at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress and boredom. The
Publication Team
practical book attempts to provide space to opportunities for contemplation and
Head, Publication : Anup Kumar Rajput wondering, discussion in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on
Division
experience. It is hoped that the material provided in this manual will help students
Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal in carrying out laboratory work effectively and will encourage teachers to
Chief Production : Arun Chitkara introduce some open-ended experiments at the school level.
Officer
Chief Business : Vipin Dewan
Managers
Printed on 80 GSM paper with NCERT
watermark Assistant Editor : Vijay Kumar
Published at the Publication Division by the Production Assistant : Om prakash PROFESSOR YASH PAL
Secretary, National Council of Educational Chairperson
Research and Training, Sri Aurobindo Marg,
New Delhi 110 016 and Printed at Print Cover National Steering Committee
Pack India, D-12, Sector B-3, Tronica City Sweta Rao New Delhi National Council of Educational
(Industrial Area) Loni, Ghaziabad - 201 102
(U.P.)
21 May 2008 Research and Training
 Appendices have been included with a view to try some innovative experiments
PREFACE using improvised apparatus. Data section at the end of the book enlists a number
of useful Tables of physical constants.
Each experiment, activity, project and demonstration suggested in this manual
The development of the present laboratory manual is in continuation to the have been tried out by the experts and teachers before incorporating them. We
NCERT’s efforts to support comprehension of concepts of science and also sincerely hope that students and teachers will get motivated to perform these
facilitate inculcation of process skills of science. This manual is complementary experiments supporting various concepts of physics thereby enriching teaching
to the Physics Textbook for Class XI published by NCERT in 2006 following the learning process and experiences.
guidelines enumerated in National Curriculum Framework (NCF)-2005. One of the It may be recalled that NCERT brought out laboratory manual in physics for
basic criteria for validating a science curriculum recommended in NCF–2005, is senior secondary classes earlier in 1989. The write-ups on activities, projects,
that ‘it should engage the learner in acquiring the methods and processes that demonstrations and appendices included in physics manual published by
lead to the generation and validation of scientific knowledge and nurture the NCERT in 1989 have been extensively used in the development of the present
natural curiosity and creativity of the child in science’. The broad objective of manual.
this laboratory manual is to help the students in performing laboratory based We are grateful to the teachers and subject experts who participated in the
exercises in an appropriate manner so as to develop a spirit of enquiry in them. workshops organised for the review and refinement of the manuscript of this
It is envisaged that students would be given all possible opportunities to raise laboratory manual.
questions and seek their answers from various sources. I acknowledge the valuable contributions of Prof. B.K. Sharma and other team
The physics practical work in this manual has been presented under four members who contributed and helped in finalising this manuscript. I also
sections (i) experiments (ii) activities (iii) projects and (iv) demonstrations. A acknowledge with thanks the dedicated efforts of Sri R. Joshi who looked after
write-up on major skills to be developed through practical work in physics has the coordinatorship after superannuation of Professor B.K. Sharma in June,
been given in the beginning which includes discussion on objectives of practical 2008.
work, experimental errors, logarithm, plotting of graphs and general instructions We warmly welcome comments and suggestions from our valued readers for
for recording experiments. further improvement of this manual.
Experiments and activities prescribed in the NCERT syllabus (covering CBSE
syllabus also) of Class XI are discussed in detail. Guidelines for conducting
each experiment has been presented under the headings (i) apparatus and HUKUM SINGH
material required (ii) principle (iii) procedure (iv) observations (v) calculations Professor and Head
(vi) result (vii) precautions (viii) sources of error. Some important experimental Department of Education in
aspects that may lead to better understanding of result are also highlighted in Science and Mathematics
the discussion. Some questions related to the concepts involved have been raised
so as to help the learners in self assessment. Additional experiments/activities
related to a given experiment are put forth under suggested additional
experiments/activities at the end.
A number of project ideas, including guidelines are suggested so as to cover all
types of topics that may interest young learners at higher secondary level.
A large number of demonstration experiments have also been suggested for the
teachers to help them in classroom transaction. Teachers should encourage
participation of the students in setting up and improvising apparatus, in
discussions and give them opportunity to analyse the experimental data to arrive
at conclusions.

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DEVELOPMENT TEAM Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education (TIFR), Mumbai; Subhash
Chandra Samanta, Reader (Retired), Midnapur College, Midnapur (W.B.);
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) Sucharita Basu Kasturi, PGT, Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, New Delhi; Surajit
acknowledges the valuable contributions of the individuals and the Chakrabarti, Reader, Maharaja Manindra Chandra College, Kolkata; Suresh
MEMBERS
organisations involved in the development of Laboratory Manual of Physics Kumar, PGT, Delhi Public School, Dwarka, New Delhi; V.K. Gautam, Education
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi for Class XI. The Council also acknowledges the valuable contributions of the Officer (Science), Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan, Shaheed Jeet Singh Marg,
Gagan Gupta, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi following academics for the reviewing, refining and editing the manuscript of New Delhi; Ved Ratna, Professor (Retired), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi; Vijay
R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi this manual : A.K. Das, PGT, St. Xavier’s Senior Secondary School, Raj Niwas H. Raybagkar, Reader, N. Wadia College, Pune; Vishwajeet D. Kulkarni,
Marg, Delhi; A.K. Ghatak, Professor (Retired), IIT, New Delhi; A.W. Joshi, Smt. Parvatibai Chowgule College, Margo, Goa; Y.K. Vijay, CDPE University
S.K. Dash, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Hon. Visiting Scientist, NCRA, Pune; Anil Kumar, Principal, R.P.V.V., BT- of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan; Yashu Kumar, PGT, Kulachi Hansraj Model
Shashi Prabha, Senior Lecturer, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Block, Shalimar Bagh, New Delhi; Anuradha Mathur, PGT, Modern School School, New Delhi. We are thankful to all of them. Special thanks are due to
V.P. Srivastava, Reader, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi Vasant Vihar, New Delhi; Bharthi Kukkal, PGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Pushp Hukum Singh, Professor and Head, DESM, NCERT for providing all academic
Vihar, New Delhi; C.B. Verma, Principal (Retired), D.C. Arya Senior Secondary and administrative support.
School, Lodhi Road, New Delhi; Chitra Goel, PGT, R.P.V.V., Tyagraj Nagar, New The Council also acknowledges the support provided by the APC Office and
Delhi; Daljeet Kaur Bhandari, Vice Principal, G.H.P.S., Vasant Vihar, New administrative staff of DESM, Deepak Kapoor, Incharge, Computer Station;
MEMBER-COORDINATORS Delhi; Girija Shankar, PGT, R.P.V.V., Surajmal Vihar, New Delhi; H.C. Jain, Bipin Srivastva, Rohit Verma and Mohammad Jabir Hussain, DTP Operators
Principal (Retired), Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Ajmer; K.S. for typing the manuscript, preparing CRC and refining and drawing some of
B.K. Sharma, Professor, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Upadhyay, Principal, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Farrukhabad, U.P.; M.N. the illustrations; Dr. K. T. Chitralekha, Copy Editor; Abhimanu Mohanty,
R. Joshi, Lecturer (S.G.), DESM, NCERT, New Delhi
Bapat, Reader, Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Bhopal; Maneesha Proof Reader. The efforts of the Publication Department are also highly
Pachori, Maharaja Agrasen College, University of Delhi, New Delhi; P.C. Agarwal, appreciated.
Reader, Regional Institute of Education (NCERT), Ajmer; P.C. Jain, Professor
(Retired), University of Delhi, Delhi; P.K. Chadha, Principal, St. Soldier Public
School, Paschim Vihar, New Delhi; Pragya Nopany, PGT, Birla Vidya Niketan,
Pushp Vihar -IV, New Delhi; Pushpa Tyagi, PGT, Sanskriti School,
Chanakyapuri, New Delhi; R.P. Sharma, Education Officer (Science),
CBSE, New Delhi; R.S. Dass, Vice Principal (Retired), Balwant Ray Mehta
Vidya Bhawan, Lajpat Nagar, New Delhi; Rabinder Nath Kakarya, PGT, Darbari
Lal, DAVMS, Pitampura, New Delhi; Rachna Garg, Lecturer (Senior Scale),
CIET, NCERT; Rajesh Kumar, Principal, District Institute of Educational
Research and Training, Pitampura, New Delhi; Rajeshwari Prasad Mathur,
Professor, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; Rakesh Bhardwaj, PGT, Maharaja
Agrasen Model School, CD-Block, Pitampura, New Delhi; Ramneek Kapoor,
PGT, Jaspal Kaur Public School, Shalimar Bagh, New Delhi; Rashmi Bargoti,
PGT, S.L.S. D.A.V. Public School, Mausam Vihar, New Delhi; S.N. Prabhakara,
PGT, Demonstration Multipurpose School, Mysore; S.R. Choudhury, Raja
Ramanna Fellow, Centre for Theoretical Physics, Jamia Millia Islamia, New
Delhi; S.S. Islam, Professor, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi; Sher Singh, PGT,
Navyug School, Lodhi Road, New Delhi; Shirish R. Pathare, Scientific Officer;

ix
 CONTENTS E8 To find the downward force, along an inclined plane, acting on a
roller due to gravity and study its relationship with the angle of
74

inclination by plotting graph between force and sin θ

E9 To determine Young's modulus of the material of a given wire by 78
using Searle's apparatus
E10 To find the force constant and effective mass of a helical spring by 83
FOREWORD iii plotting T 2 - m graph using method of oscillation
PREFACE v E11 To study the variation in volume (V ) with pressure (P ) for a sample 89
Major Skills in Physics Practical Work of air at constant temperature by plotting graphs between P and V,
I 1.1 Introduction 1 1
and between P and
I 1.2 Objectives of practical work 2 V
I 1.3 Specific objectives of laboratory work 4 E12 To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method 95
I 1.4 Experimental errors 5 E13 To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid by measuring 99
the terminal velocity of a spherical body
I 1.5 Logarithms 10
E14 To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body 104
I 1.6 Natural sine/cosine table 14
and time by plotting a cooling curve
I 1.7 Plotting of graphs 14
E15 (i) To study the relation between frequency and length of a given 109
I 1.8 General instructions for performing experiments 19 wire under constant tension using a sonometer
I 1.9 General instructions for recording experiments 20 (ii) To study the relation between the length of a given wire and tension
for constant frequency using a sonometer

EXPERIMENTS E16 To determine the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using 114
E1 Use of Vernier Callipers to 23 a resonance tube
(i) measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body E17 To determine the specific heat capacity of a given (i) solid and (ii) a liquid 119
(ii) measure the dimensions of a given regular body of known mass by the method of mixtures
and hence to determine its density and ACTIVITIES
(iii) measure the internal diameter and depth of a given cylindrical object A1 To make a paper scale of given least count: (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 0.5 cm 125
like beaker/glass/calorimeter and hence to calculate its volume
A2 To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by the 128
E2 Use of screw gauge to 33 principle of moments
(a) measure diameter of a given wire
(b) measure thickness of a given sheet and A3 To plot a graph for a given set of data choosing proper scale and 132
(c) determine volume of an irregular lamina show error bars due to the precision of the instruments
A4 To measure the force of limiting rolling friction for a roller (wooden 137
E3 To determine the radius of curvature of a given spherical surface by 42
block) on a horizontal plane
a spherometer
A5 To study the variation in the range of a jet of water with the change 140
E4 To determine mass of two different objects using a beam balance 48
in the angle of projection
E5 Measurement of the weight of a given body (a wooden block) using 55
A6 To study the conservation of energy of a ball rolling down an inclined 144
the parallelogram law of vector addition
plane (using a double inclined plane)
E6 Using a Simple Pendulum plot L – T and L – T2 graphs, hence find 60
A7 To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum with time 148
the effective length of second's pendulum using appropriate graph
A8 To observe the change of state and plot a cooling curve for molten wax 152
E7 To study the relation between force of limiting friction and normal 68
reaction and to find the coefficient of friction between surface of a A9 To observe and explain the effect of heating on a bi-metallic strip 155
moving block and that of a horizontal surface

xi xii
 A10 To study the effect of heating on the level of a liquid in a container 158 D8 To demonstrate that the moment of inertia of a rod changes with the 230
and to interpret the observations change of position of a pair of equal weights attached to the rod
A11 To study the effect of detergent on surface tension of water by 160
observing capillary rise
D9 To demonstrate the shape of capillary rise in a wedge-shaped gap
between two glass sheets
232
I: MAJOR SKILLS IN
A12
A13
To study the factors affecting the rate of loss of heat of a liquid
To study the effect of load on depression of a suitably clamped 167
163 D10 To demonstrate affect of atmospheric pressure by making partial
vacuum by condensing steam
233
PHYSICS PRACTICAL
D11 To study variation of volume of a gas with its pressure at constant 235
metre scale loaded (i) at its end and (ii) in the middle
PROJECTS D12
temperature with a doctors’ syringe
To demonstrate Bernoulli’s theorem with simple illustrations 237
WORK
P1 To investigate whether the energy of a simple pendulum is conserved 173 D13 To demonstrate the expansion of a metal wire on heating 240
P2 To determine the radius of gyration about the centre of mass of a 181
metre scale used as a bar pendulum
D14 To demonstrate that heat capacities of equal masses of aluminium,
iron, copper and lead are different
241
I 1.1 INTRODUCTION
P3 To investigate changes in the velocity of a body under the action 186 D15 To demonstrate free oscillations of different vibrating systems 243 The higher secondary stage is the most crucial and challenging stage
of a constant force and to determine its acceleration of school education because at this stage the general undifferentiated
D16 To demonstrate resonance with a set of coupled pendulums 247
P4 To compare the effectiveness of different materials as 190 curriculum changes into a discipline-based, content area-oriented
D17 To demonstrate damping of a pendulum due to resistance of 248 course. At this stage, students take up physics as a discipline, with
insulators of heat
the medium the aim of pursuing their future careers either in basic sciences or in
P5 To compare the effectiveness of different materials as absorbers 193
of sound D18 To demonstrate longitudinal and transverse waves 249 science-based professional courses like engineering, medicine,
D19 To demonstrate reflection and transmission of waves at the 251 information technology etc.
P6 To compare the Young’s modules of elasticity of different 197
specimen of rubber and compare them by drawing their elastic boundary of two media Physics deals with the study of matter and energy associated with the
hysteresis curve D20 To demonstrate the phenomenon of beats due to superposition 253 inanimate as well as the animate world. Although all branches of
of waves produced by two tuning forks of slightly different science require experimentation, controlled laboratory experiments
P7 To study the collision of two balls in two-dimensions 200
frequencies are of central importance in physics. The basic purpose of laboratory
P8 To study Fortin’s Barometer and use it to measure the 204 experiments in physics, in general, is to verify and validate the concepts,
atmospheric pressure D21 To demonstrate standing waves with a spring 254
principles and hypotheses related to the physical phenomena. Only
P9 To study of the spring constant of a helical spring from its 208 doing this does not help the learners become independent thinkers or
load-extension graph Appendices (A-1 to A-14) 256–263 investigate on their own. In view of this, laboratory work is very much
P10 To study the effect of nature of surface on emission and absorption 213 required and encouraged in different ways.These may include not
of radiation Bibliography 264–265 only doing experiments but investigate different facets involved in doing
experiments. Many activities as well as project work will therefore
P11 To study the conservation of energy with a 0.2 pendulum 216 Data Section 266–275 ensure that the learners are able to construct and reconstruct their
DEMONSTRATIONS ideas on the basis of first hand experiences through investigation in the
D1 To demonstrate uniform motion in a straight line 219 laboratory. Besides, learners will be able to integrate experimental work
223 with theory which they are studying at higher secondary stage through
D2 To demonstrate the nature of motion of a ball on an
inclined track their environment.

D3 To demonstrate that a centripetal force is necessary for moving a 224 The history of science reveals that many significant discoveries have been
body with a uniform speed along a circle, and that magnitude of made while carrying out experiments. In the growth of physics,
this force increases with angular speed experimental work is as important as the theoretical understanding of a
226 phenomenon. Performing experiments by one’s own hands in a laboratory
D4 To demonstrate the principle of centrifuge
is important as it generates a feeling of direct involvement in the process
D5 To demonstrate interconversion of potential and kinetic energy 227 of generating knowledge. Carrying out experiments in a laboratory
D6 To demonstrate conservation of momentum 228 personally and analysis of the data obtained also help in inculcating
D7 To demonstrate the effect of angle of launch on range of a projectile 229 scientific temper, logical thinking, rational outlook, sense of self-confidence,
ability to take initiative, objectivity, cooperative attitude, patience, self-
reliance, perseverance, etc. Carrying out experiments also develop
xiii xiv manipulative, observational and reporting skills.
LABORATORY MANUAL MAJOR SKILLS... LABORATORY MANUAL
LABORATORY MANUAL UNIT NAME LABORATORY MANUAL

The ‘National Curriculum Framework’ (NCF-2005) and the Syllabus (vii) perform the experiment systematically. (ii) support the presentation with labelled diagram using
for Secondary and Higher Secondary stages (NCERT, 2006) have appropriate symbols for components,
(viii) make precise observations,
therefore, laid considerable emphasis on laboratory work as an integral
part of the teaching-learning process. (ix) make proper substitution of data in formula, keeping proper (iii) record observations systematically and with appropriate units
units (SI) in mind, in a tabular form wherever desirable,
NCERT has already published Physics Textbook for Classes XII,
based on the new syllabus. In order to supplement the conceptual (x) calculate the result accurately and express the same with (iv) follow sign conventions while recording measurements in
understanding and to integrate the laboratory work in physics and appropriate significant figures, justified by the degree of experiments on ray optics,
contents of the physics course, this laboratory manual has been accuracy of the instrument,
(v) present the calculations/results for a given experiment
developed. The basic purpose of a laboratory manual in physics is to (xi) interpret the results, verify principles and draw conclusions; and alongwith proper significant figures, using appropriate symbols,
motivate the students towards practical work by involving them in
(xii) improvise simple apparatus for further investigations by units, degree of accuracy,
“process-oriented performance” learning (as opposed to ‘product-or
result-oriented performance’) and to infuse life into the sagging practical selecting appropriate equipment, apparatus, tools, materials. (vi) calculate error in the result,
work in schools. In view of the alarming situation with regard to the
conduct of laboratory work in schools, it is hoped that this laboratory
manual will prove to be of considerable help and value.
I 1.2.2 OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS (vii)
(viii)
state limitations of the apparatus/devices,
summarise the findings to reject or accept a hypothesis,
The learner develops observational skills in practical work if she/he

I 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF PRACTICAL WORK is able to

(i) read about instruments and measure physical quantities,
(ix) interpret recorded data, observations or graphs to draw
conclusion; and
Physics deals with the understanding of natural phenomena and keeping least count in mind, (x) explore the scope of further investigation in the work performed.
applying this understanding to use the phenomena for
development of technology and for the betterment of society. (ii) follow the correct sequence while making observations, However, the most valued skills perhaps are those that pertain to the
Physics practical work involves ‘learning by doing’. It clarifies realm of creativity and investigation.
(iii) take observations carefully in a systematic manner; and
concepts and lays the seed for enquiry.
Careful and stepwise observation of sequences during an experiment
(iv) minimise some errors in measurement by repeating every
observation independently a number of times.
I 1.3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF LABORATORY WORK
or activity facilitate personal investigation as well as small group or
Specific objectives of laboratory may be classified as process-oriented
team learning.
A practical physics course should enable students to do experiments
I 1.2.3 DRAWING SKILLS performance skills and product-oriented performance skills.

on the fundamental laws and principles, and gain experience of using

a variety of measuring instruments. Practical work enhances basic
The learner develops drawing skills for recording observed data if
she/he is able to
I 1.3.1 PROCESS - ORIENTED PERFORMANCE SKILLS
learning skills. Main skills developed by practical work in physics are The learner develops process-oriented performance skills in practical
discussed below. (i) make schematic diagram of the apparatus,
work if she/he is able to
(ii) draw ray diagrams, circuit diagrams correctly and label them,
I 1.2.1 MANIPULATIVE SKILLS (iii) depict the direction of force, tension, current, ray of light etc,
(i) select appropriate tools, instruments, materials, apparatus and
chemicals and handle them appropriately,
The learner develops manipulative skills in practical work if she/he by suitable lines and arrows; and
is able to (ii) check for the working of apparatus beforehand,
(iv) plot the graphs correctly and neatly by choosing appropriate
(i) comprehend the theory and objectives of the experiment, scale and using appropriate scale. (iii) detect and rectify instrumental errors and their limitations,
(ii) conceive the procedure to perform the experiment,
(iii)
(iv)
set-up the apparatus in proper order,
check the suitability of the equipment, apparatus, tool
I 1.2.4 REPORTING SKILLS (iv) state the principle/formula used in the experiment,

The learner develops reporting skills for presentation of observation (v) prepare a systematic plan for taking observations,
regarding their working and functioning,
data in practical work if she/he is able to (vi) draw neat and labelled diagram of given apparatus/ray
(v) know the limitations of measuring device and find its least
count, error etc., (i) make a proper presentation of aim, apparatus, formula used, diagram/circuit diagram wherever needed,
(vi) handle the apparatus carefully and cautiously to avoid any principle, observation table, calculations and result for the
experiment, (vii) set up apparatus for performing the experiment,
damage to the instrument as well as any personal harm,
2 3 4
 MAJOR SKILLS... LABORATORY MANUAL MAJOR SKILLS...
UNIT NAME LABORATORY MANUAL UNIT NAME

(viii) handle the instruments, chemicals and materials carefully, observed value of some physical quantity, the ‘true’ value of which is after corrections for systematic errors still contain errors. All such
‘a0’. The difference (a – a0) = e is called the error in the measurement. residual errors whose origin cannot be traced are called random errors.
(ix) identify the factors that will influence the observations and Since a0, the true value, is mostly not known and hence it is not Random errors cannot be avoided and there is no way to find the
take appropriate measures to minimise their effects, possible to determine the error e in absolute terms. However, it is exact value of random errors. However, their magnitude may be
possible to estimate the likely magnitude of e. The estimated value of reduced by measuring the same physical quantity again and again
(x) perform experiment within stipulated time with reasonable error is termed as experimental error. The error can be due to least by the same method and then taking the mean of the measured values
speed, accuracy and precision, count of the measuring instrument or a mathematical relation involving (For details, see Physics Textbook for Class XI, Part I, Chapter 2;
least count as well as the variable. The quality of an experiment is NCERT, 2006).
(xi) represent the collected data graphically and neatly by choosing
determined from the experimental uncertainty of the result. Smaller
appropriate scale and neatly, using proper scale, While doing an experiment in the laboratory, we measure different
the magnitude of uncertainty, closer is the experimentally measured
quantities using different instruments having different values of their
(xii) interpret recorded data, observations, calculation or graphs value to the true value. Accuracy is a measure of closeness of the
least counts. It is reasonable to assume that the maximum error in
to draw conclusion, measured value to the true value. On the other hand, if a physical
the measured value is not more than the least count of the instrument
quantity is measured repeatedly during the same experiment again
with which the measurement has been made. As such in the case of
(xiii) report the principle involved, procedure and precautions and again, the values so obtained may be different from each other.
simple quantities measured directly by an instrument, the least count
followed in performing the experiment, This dispersion or spread of the experimental data is a measure of the
of the instrument is generally taken as the maximum error in the
precision of the experiment/instrument. A smaller spread in the
(xiv) dismantle and reassemble the apparatus; and measured value. If a quantity having a true value A0 is measured as A
experimental value means a more precise experiment. Thus, accuracy
with the instrument of least count a, then
and precision are two different concepts. Accuracy is a measure
(xv) follow the standard guidelines of working in a laboratory. of the nearness to truth, while precision is a measure of the A = ( A0 ± a )
dispersion in experimental data. It is quite possible that a high
I 1.3.2 PRODUCT - ORIENTED PERFORMANCE SKILLS precision experimental data may be quite inaccurate (if there are large
systematic errors present). A rough estimate of the maximum spread
= A0 (1 ± a / A0 )
The learner develops product-oriented performance skills in practical is related to the least count of the measuring instrument.
work if she/he is able to = A0 (1 ± f a )
Experimental errors may be categorised into two types:
(i) identify various parts of the apparatus and materials used in (a) systematic, and (b) random. Systematic errors may arise because where f a is called the maximum fractional error of A. Similarly, for
the experiment, of (i) faulty instruments (like zero error in vernier callipers),
(ii) incorrect method of doing the experiment, and (iii) due to the another measured quantity B, we have
(ii) set-up the apparatus according to the plan of the experiment,
individual who is conducting the experiment. Systematic errors are
(iii) take observations and record data systematically so as to those errors for which corrections can be applied and in principle B = B0 (1 ± f b )
facilitate graphical or numerical analysis, they can be removed. Some common systematic errors: (i) Zero error
Now some quantity, say Z, is calculated from the measured value of A
(iv) present the observations systematically using graphs, in micrometer screw and vernier callipers readings. (ii) The ‘backlash’
and B, using the formula
calculations etc. and draw inferences from recorded error. When the readings on a scale of microscope are taken by rotating
observations, the screw first in one direction and then in the reverse direction, the Z = A.B
reading is less than the actual distance through which the screw is
We now wish to calculate the expected total uncertainty (or the likely
(v) analyse and interpret the recorded observations to finalise the moved. To avoid this error all the readings must be taken while rotating
maximum error) in the calculated value of Z. We may write
results; and the screw in the same direction. (iii) The ‘bench error’ or ‘index
correction’. When distances measured on the scale of an optical bench Z = A.B
(vi) accept or reject a hypothesis based on the experimental
do not correspond to the actual distances between the optical devices,
findings.
addition or substraction of the difference is necessary to obtain correct = A0 (1 ± f a ).B0 (1 ± f b )

I 1.4 EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS values. (iv) If the relation is linear, and if the systematic error is constant,
the straight-line graph will get shifted keeping the slope unchanged,
but the intercept will include the systematic error.
= A0 B0 (1 ± f a ± f b ± f a f b )
The ultimate aim of every experiment is to measure directly or
indirectly the value of some physical quantity. The very process of In order to find out if the result of some experiments contains A0 B0 1 ± ( f a + f b ) , [If fa and fb are very small quantities, their
measurement brings in some uncertainties in the measured value. systematic errors or not, the same quantity should be measured by a
THERE IS NO MEASUREMENT WITHOUT ERRORS. As such the value different method. If the values of the same physical quantity obtained product fa fb can be neglected]
of a physical quantity obtained from some experiments may be by two different methods differ from each other by a large amount,
different from its standard or true value. Let ‘a’ be the experimentally then there is a possibility of systematic error. The experimental value, or Z ≈ Z 0 [1 ± f z ]
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where M is the mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity, L is the spherometer, respectively, which have smaller least
where the fractional error fz in the value of Z may have the largest
length of a metallic bar of rectangular cross-section, with breadth b, count (0.001 cm). Also those quantities which have
value of f a + f b . and thickness d, and δ is the depression (or sagging) from the horizontal higher power in the formula, like d and L should be
in the bar when a mass M is suspended from the middle point of the measured more carefully with an instrument of
On the other hand, if the quantity Y to be calculated is given as bar, supported at its two ends (Fig. I 1.1). smaller least count.
Now in an actual experiment, mass M may be taken as 1 kg. Normally The end product of most of the experiments is the
Y = A/B = A0 (1 ± f a ) / B0 (1 ± f b ) the uncertainty in mass is not more than 1 g. It means that the least measured value of some physical quantity. This
count of the ordinary balance used for measuring mass is 1 g. As measured value is generally called the result of the
 A0  such, the fractional error fM is 1g/1kg or fM = 1 × 10–3. experiment. In order to report the result, three main
= Y0 (1 ± f a )(1 ± f b ) ;
–1
 Y0 =  things are required. These are – the measured value,
 B0  Let us assume that the value of acceleration due to gravity g is 9.8 m/ the expected uncertainty in the result (or
s2 and it does not contain any significant error. Hence there will be no
(
= Y0 (1 ± f a ) 1 ± f b + f b
2
) fractional error in g, i.e., fg = 0. Further the length L of the bar is, say,
experimental error) and the unit in which the
quantity is expressed. Thus the measured value is
1 m and is measured by an ordinary metre scale of least count of 1 Fig. 1.1: A mass M is suspended from the
expressed alongwith the error and proper unit as the
= Y0 (1 ± f a )(1 ± f b ) mm = 0.001 m. The fractional error fL in the length L is therefore, metallic bar supported at its two
value ± error (units).
ends
–3
fL = 0.001 m / 1m = 1 × 10 .
~ Y0 [1 ± ( f a + f b ) ] Suppose a result is quoted as A ± a (unit).
Next the breadth b of the bar which is, say, 5 cm is measured by a
This implies that the value of A is estimated to an accuracy of 1 part
( )
or Y = Y0 1 ± f y , with fy = fa + fb, where the maximum fractional vernier callipers of least count 0.01 cm. The fractional error fb is then,
in A/a, both A and a being numbers. It is a general practice to include
fb = 0.01 cm / 5 cm = 0.002 = 2 × 10 –3. all digits in these numbers that are reliably known plus the first digit
uncertainty fy in the calculated value of Y is again f a + f b . Note that
that is uncertain. Thus, all reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit
Similarly, for the thickness d of the bar, a screw gauge of least count
the maximum fractional uncertainty is always additive. together are called SIGNIFICANT FIGURES. The significant figures of
0.001 cm is used. If, a bar of thickness, say, 0.2 cm is taken so that
the measured value should match with that of the errors. In the present
Taking a more general case, where a quantity P is calculated from fd = 0.001 cm / 0.2 cm = 0.005 = 5 × 10–3. example assuming Young Modulus of elasticity, Y = 18.2 × 1010 N/
several measured quantities x, y, z etc., using the formula P = xa yb zc, m2; (please check this value by calculating Y from the given data) and
it may be shown that the maximum fractional error fp in the calculated Finally, the depression δ which is measured by a spherometer of least
count 0.001 cm, is about 5 mm, so that ∆Y
value of P is given as error, = fy
Y
fδ = 0.001 cm / 0.5 cm = 0.002 = 2 × 10–3.
f p = a f x + b fy + c fz ∆Y = fy.Y
Having calculated the fractional errors in each quantity, let us
It may be observed that the value of the overall fractional error fp in calculate the fractional error in Y as = 0.022 × 18.2 × 1010 N/m2
the quantity P depends on the fractional errors fx, fy, fz etc. of each fY = (1) fM + (1) fg + (3) fL + (1) fb + (3) fd + (1) fδ = 0.39 × 1010 N/m2, where ∆Y is experimental error.
measured quantity, as well as on the power a, b, c etc., of these
quantities which appear in the formula. As such, the quantity which = 1 × (1 × 10–3) + 1 × 0 + 3 × (1 × 10–3) + 1 × (2 × 10–3) + 3 × (5 × 10–3) + 1 × (2 × 10–3) So the quoted value of Y should be (18.2 ± 0.4) × 1010 N/m2.
has the highest power in the formula, should be measured with the = 1 × 10–3 + 3 × 10–3 + 2 × 10–3 + 15 × 10–3 + 2 × 10–3
least possible fractional error, so that the contribution of
a f x + b f y + c f z to the overall fraction error fp are of the same order
or, fY = 22 × 10–3 = 0.022.
Hence the possible fractional error (or uncertainty) is fy × 100 = 0.022
I 1.5 LOGARITHMS
of magnitude. The logarithm of a number to a given base is the index of the power to
× 100 = 2.2%. It may be noted that, for a good experiment, the
Let us calculate the expected uncertainty (or experimental error) in a which the base must be raised to equal that number.
contribution to the maximum fractional error fy in the calculated value
quantity that has been determined using a formula which involves of Y contributed by various terms, i.e., fM, 3fL, fb, 3fd, and fδ should be If ax = N then x is called logarithm of N to the base a, and is denoted by
several measured physical parameters. of the same order of magnitude. It should not happen that one of loga N [read as log N to the base a]. For example, 24 = 16. The log of
A quantity Y, Young’s Modulus of elasticity is calculated using the formula these quantities becomes so large that the value of fy is determined by 16 to the base 2 is equal to 4 or, log2 16 = 4.
that factor only. If this happens, then the measurement of other
MgL
3
quantities will become insignificant. It is for this reason that the length In general, for a number we use logarithm to the base 10. Here log 10
Y= L is measured by a metre scale which has a large least count (0.1 cm) = 1, log 100 = log 102 and so on. Logarithm to base 10 is usually
4bd δ
3

while smaller quantities d and δ are measured by screw gauge and written as log.
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(i) COMMON LOGARITHM 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I 1.5.2 ANTILOGARITHMS

Logarithm of a number consists of two parts: are given. These correspond to the third significant figure of The number whose logarithm is x is called antilogarithm and is denoted
the given number. by antilog x.
(i) Characteristic — It is the integral part [whole of natural
number]
(iii) Further right column under the figures (digits) corresponds to Thus, since log 2 = 0.3010, then antilog 0.3010 = 2.
(ii) Mantissa — It is the fractional part, generally expressed in the fourth significant figures.
decimal form (mantissa is always positive). Example 1 : Find the number whose logarithm is 1.8088.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Answer : For this purpose, we use antilogarithms table which is used

(ii) HOW TO FIND THE CHARACTERISTIC OF A NUMBER? Example 1 : Find the logarithm of 278.6. for fractional part.
(i) In Example 1, fractional part is 0.8088. The first two figures
Answer : The number has 3 figures to the left of the decimal point.
The characteristic depends on the magnitude of the number and is Hence, its characteristic is 2. To find the mantissa, ignore the from the left are 0.80, the third figure is 8 and the fourth figure
determined by the position of the decimal point. For a number greater decimal point and look for 27 in the first vertical column. For 8, is also 8.
than 1, the characteristic is positive and is less than the number of look in the central topmost column. Proceed from 27 along a (ii) In the table of the antilogarithms, first look in the vertical
digits to the left of the decimal point. horizontal line towards the right and from 8 vertically downwards. column for 0.80. In this horizontal row under the column
For a number smaller than one (i.e., decimal fraction), the characteristic The two lines meet at a point where the number 4440 is written. headed by 8, we find the number 6427 at the intersection. It
is negative and one more than the number of zeros between the decimal This is the mantissa of 278. Proceed further along the horizontal means the number for mantissa 0.808 is 6427.
point and the first digit. For example, characteristic of the number line and look vertically below the figure 6 in difference column.
You will find the figure 9. Therefore, the mantissa of 2786 is 4440 (iii) In continuation of this horizontal row and under the mean
430700 is 5; 4307 is 3; 43.07 is 1; + 9 = 4449. difference column on the right under 8, we find the number
12 at the intersection. Adding 12 to 6427 we get 6439. Now
4.307 is 0; 0.4307 is –1; 0.04307 is –2; Hence, the logarithm of 278.6 is 2.4449 ( or log 278.6 = 2.4449). 6439 is the figure of which .8088 is the mantissa.
0.0004307 is –4 0.00004307 is –5. Example 2 : Find the logarithm of 278600. (iv) The characteristic is 1. This is one more than the number of
The negative characteristic is usually written as 1,2,4,5 etc and read Answer : The characteristic of this number is 5 and the mantissa is digits in the integral part of the required number. Hence, the
the same as in Example 1, above. We can find the mantissa of only number of digits in the integral part of the required
as bar 1, bar 2, etc. number = 1 + 1 =2. The required number is 64.39 i.e., antilog
four significant figures. Hence, we neglect the last 2 zero.
1.8088 = 64.39.
I 1.5.1 HOW TO FIND THE MANTISSA OF A NUMBER? ∴ log 278600 = 5.4449
Example 3 : Find the logarithm of 0.00278633.
Example 2 : Find the antilog of 2 .8088.
The value of mantissa depends on the digits and their order and is
independent of the position of the decimal point. As long as the digits Answer : The characteristic of this number is 3 , as there are two Answer : As the characteristic is 2 , there should be one zero on the
and their order is the same, the mantissa is the same, whatever be the
position of the decimal point. zeros following the decimal point. We can find the mantissa of only
right of decimal in the number, hence antilog 2 .8088 = 0.06439.
four significant figures. Hence, we neglect the last 2 figures (33) and
The logarithm Tables 1 and 2, on pages 266–269, give the mantissa find the mantissa of 2786 which is 4449. Properties of logarithms:
only. They are usually meant for numbers containing four digits, and
if a number consists of more than four figures, it is rounded off to four ∴ log 0.00278633 = 3 .4449 (i) loga mn = logam + logan
figures after determining the characteristic. To find mantissa, the tables (ii) loga m/n = logam – logan
When the last figure of a number consisting of more than 4 significant
are used in the following manner :
figures is equal to or more than 5, the figure next to the left of it is (iii) loga mn = n logam
(i) The first two significant figures of the number are found at the raised by one and so on till we have only four significant figures and if
the last figure is less than 5, it is neglected as in the above example. The definition of logarithm:
extreme left vertical column of the table wherein the number
lying between 10 and 99 are given. The mantissa of the figures loga 1 = 0 [since a0 = 1]
If we have the number 2786.58, the last figure is 8. Therefore, we
which are less than 10 can be determined by multiplying the
shall raise the next in left figure to 6 and since 6 is greater than 5, we The log of 1 to any base is zero,
figures by 10.
shall raise the next figure 6 to 7 and find the logarithm
and log a a = 1 [since the logarithm of the base to itself is 1,
(ii) Along the horizontal line in the topmost column the figures of 2787.
a1 = a]
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I 1.6 NATURAL SINE / COSINE TABLE A graph not only shows the relation between two variable quantities
in pictorial form, it also enables verification of certain laws (such as
(vii) When the graph is expected to be a straight line, generally 6 to
7 readings are enough. Time should not be wasted in taking a
To find the sine or cosine of some angles we need to refer to Tables of Boyle’s law) to find the mean value from a large number of very large number of observations. The observations must be
trignometric functions. Natural sine and cosine tables are given in the observations, to extrapolate/interpolate the value of certain quantities covering all available range evenly.
DATA SECTION (Tables 3 and 4, Pages 270–273). Angles are given beyond the limit of observation of the experiment, to calibrate or
(viii) If the graph is a curve, first explore the range by covering the
usually in degrees and minutes, for example : 35°6′ or 35.1°. graduate a given instrument for measurement and to find the
entire range of the independent variable in 6 to 7 steps. Then
maximum and minimum values of the dependent variable.
try to guess where there will be sharp changes in the curvature

I 1.6.1 READING OF NATURAL SINE TABLE Graphs are usually plotted on a graph paper sheet ruled in
millimetre/centimetre squares. For plotting a graph, the following steps
of the curve. Take more readings in those regions. For example,
when there is either a maximum or minimum, more readings
Suppose we wish to know the value of sin 35°10′. You may proceed as follows: are observed: are needed to locate the exact point of extremum, as in the
determination of angle of minimum deviation (δm) you may
(i) Open the Table of natural sines. (i) Identify the independent variable and dependent variable. need to take more observations near about δm.
Represent the independent variable along the x-axis and the
(ii) Look in the first column and locate 35°. Scan horizontally, dependent variable along the y-axis. (ix) Representation of “data” points also has a meaning. The size
move from value 0.5736 rightward and stop under the column of the spread of plotted point must be in accordance with the
where 6′ is marked. You will stop at 0.5750. (ii) Determine the range of each of the variables and count the accuracy of the data. Let us take an example in which the
number of big squares available to represent each, along the plotted point is represented as , a point with a circle around
(iii) But it is required to find for 10′.
respective axis. it. The central dot is the value of measured data. The radius of
The difference between 10′ and 6′ is 4′. So we look into the column of circle of ‘x’ or ‘y’ side gives the size of uncertainty. If the circle
mean difference under 4′ and the corresponding value is 10. Add 10 (iii) Choice of scale is critical for plotting of a graph. Ideally, the
radius is large, it will mean as if uncertainty in data is more.
to the last digits of 0.5750 and we get 0.5760. smallest division on the graph paper should be equal to the
Further such a representation tells that accuracy along x- and
least count of measurement or the accuracy to which the
Thus, sin (35°10′) is 0.5760. y-axis are the same. Some other representations used which
particular parameter is known. Many times, for clarity of the
give the same meaning as above are , , , , ×, etc.
graph, a suitable fraction of the least count is taken as equal
I 1.6.2 READING OF NATURAL COSINE TABLE to the smallest division on the graph paper. In case, uncertainty along the x-axis and y-axis are different,
some of the notations used are (accuracy along x-axis is
Natural cosine tables are read in the same manner. However, because (iv) Choice of origin is another point which has to be done more than that on y-axis); (accuracy along x-axis is less
of the fact that value of cos θ decrease as θ increases, the mean judiciously. Generally, taking (0,0) as the origin serves the
difference is to be subtracted. For example, cos 25° = 0.9063. To read purpose. But such a choice is to be adopted generally when than that on y-axis). , , , , are some of such other
the value of cosine angle 25°40′, i.e., cos 25°40′, we read for cos 25°36′ the relation between variables begins from zero or it is desired symbols. You can design many more on your own.
= 0.9018. Mean difference for 4′ is 5 which is to be subtracted from to find the zero position of one of the variables, if its actual
(x) After all the data points are plotted, it is customary to fit a
the last digits of 0.9018 to get 0.9013. Thus, cos 25°40′ = 0.9013. determination is not possible. However, in all other cases the
smooth curve judiciously by hand so that the maximum
origin need not correspond to zero value of the variable. It is,
number of points lie on or near it and the rest are evenly
however, convenient to represent a round number nearest to
I 1.6.3 READING OF NATURAL TANGENTS TABLE but less than the smallest value of the corresponding variable.
On each axis mark only the values of the variable in round
distributed on either side of it. Now a days computers are also
used for plotting graphs of a given data.
Natural Tangents table are read the same way as the natural sine
table.
(v)
numbers.
The scale markings on x-and y-axis should not be crowded.
I 1.7.1 SLOPE OF A STRAIGHT LINE
The slope m of a straight line graph AB is defined as
I 1.7 PLOTTING OF GRAPHS Write the numbers at every fifth cm of the axis. Write also the
units of the quantity plotted. Use scientific representations of
the numbers, i.e., write the number with decimal point following
m=
∆y
A graph pictorially represents the relation between two variable ∆x
the first digit and multiply the number by appropriate power
quantities. It also helps us to visualise experimental data at a glance where ∆y is the change in the value of the quantity plotted on the
of ten. The scale conversion may also be written at the right or
and shows the relation between the two quantities. If two physical y-axis, corresponding to the change ∆x in the value of the quantity
left corner at the top of the graph paper.
quantities a and b are such that a change made by us in a results in plotted on the x-axis. It may be noted that the sign of m will be positive
a change in b, then a is called independent variable and b is called (vi) Write a suitable caption below the plotted graph mentioning when both ∆x and ∆y are of the same sign, as shown in Fig. I 1.2. On
dependent variable. For example, when you change the length of the the names or symbols of the physical quantities involved. the other hand, if ∆y is of opposite sign (i.e., y decreases when x
pendulum, its time period changes. Here length is independent variable Also indicate the scales taken along both the axes on the increases) than that of ∆x, the value of the slope will be negative. This
while time period is dependent variable. graph paper. is indicated in Fig. I 1.3.
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Do not show slope as tanθ. Only when scales along both the axes are
identical slope is equal to tanθ. Also keep in mind that slope of a graph
has physical significance, not geometrical.
Often straight-line graphs expected to pass through the origin are
found to give some intercepts. Hence, whenever a linear relationship
is expected, the slope should be used in the formula instead of the
mean of the ratios of the two quantities.

I 1.7.2 SLOPE OF A CURVE AT A GIVEN POINT ON IT

As has been indicated, the slope of a straight line has the same value
at each point. However, it is not true for a curve. As shown in Fig. I 1.5, the
slope of the curve CD may have different values of slope at points A′ ,
A, A′, etc.
Fig. 1.2 Value of slope is positive Fig. 1.3 Value of slope is negative
(a), (b)
Further, the slope of a given straight line has the same value, for all
points on the line. It is because the value of y changes by the same Fig. 1.6 (a), (b): Drawing tangent at point A using a plane mirror
amount for a given change in the value of x, at every point of the
straight line, as shown in Fig. I 1.4. Thus, for a given straight line, the DA. In general, the image D′ A will not appear to be smoothly
slope is fixed.
joined with the part of the curve DA as shown in Fig. I 1.6 (a).

Next rotate the mirror strip MM′ , keeping its position at point A fixed.
The image D′ Α in the mirror will also rotate. Now adjust the position
of MM′ such that DAD′ appears as a continuous, smooth curve as
shown in Fig. I 1.6 (b). Draw the line MAM′ along the edge of the mirror
for this setting. Next using a protractor, draw a perpendicular GH to
the line MAM′ at point A.
Fig. I 1.5: Tangent at a point A
GAH is the line, which is the required tangent to the curve DAC at
point A. The slope of the tangent GAH (i.e., ∆y /∆x) is the slope of the
Therefore, in case of a non-straight line curve, we talk of the slope at
curve CAD at point A. The above procedure may be followed for finding
a particular point. The slope of the curve at a particular point, say
the slope of any curve at any given point.
point A in Fig. I 1.5, is the value of the slope of the line EF which is the
tangent to the curve at point A. As such, in order to find the slope of a

Fig. 1.4: Slope is fixed for a given straight line

curve at a given point, one must draw a tangent to the curve at the
desired point.
I 1.8 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS
1. The students should thoroughly understand the principle of the
In order to draw the tangent to a given curve at a given point, one may experiment. The objective of the experiment and procedure to be
While calculating the slope, always choose the x-segment of sufficient followed should be clear before actually performing the experiment.
use a plane mirror strip attached to a wooden block, so that it stands
length and see that it represents a round number of the variable. The
perpendicular to the paper on which the curve is to be drawn. This is 2. The apparatus should be arranged in proper order. To avoid
corresponding interval of the variable on y-segment is then measured any damage, all apparatus should be handled carefully and
and the slope is calculated. Generally, the slope should not have more illustrated in Fig. I 1.6 (a) and Fig. I 1.6 (b). The plane mirror strip
cautiously. Any accidental damage or breakage of the
than two significant digits. The values of the slope and the intercepts, MM′ is placed at the desired point A such that the image D′ A of the apparatus should be immediately brought to the notice of the
if there are any, should be written on the graph paper. part DA of the curve appears in the mirror strip as continuation of concerned teacher.
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3. Precautions meant for each experiment should be observed strictly

while performing it. PRINCIPLE / THEORY SOURCES OF ERROR
4. Repeat every observation, a number of times, even if measured Mention the principle underlying the experiment. Also, write the Mention the possible sources of error that are beyond the control of
value is found to be the same. The student must bear in mind the formula used, explaining clearly the symbols involved (derivation not the individual while performing the experiment and are liable to affect
proper plan for recording the observations. Recording in tabular required). Draw a circuit diagram neatly for experiments/activities the result.
form is essential in most of the experiments. related to electricity and ray diagrams for light.

5. Calculations should be neatly shown (using log tables wherever DISCUSSION

desired). The degree of accuracy of the measurement of each
quantity should always be kept in mind, so that final result does
PROCEDURE (WITH IN-BUILT PRECAUTIONS) The special reasons for the set up etc., of the experiment are to be
not reflect any fictitious accuracy. The result obtained should be Mention various steps followed with in-built precautions actually mentioned under this heading. Also mention any special inferences
suitably rounded off. observed in setting the apparatus and taking measurements in a which you can draw from your observations or special difficulties faced
sequential manner. during the experimentation. These may also include points for making
6. Wherever possible, the observations should be represented with the experiment more accurate for observing precautions and, in
the help of a graph. general, for critically relating theory to the experiment for better
7. Always mention the result in proper SI unit, if any, along with
experimental error.
OBSERVATIONS understanding of the basic principle involved.

Record the observations in tabular form as far as possible, neatly

and without any overwriting. Mention clearly, on the top of the
I 1.9 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR RECORDING EXPERIMENTS observation table, the least counts and the range of each measuring
instrument used.
A neat and systematic recording of the experiment in the practical file
However, if the result of the experiment depends upon certain
is very important for proper communication of the outcome of the
conditions like temperature, pressure etc., then mention the values
experimental investigations. The following heads may usually be
of these factors.
followed for preparing the report:
DATE:-------- EXPERIMENT NO:---------- PAGE NO.-------
CALCULATIONS AND PLOTTING GRAPH
AIM Substitute the observed values of various quantities in the formula
and do the computations systematically and neatly with the help of
State clearly and precisely the objective(s) of the experiment to be logarithm tables. Calculate experimental error.
performed. Wherever possible, use the graphical method for obtaining
the result.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
Mention the apparatus and material used for performing the experiment. RESULT
State the conclusions drawn from the experimental observations.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS INCLUDING MEASURING DEVICES (OPTIONAL) [Express the result of the physical quality in proper significant figures
of numerical value along with appropriate SI units and probable error].
Describe the apparatus and various measuring devices used in Also mention the physical conditions like temperature, pressure etc.,
the experiment. if the result happens to depend upon them.

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS OR CONCEPTS (OPTIONAL) PRECAUTIONS

Various important terms and definitions or concepts used in the Mention the precautions actually observed during the course of the
experiment are stated clearly. experiment/activity.
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