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P1 Calculus 3
Calculus of Vectors and Fields

4 lectures, MT 2020 David Murray

Rev December 4, 2020 [email protected]
Course Page www.robots.ox.ac.uk/∼dwm/Courses/1CA3

This course on calculus is concerned with the calculus of vectors, and the calculus of
scalar and vector fields.
We start by applying calculus of single variables to individual vectors and vector rela-
tionships defined in fixed coordinate systems. We then consider how to describe curves
in 3D space and introduce spatially moving coordinates, followed by two varieties of
temporally moving systems.
We then move on to consider calculus applied to scalar and vector fields. A scalar
field is such that a scalar quantity has a defined value at each location in some space.
For example, one might define pressure P (x, y , z, t) ≡ P (x, t) at each location in
the atmosphere. The wind velocities generated by this pressure field will have different
magnitudes and directions at each location, and therefore comprise a vector field v(x, t).
The overall aim is to examine how calculus can be applied effectively in 3D without
recourse to arbitrary coordinate systems.
Notation. We will use a bold font a, b, . . . , α, β, . . . to represent vectors and the
corresponding non-bold font a, b, . . . , α, β, . . . for their magnitudes. Unit vectors will
wear hats â, b̂, . . . , α̂, β̂, . . .. The unit vector along Cartesian x, y , z axes are ı̂,̂, k̂.
Later we will require unit vectors in cylindrical and spherical coordinates. These will be
r̂, φ̂, ẑ and r̂, θ̂, φ̂.
In your written work, underline the vector symbol and be meticulous doing so. Utter
chaos ensues if you can’t distinguish vectors from scalars in expressions like r 2 r. Re-
member too that if the left hand side of an equation is a vector, then so must the right
hand side; and ditto for scalars.
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Lecture Content
1. Differentiation of vectors and vector expressions. Space curves, the position vector
and its differential. Arc-length. Tangents, normals, and binormials. Coordinate
sytems that change — I: Frenet-Serret; II: vector derivatives in plane-polars; III
rotation and Coriolis.
2. Introduction to scalar and vector fields. Scalar field and the gradient operator
grad, examples and significance. Gradients, fields and potentials. An introduction
to line integrals using vectors.
3. Vectors fields and the divergence operator div: examples and significance of di-
vergence. Flux density and surface integrals. Vectors fields and the curl operator:
examples and significance. Combining vector operators.
4. Vector calculus in other coordinate systems. The position vector and its differential
in curvilinear systems, and in the polars. Metric scale parameters, and their link
to multiple integration. Some examples of the geometry, involving simple line and
surface integrals.

Tutorial Sheets
The tutorial sheet associated with this course is

• 1P1J: Calculus of Vectors and Fields

Reading
• James, G. (2004) Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, Prentice-Hall,
3rd Ed., ISBN: 0-13-045425-7 (paperback).
• Kreyszig, E. (1999) Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons,
8th Ed., ISBN: 0-471-15496-2 (paperback).
• Sokolnikoff, I.S. and Redheffer, R.M. (1966) Mathematics and Physics of Mod-
ern Engineering, McGraw-Hill 2nd ed. (A classic.)

Course WWW Pages

Pdf copies of these notes (in colour), copies of the lecture slides, the tutorial sheets,
corrections, answers to FAQs etc, will be accessible from
www.robots.ox.ac.uk/∼dwm/Courses/1CA3 ,
and
www.canvas.ox.ac.uk
Lecture 1

Differentiating Vector Functions

of a Single Variable

Part A: Fixed coordinate systems

1.1 Differentiation of a vector with respect to a scalar
It should be no great surprise that we often wish differentiate vector functions. For
example, suppose you were driving along a wiggly road. Your position vector (the vector
that points from the origin to where you are now) is r(t) at time t. Differentiating
r(t) with respect to time will yield your velocity v(t), and differentiating v(t) will yield
acceleration a(t). (Differentiating an acceleration gives a jerk j(t); and we don’t really
want to know what happens if you differentiate a jerk.)

o
Figure 1.1: A position vector r(t) varying with time t.

A vector expression in n dimensions on the left and right hand sides of an equation is
entirely equivalent to writing n scalar equations in the components of the vector. This
indicates that the fundamental definition of the derivative must extend effortlessly to
vectors. So, if we have a vector function f(p) of some single parameter p, it must be

1
1/2 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

that
df f(p + δp) − f(p)
= lim . (1.1)
dp δp→0 δp
If we write f in terms of components relative to a FIXED coordinate system (for
example, ı̂,̂, k̂ are fixed)
df dfx dfy dfz
f(p) = fx (p)ı̂ + fy (p)̂ + fz (p)k̂ ⇒ = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ . (1.2)
dp dp dp dp
That is, in order to differentiate a vector defined with respect to fixed axes, one simply
differentiates each component separately.
For example, suppose r(t) is the position vector of a moving object:
r(t) = x(t)ı̂ + y (t)̂ + z(t)k̂ . (1.3)
Then its instantaneous velocity and acceleration are
dr dx dy dz dv d 2x d 2y d 2z
v(t) = = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ and a(t) = = 2 ı̂ + 2 ̂ + 2 k̂ . (1.4)
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
Returning to the general problem, it is obvious that df/dp has a different magnitude
from f, but note that in general it also has a different direction. Because we are just
dividing the vector df by a scalar dp, it must be df/dp has the same direction as df
but, not surprisingly, the change df has a different direction to f.

1.1.1 Differentiating vector relationships

It also follows that all the familiar rules of differentiation apply to addition, subtraction
and multiplication — both scalar products and vector products. Thus, for the two
product rules:
d df dg d df dg
(f · g) = ·g+f · and (f × g) = ×g+f × . (1.5)
dp dp dp dp dp dp
If you need convincing, a scalar or vector product will involve a summation with a
particular pattern over terms involving products fi gj , where the subscripts indicate
components. Differentation gives a summation with the same pattern over terms
involving (dfi /dp)gj + fi (dgj /dp). And if you still need convincing, try writing it out
fully ...

1.1.2 The chain rule

You’ll also realize that the chain rule applies. If f = f(u) and u = u(t), then
df df du
= . (1.6)
dt du dt
1.2. INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR FUNCTION 1/3

♣ Example #1
Q: A 3D vector f of constant magnitude is varying over time. What can you say about
the direction of df/dt?
A: Using intuition: if only its direction is changing, then the vector must be tracing
out paths on the surface of a sphere. We would intuit that the derivative df/dt is
orthogonal to f.
To prove this write
d df df df
(f · f) = f · + · f = 2f · . (1.7)
dt dt dt dt
But (f · f) = f 2 which we are told is constant.
d df
⇒ (f · f) = 0 ⇒ 2f · =0 (1.8)
dt dt
and hence f and df/dt must be perpendicular when |f| is constant.

♣ Example #2
Q: The position of a vehicle is r(u) where u is the amount of fuel consumed by some
time t. Work out an expression for the acceleration.
A: The velocity and acceleration are
 2
d 2 r du dr d 2 u
   
dr dr du d dr d dr du
v= = a= = = + . (1.9)
dt du dt dt dt dt du dt du 2 dt du dt 2
1.2 Integration of a vector function
As with scalars, integration of a vector function of a single scalar variable is the reverse
of differentiation. That is,
Z p2  
df(p)
dp = f(p2 ) − f(p1 ) . (1.10)
p1 dp
However, more interesting types of integral are possible, especially when the vector is
a function of more than one variable. This requires the introduction of the concepts
of scalar and vector fields. See later.

1.3 Differentiation a vector wrt a vector [An aside]

This is possible, but we don’t need to bother with it here as it is just a notational device
used in linear algebra. Imagine differentiating each component of the vector “on top”
with respect to each component of the vector “on the bottom”. You end up with a
matrix of partial derivatives, not a vector.
1/4 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

1.4 The position vector, space curves, and derivatives

It is impossible to overstate the importance of the the position vector r in vector
calculus. It plays a starring rôle. We first consider its use in defining space curves.
A space curve is — as it says on the can — a curve in 3D space. We will assume
that each point on the curve has a different position vector r. Referring to Fig. 1.2(a),
suppose r is parameterized by some scalar p, so that by varying p we trace out the
complete curve r(p). We can write r(p + δp) = r(p) + δr. The small vector δr is
obviously a secant to the curve, and δr/δp points in the same direction. (It must do!
We are just dividing a little vector by a little scalar.)

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2: (a) δr is a secant to the curve but, in the limit as δp → 0, becomes a tangent. (b) Two
special parameters, arc-length s and time t.

But in the limit as δp tends to zero

δr dr
lim → (1.11)
δp→0 δp dp
a quantity which, in the limit, must be a tangent to the space curve. Note though
that using a general parameter p there is nothing special about the magnitude of the
tangent. (For utter clarity, one might call it a non-unit tangent.)
Fig. 1.3 shows three of the infinity of ways of parametrizing a curve. However, there is
one very special parametrization when p measures arc-length, denoted by s.

0.4 2
0.6 2
1.0 3
3 10
0.8 5
0.2 4 1 4

p=0 p=1 s=0

Figure 1.3: Different parametrizations describe the same curve. Arc-length s is special as it measures
actual distance along the curve.
1.4. THE POSITION VECTOR, SPACE CURVES, AND DERIVATIVES 1/5

The difference in arc-length between two points on the curve is the actual distance
travelled along the curve. But, for infinitesimally small movements, it must be that
ds = |dr|, so that dr/ds must be of unit length.
If a curve r(s) is parametrized by the arc length s
dr
is everywhere a UNIT tangent to the curve.
ds

In general, parameter p will not be arc-length. But the chain rule tells us that
dr dr ds
= . (1.12)
dp ds dp
So, the direction of the derivative dr/dp is that of a tangent to the curve, and its
magnitude is |ds/dp|, the rate of change of arc length w.r.t the parameter.
An immediately interesting case (see Fig. 1.2b) is when p is time t. Then
dr dr ds
= (1.13)
dt ds dt
This indicates that when moving along a curve, the vector velocity is the unit tangent
(dr/ds) multiplied by the scalar speed (ds/dt). This makes sense!

1.4.1 ♣ Example: application to a helix

Q1: In the following equation parameter α can take any value. By considering its value
in the range 0 to 2π, sketch the 3D space curve
αP
r = a cos(α)ı̂ + a sin(α)̂ + k̂ . (1.14)
2π
A1: The ı̂,̂ components just trace out a circle. The k̂ component increases linearly
from 0 and will be P when α = 2π. It should be obvious that this is a helix with radius
a and pitch P . The sketch is
1/6 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Q2: Determine the unit tangent to the helix, and hence determine the relationship
between α and arc-length s given s = 0 when α = 0.
A2: The parameter α is (probably) not special. The non-unit tangent is
dr P
= −a sin(α)ı̂ + a cos(α)̂ + k̂ . (1.15)
dα 2π
Its magnitude is
dr ds p
= = a2 + (P/2π)2 . (1.16)
dα dα
Hence the unit tangent is
 
dr dr dα 1 P
= =p −a sin(α)ı̂ + a cos(α)̂ + k̂ . (1.17)
ds dα ds a2 + (P/2π)2 2π

Integrating ds/dα and using the given limit we find

s
α=p . (1.18)
a2 + (P/2π)2

Q3. Show that the unit tangent to the curve has a constant elevation angle w.r.t the
xy -plane, and determine the angle’s magnitude.
A3. The unit tangent’s projections onto the xy plane and the k̂ axis have magnitudes
a (P/2π)
p and p . (1.19)
a2 + (P/2π)2 a2 + (P/2π)2
Hence the elevation angle is e = tan−1 (P/(2πa)), which is constant.

x y

Figure 1.4: Working out the elevation angle between the tangent and the xy -plane.
1.5. MORE ON R, ITS CHANGE DR, & PARAMETERS S, P 1/7

1.5 More on r, its change dr, & parameters s, p

It is worth stressing that the position vector r in Cartesian coordinates is always

r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂ or using the parameter r(p) = x(p)ı̂ + y (p)̂ + z(p)k̂ . (1.20)

It follows immediately that the differential

dr = dxı̂ + dy̂ + dz k̂ . (1.21)

But we have already noted that ds = |dr| and hence, as sketched in Fig. 1.5,

ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 . (1.22)

z
y

Figure 1.5: The curvature is WILDLY exaggerated! In the limit, δs is straight and ds 2 = dx 2 +dy 2 +dz 2 .

So if a curve is parameterized in terms of p, and given as x(p), y (p) and z(p),

 2 1/2
ds dx dy 2 dz 2
= + + . (1.23)
dp dp dp dp
This will be unity if and only if p = s.
From ds/dp one can easily find the relationship between s and p by integration.

Where next?
So far we have referred our vectors to a coordinate system that is fixed in space.
We now come to consider three areas where the coordinate systems change ...
Our brains seem better wired for fixed coordinates, so this can be confusing at times!
1/8 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

Part B: Coordinate systems that change

1.6 Coordinate systems that change (1): Frenet-Serret relations
We’ll start with the idea of two French engineers and mathematicians, F-J. Frenet
and J. A. Serret. They defined a local orthogonal coordinate system which is intrinsic
to the curve — the system moves as one moves along the curve as illustrated in
Fig. 1.6(a). The orientation of the coordinate system depends on the value of the
arc-length parameter s at each point. It is helpful to note that we can always refer this
changing intrinsic system to an external fixed system Oxy z.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.6: (a) A coordinate frame intrinsic to the curve. (b) The unit tangent t̂ changing as s changes.

The local system is defined by three mutually perpendicular directions. These are:

1. Tangent t̂. For the first intrinsic direction defined at at the point r(s) we can use
the unit tangent t̂. We know already that
dr
t̂ = . (1.24)
ds
2. Principal Normal n̂. Recall our earlier proof that if f was a vector with variable
direction but fixed magnitude then df/dt and f were orthogonal. But t̂ has
constant magnitude and varies over s, so that d t̂/ds must be perpendicular to t̂.
Hence for the second direction we use the principal normal n̂ defined by
d t̂
κn̂ = : where κ ≥ 0 by convention. (1.25)
ds
κ is the curvature, and κ = 0 for a straight line.
3. The Binormal b̂
The local coordinate frame is completed by defining the binormal as
b̂(s) = t̂(s) × n̂(s) . (1.26)
1.6. COORDINATE SYSTEMS THAT CHANGE (1): FRENET-SERRET RELATIONS 1/9

With t̂, n̂ and b̂ defined, the Frenet-Serret relationships emerge from differentiating
dot products between them.
First, since b̂ · t̂ = 0,

d d b̂ d t̂ d b̂
b̂ · t̂ = · t̂ + b̂ · = · t̂ + b̂ · κn̂ = 0 . (1.27)
ds ds ds ds

But b̂ · n̂ = 0, so

d b̂
· t̂ = 0. (1.28)
ds

This says d b̂/ds is perpendicular to t̂; but was also know that because b̂ has fixed
magnitude it is perpendicular to b̂. Hence it must be along the direction of n̂:

d b̂
= −τ (s)n̂(s) (1.29)
ds
where by definition τ is the curve’s torsion. (The negative sign is a matter of conven-
tion.)
Differentiating n̂ · t̂ = 0 and n̂ · b̂ = 0, we find

d n̂ d t̂ d n̂ d n̂
· t̂ + n̂ · = · t̂ + n̂ · (κn̂) = 0 ⇒ · t̂ = −κ (1.30)
ds ds ds ds

d n̂ d b̂ d n̂ d n̂
· b̂ + n̂ · = · b̂ + n̂ · (−τ n̂) = 0 ⇒ · b̂ = τ . (1.31)
ds ds ds ds
Together these give

d n̂
= −κ(s)t̂(s) + τ (s)b̂(s). (1.32)
ds

The twists and turns in a space curve are therefore described by the local curvature
and torsion, and we now have all three of
The Frenet-Serret relationships
d t̂/ds = κn̂ (1.33)
d n̂/ds = −κ(s)t̂(s) + τ (s)b̂(s) (1.34)
d b̂/ds = −τ (s)n̂(s) (1.35)
1/10 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

1.6.1 ♣ Example: F-S applied to that helix

Q Derive the curvature κ(s) and torsion τ (s) of the helix
     
s s s
r(s) = a cos ı̂ + a sin ̂ + h k̂ (1.36)
β β β
√
where for compactness we’ve written h = P/2π and β = a2 + h 2 .
A The unit tangent in [ı̂,̂, k̂] components is
     
dr a s a s h
t̂ = = − sin , cos , . (1.37)
ds β β β β β
Differentiation gives
     
d t̂ a s a s
= κn̂ = − 2 cos , − 2 sin , 0 (1.38)
ds β β β β
The curvature is always positive, so
     
a a s s
κ= 2 = 2 and n̂ = − cos , − sin , 0 . (1.39)
β (a + (P/2π)2 ) β β
So κ is a constant (it doesn’t depend on s), and n̂ is parallel to the xy -plane (it
has no k̂ component). It points to the central axis of the helix.
Now find the binormal: (here C, S is shorthand for cos, sin(s/β))
ı̂ ̂ k̂      
h s h s a
b̂=t̂ × n̂ = (−a/β)S (a/β)C (h/β) = sin , − cos , (1.40)
β β β β β
−C −S 0

and differentiate b̂ to find an expression for the torsion

     
d b̂ h s h s −h
= cos , sin , 0 = n̂ (1.41)
ds β2 β β2 β β2
so the torsion is
h (P/2π)
τ= = , (1.42)
β2 (a2 + (P/2π)2 )
again a constant.
Both the curvature and torsion being constants, ie. independent of s, seems
entirely sensible. The helix never changes it shape and, if you were to move along
it, no one point would be distinguished from any other.
1.7. COORDINATE SYSTEMS THAT MOVE (2): DERIVATIVES IN PLANE POLARS 1/11

1.7 Coordinate systems that move (2): derivatives in plane polars

Another type of moving coordinate system is, unlike the previous example, referred to
the original fixed coordinate system. To keep this simple we will consider motion in a
plane, and consider plane polar coordinates. Note that we’ll continue to denote the
plane polar angle by φ to avoid confusion with the spherical polar angle.
In plane polar coordinates, the position vector of any point P is given by

r = xı̂ + y̂ (1.43)

= r cos φı̂ + r sin φ̂
= rr̂

where we have introduced the unit radial vector

r̂ = cos φı̂ + sin φ̂ . (1.44)

The other basic unit vector in plane polars is orthogonal to r̂ and is

φ̂ = − sin φı̂ + cos φ̂ (1.45)

so that r̂ · r̂ = 1, φ̂ · φ̂ = 1, and r̂ · φ̂ = 0.

Figure 1.7:

Now suppose point P is moving.

Then r is a function of time t, as of course are r , φ, r̂ and φ̂.
1/12 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

The velocity of P is
d dr dr̂
ṙ = (rr̂) = r̂ + r (1.46)
dt dt dt
dr dφ
= r̂ + r (− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂)
dt dt
dr dφ
= r̂ + r φ̂ = radial + tangential
dt dt
The radial and tangential components of velocity of P are therefore dr /dt and r dφ/dt,
respectively.
Differentiating again gives the acceleration of P
d 2r dr dφ dr dφ d 2φ dφ dφ
r̈ = 2
r̂ + φ̂ + φ̂ + r φ̂ − r r̂ (1.47)
"dt dt dt #dt dt dt 2 dt dt
 2
d 2r d 2φ
 
dφ dr dφ
= −r r̂ + 2 + r 2 φ̂
dt 2 dt dt dt dt

One might guess this system is convenient when there is motion related to a circle.
Three obvious cases are:

1. Motion along a radial spoke, ⇒φ =constant:

d 2r
r̈ = 2 r̂ . (1.48)
dt
2. Motion in a circle with varying angular speed, ⇒r =constant:
 2
dφ d 2φ
r̈ = −r r̂ + r 2 φ̂ . (1.49)
dt dt
3. Motion in a circle with fixed angular speed, ⇒r =constant and dφ/dt=constant:
 2
dφ
r̈ = −r r̂ (1.50)
dt
which is good old centripetal acceleration.

Extending to 3D. The arugments presented could readily be extended to 3D using,

say, spherical polar coordinates where the basis vectors are r̂, φ̂, θ̂.
Another note. It is probably futile to try to remember these relationships. Instead
learn the basics — the definition of the position vector r and r̂ and φ̂, and then be
confident about differentiation.
1.8. COORDINATE FRAMES THAT MOVE (3): ROTATION & CORIOLIS 1/13

1.8 Coordinate frames that move (3): rotation & Coriolis

Suppose you are sitting in a fixed coordinate system Oxy z, observing a point P on a
body that rotates with constant angular velocity ω about some axis passing through an
origin defined in the body, as shown in Fig. 1.8. The angular velocity vector ω points
in the same direction as the axis of rotation. It is therefore fixed both with respect to
the rotating frame and the fixed frame.
We can break the position vector of point P into two parts rP = r0 + r. But r0 is a
constant and plays no part in the motion of P, and for further analysis we translate the
fixed coordinate system to the body origin.

Figure 1.8: You sit in a fixed frame and observe the movement of a point P on a body which rotated.

(a) (b)

Figure 1.9: Vectors in the rotating and fixed frames when (a) P is stationary in the rotating frame, and
(b) when it is moving.

Let ρ be the position, as described in the rotating frame, of the point P The point’s
position in the translated fixed frame is just r. Now, at some instant t, let the rotating
coordinate frame be be aligned with the fixed coord system. So at instant t, and only
at instant t, r = ρ.
1/14 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE

First suppose that point P is stationary in the rotating frame (Fig 1.9(a)). Its velocity
is therefore zero in the rotating frame, but at any instant in the fixed frame P’s velocity
is
dr
=ω×r =ω×ρ . (1.51)
dt
Although the frames are aligned, this is true whether or not the origins of coordinates
coincide. Notice that dr/dt will have fixed magnitude, and will always be perpendicular
to the axis of rotation.
Now let the point P move in the rotating frame. There will be two contributions to its
motion when described in the fixed frame — one due to its motion within the rotating
frame, and one due to the rotation itself. Over an interval δt the movement is

δr = δρ + (ω × ρ)δt . (1.52)

Hence the instantaneous velocity in the fixed frame is the sum of the body defined
motion and the rotational motion:
 
dr Dρ D
= + ω×ρ ≡ + ω× ρ. (1.53)
dt Dt Dt
Here, the capital D is used to indicate differentiation in the rotating frame. We’ve also
introduced an operator notation. Note that we could replace ρ on the RHS with r. At
the instant under consideration, they are the same.
But, again because the frames are aligned at instant t, this equation applies to any
vector. In particular, the instantaneous acceleration is
d 2r
    
D dr D D
= + ω× = + ω× + ω× r . (1.54)
dt 2 Dt dt Dt Dt

The instantaneous acceleration observed in the fixed frame is therefore

d 2r D2ρ Dρ
= + 2ω × + ω × (ω × r) (1.55)
dt 2 Dt 2 Dt

• The first term is the acceleration of the point P in the rotating frame measured
in the rotating frame.

• The last term is the centripetal acceleration to due to the rotation. (Yes! Its
magnitude is ω 2 r and its direction is that of −r. Check it out.)
1.8. COORDINATE FRAMES THAT MOVE (3): ROTATION & CORIOLIS 1/15

• The middle term is an extra term which arises because of the velocity of P in the
rotating frame. It is known as the Coriolis acceleration, named after the French
engineer who first identified it.

Because of the rotation of the earth, the Coriolis acceleration is of great importance
in meteorology and accounts for the occurrence of high pressure anti-cyclones and
low pressure cyclones in the northern hemisphere, in which the Coriolis acceleration
is produced by a pressure gradient. It is also a very important component of the
acceleration (hence the force exerted) by a rapidly moving robot arm, whose links whirl
rapidly about rotary joints. You’ll learn more about this in the 2nd year A3 Dynamics
of Machines course.

Revised December 4, 2020

1/16 LECTURE 1. DIFFERENTIATING VECTOR FUNCTIONS OF A SINGLE VARIABLE
Lecture 2

Scalar fields and the grad operator.

Our focus now turns away from individual vectors and towards scalar and vector quanti-
ties which are defined over regions in space. When a scalar function U(r) is determined
or defined at each position r in some region, we say that U is a scalar field in that
region. Similarly, if a vector function v(r) is defined at each point, then v is a vector
field in that region. Familiar examples of 2D fields are shown in Fig. 2.1.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.1: Examples of (a) a scalar field (temperature); (b) a vector field (wind velocity)

As you would guess, there are strong links between fields of each type. In heat transfer,
a scalar temperature field will give rise to vector field of heat flow, in fluid mechanics a
scalar pressure field will give rise to a vector field of velocity flow, and in electrostatics
an scalar potential field will give rise to a vector electric field.
In each case there is a sense of “flow” from a higher “potential to do something” to
a lower one — one would therefore guess that gradients, but 3D gradients, will be
involved.

1
2/2 LECTURE 2. SCALAR FIELDS AND THE GRAD OPERATOR.

This leads us to define the gradient of a scalar field using a differential vector operator.
Acting on a scalar field it delivers a vector field of gradients. (An early warning! We’ve
been talking about high to low potential, but the gradient vector field will, of course,
point from low to high values of the scalar field.)

2.1 The gradient of a scalar field

Consider a scalar field, such as temperature, defined throughout some region of space.
One might ask how the value would vary as we moved off in an arbitrary direction in
3D. Here we find out how.
If U(r) = U(x, y , z) is a scalar field in 3 dimensions then its gradient at any point is
defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by
∂U ∂U ∂U
gradU = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ . (2.1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
It is usual to define the vector operator ∇, called “del” or “nabla” 1 . It is
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ . (2.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
and then
gradU ≡ ∇U .

Note that ∇ is vector operator which operates on a scalar field and returns a vector
field.
Also note, without thinking too carefully about it, that the gradient of a scalar field
tends to point in the 3D direction of greatest change of the field. Later we will be
more precise.

2.2 ♣ Worked examples of gradient evaluation

1: U = x 2 , a 1D example
 
∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ ∇U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ x 2 = 2xı̂ . (2.3)
∂x ∂y ∂z

2: U = r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
 
∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ ∇U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (x 2 +y 2 +z 2 ) = 2xı̂+2y̂+2z k̂ = 2 r . (2.4)
∂x ∂y ∂z
1
del because (I guess) it’s an inverted delta, and nabla because (according to Wikipedia) nabla is Greek for a Phoenician
harp — but, heck, you knew that ...
2.3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GRAD 2/3

3: U = c · r, where c is constant.
 
∂ ∂ ∂
⇒ ∇ U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (c1 x + c2 y + c3 z) = c1 ı̂ + c2 ̂ + c3 k̂ = c . (2.5)
∂x ∂y ∂z

p
4: U = U(r ), where r = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ).
U is a function of r alone so dU/dr exists. As U = U(x, y , z) as well,
∂U dU ∂r ∂U dU ∂r ∂U dU ∂r
= = = . (2.6)
∂x dr ∂x ∂y dr ∂y ∂z dr ∂z
 
∂U ∂U ∂U dU ∂r ∂r ∂r
⇒ ∇U = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (2.7)
∂x ∂y ∂z dr ∂x ∂y ∂z

But r = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 , so
∂r 1 x ∂r y ∂r z
= 2x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−1/2 = and = , = .
∂x 2 r ∂y r ∂z r
!
dU xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂ dU  r  dU
⇒ ∇U = = = r̂ . (2.8)
dr r dr r dr

Note that it makes sense for a radially symmetric scalar field to have a gradient which
is a radially symmetric vector field.
5: From paper P2 you will recognize Φ(r ) as the electric potential a distance r from a
point charge Q in vacuum.
 
Q 1
Φ(r ) = .
4πo r
We can use Example 4 to find the gradient
Q r̂ Q r̂
∇Φ = − . or we could write − ∇ Φ = . (2.9)
4πo r 2 4πo r 2
You will recognize the RHS of the second expression as the electric field E around a
point charge. You already knew that in one dimension E = −dΦ/dx, and now we’ve
found out that
In 3D we write the vector electric field as the -ve gradient of the potential:

∇Φ .
E = −∇
Remember too that the potential Φ is a scalar, and the electric field is a vector.
2/4 LECTURE 2. SCALAR FIELDS AND THE GRAD OPERATOR.

(a) (b)

Figure 2.2: The directional derivative: The rate of change of U with respect to distance in direction d̂
is ∇ U · d̂.

2.3 The significance of grad

Referring to Fig. 2.2(a), if our current position is r = (xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂) in some scalar field
U(r) = U(x, y , z), and we move an infinitesimal distance dr = dxı̂ + dy̂ + dz k̂, the
value of U changes to U(x + dx, y + dy , z + dz). From Calculus 2.1 we know that the
change dU is the total differential:
∂U ∂U ∂U
dU = dx + dy + dz . (2.10)
∂x ∂y ∂z

But ∇ U = (ı̂∂U/∂x +̂∂U/∂y + k̂∂U/∂z), so that the change in U can also be written
as the scalar product

dU = ∇ U · dr . (2.11)

Now divide both sides by ds (allowed because these are total differentials):
dU dr
= ∇U · . (2.12)
ds ds
But remember that |dr| = ds, so dr/ds is a unit vector in the direction of dr.
This result can be paraphrased (Fig. 2.2(b)) as:

Statement #1: gradU has the property that the rate of change of U wrt distance
in a particular direction (d̂) is the projection of gradU onto that direction (ie, the
component of gradU in that direction).
2.3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GRAD 2/5

The quantity dU/ds is called a directional derivative, but note that in general it has a
different value for each direction, and so has no meaning until you specify the direction.
Now imagine sitting at one point and changing the direction of d̂. Looking at Fig. 2.2(b)
and/or Eq. (2.12) it is evident that

Statement #2: At any position r in a scalar field U, gradU points in the direction of
greatest change of U at P, and has magnitude equal to the rate of change of U with
respect to distance in that direction.

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
4

2 4
2
0
0
−2
−2
−4 −4

Figure 2.3: ∇ U is in the direction of greatest (positive!) change of U wrt distance. (Positive ⇒“uphill”.)

Another nice property emerges if we think of a surface of constant U – that is the locus
(x, y , z) for U(x, y , z) = constant. If we move a tiny amount within that iso-U surface,
there is no change in U, so dU/ds = 0. So for any dr/ds in that U=constant surface
dr
∇U · = 0. (2.13)
ds
But dr/ds is a tangent to the surface, so this result shows that (Fig. 2.4)
Statement #3: gradU is everywhere NORMAL to a surface of constant U.

Figure 2.4: gradU is everywhere NORMAL to a surface of constant U.

2/6 LECTURE 2. SCALAR FIELDS AND THE GRAD OPERATOR.

2.4 Grad, fields and potential

You were reminded earlier of electric field E, and that in one dimension (say along the
x-direction) the increase dΦ in electric potential Φ when moving a distance dx in a
field E is dΦ = −Edx. Equivalently the field in the x-direction is given by E = − dΦdx ,
the negative potential gradient in the x-direction.
If we were interested in the change of potential φ when we moved by dx in one dimension
we would write
dΦ = −E(x)dx . (2.14)
The equivalent in 3D is
 
∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
dΦ = dx + dy + dz = ∇ Φ · dr = −E · dr (2.15)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Suppose we asked what the change in potential was between A and B. In 1D we would
write
Z ΦB Z xB
ΦB − ΦA = dΦ = − E(x)dx . (2.16)
ΦA xA
But in 3D
Z ΦB Z rB
ΦB − ΦA = dΦ = − E(r) · dr . (2.17)
ΦA rA
Z B
E · dr is an example of a line integral. We discuss these now.
A

2.5 What is a line integral?

Line integrals are concerned with measuring the integrated interaction with a field as
you move through it on some defined path.
Many texts describe line integrals without using vector calculus, which rather hides
their physical importance. We shall review both approaches: you are likely to find the
vector approach more satisfying.
Suppose we have a scalar field F (r) ≡ F (x, y , z) defined in space. Now consider
moving throught the field along a space curve which you have chopped into elemental
arc-lengths δsi . Each element is associated with a position (xi , yi , zi ) and a function
value F (xi , yi , zi ). The line integral is defined as
Z X n
F (x, y , z)ds = lim F (xi , yi , zi )δsi (2.18)
C n→∞
i =1
2.5. WHAT IS A LINE INTEGRAL? 2/7

over the path C from sstart to send .

In practice, the method of solution depends on how the space curve is parameterized.
1: The simplest form is when we just happen to know F (s) – so F need not be known
everywhere, but only be known on the particular path taken. Then the line integral is
simply
Z send
I= F (s) ds . (2.19)
sstart

♣ Example: Suppose F (s) is fuel consumption (say in mpg, or its SI equivalent)

as a function of distance along the path. The line integral would give the total fuel
consumed.
2: The more general form is when F (x, y , z) defines a field, and the path taken
through the field is defined in terms of a parameter p. That is, the path is defined by
the space curve

r(p) = [x(p), y (p), z(p)] . (2.20)

We’ll assume that the start and end values of the parameter pstart,end are given or easily
found.
Finding the integral involves determining F (p) by replacing x, y , z with their correspon-
ing functions of p x(p), y (p), z(p), and then writing
Z Z pend
ds
I= F ds = F (p) dp . (2.21)
pstart dp

Figure 2.5: The line integral in 2D.

2/8 LECTURE 2. SCALAR FIELDS AND THE GRAD OPERATOR.

But because ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 , we can replace ds/dp with

" 
2  2  2 #1/2
ds dx dy dz
= + + , (2.22)
dp dp dp dp
and the integral is now one entirely in p.

♣ Example.
Q: Find the line integral from points [xy z ] = [000] to [422] when F (x, y , z) = xy /z 2
and the path is [x, y , z] = [p, p 1/2 , p 1/2 ].
A:
(i) Notice that pstart = 0 and pend = 4.
(ii) Use x=p, y =p 1/2 , z=p 1/2 into F = xy /z 2 to find F (p) = p 1/2 .
(iii) Then work out
" 2  2  2 #1/2 "  2  2 #1/2  1/2
ds dx dy dz 2 1 1 1
= + + = 1 + √ + √ = 1+ (2.23)
dp dp dp dp 2 p 2 p 2p

(iv) So the line integral ends up as

Z p=4 Z p=4 Z p=4  1/2
ds 1 26
I= F (p)ds = F (p) dp = p+ dp = DIY = √ . (2.24)
p=0 p=0 dp p=0 2 3 2

♣ Example
R
Q: Derive the line integral L (x − y 2 )ds where s is arc length and the path L is that
segment of the straight line y = 2x between x = 0 to x = 1.
R x=1
A: We want to turn this integral into x=0 F (x)dx.
As the path lies in the x, y -plane any dz = 0, so that
s  2
p dy p √
2
ds = dx + dy = 1 + 2 dx which here = 1 + 22 dx = 5dx (2.25)
dx
Thus
√ 1
Z Z
2
I = (x − y )ds = (x − 4x 2 ) 5dx (2.26)
L x=0
1 √
√ x
 2
4 3 5 5
= 5 − x =− . (2.27)
2 3 0 6
2.6. LINE INTEGRALS USING VECTORS 2/9

2.6 Line integrals using vectors

With vectors, problems are usually formulated using r as the position instead of (x, y , z)
and dr instead of ds. You will immediately realize that this is no great change, and so
the calculations involved are essentially identical.
The most common form of line integral is when the integrand F(r) is a vector field
(because F() is a vector function) dotted with dr giving a scalar integral:
Z X
I = F(r) · dr = lim Fi · δri .
L δ ri →0
i

For example, in Fig. 2.6 the total work done by a force F as it moves a point from A
to B along a given path L is given by a line integral of this form. If the force F at r
moves by dr, then the element of work done is dW = F · dr, and the total work done
traversing the space curve is
Z
W = F · dr . (2.28)
L

Figure 2.6: Line integral. F(r) is a force.

2/10 LECTURE 2. SCALAR FIELDS AND THE GRAD OPERATOR.

2.6.1 ♣ A trio of examples

Q1: A body moves through a force field F = x 2 yı̂ + xy 2 ̂ y 1,1
at it moves between [0, 0] and [1, 1]. Determine the work
done on the body when the path is 1
1. along the line y = x.
2. along the curve y = x n . 2 3
3. along the x axis to the point (1, 0) and then along x
the line x = 1. 0,0 1,0
A1: The problem involves the x-y plane. The position vector is r = xı̂ + y̂, and so
dr = dxı̂ + dy̂. Then in general the work done is
Z Z Z
F · dr = (x yı̂ + xy ̂) · (dxı̂ + dy̂) = (x 2 y dx + xy 2 dy ) .
2 2
(2.29)
C C C

Path 1: y =x gives dy =dx. It seems easiest to convert all y references to x.

Z [1,1] Z x=1 Z x=1
2 2 2 2 x=1
2x 3 dx = x 4 /2

(x y dx +xy dy ) = (x xdx +xx dx) = x=0
= 1/2 .
[0,0] x=0 x=0
(2.30)

Path 2: y =x n gives dy =nx n−1 dx. Again convert all y references to x.

Z [1,1] Z x=1
2 2
(x y dx + xy dy ) = (x n+2 dx + nx n−1 .x.x 2n dx) (2.31)
[0,0] x=0
Z x=1
= (x n+2 dx + nx 3n dx) (2.32)
x=0
1 n
= + (2.33)
n + 3 3n + 1

Path 3: is not smooth, so we must break it into two. Along the first section, y = 0
and dy = 0, and on the second x = 1 and dx = 0, so
Z B Z x=1 Z y =1
2 2 2 y =1
1.y 2 dy = 0+ y 3 /3 y =0 = 1/3 . (2.34)

(x y dx +xy dy ) = (x 0dx)+
A x=0 y =0

Conclude: In general, line integrals depend not only the start and end points, but
on the path taken between the start and end points.
2.6. LINE INTEGRALS USING VECTORS 2/11

By the way, here is a neat check on those results. Notice that that path (2) morphs
into path (1) when n = 1, and that path (2) morphs into path (3) when n → ∞. Our
line integral result morphs too!
1 n 1 n
+ = 1/2 when n = 1 + = 1/3 when n → ∞ . (2.35)
n + 3 3n + 1 n + 3 3n + 1

♣ Another example
Q2: Now repeat path (2) from Q1, but using the force F = xy 2 ı̂ + x 2 y̂.

A2: For the path y = x n we find that dy = nx n−1 dx, so the line integral is
Z [1,1] Z x=1
2 2
(y x dx + y x dy ) = (x 2n+1 dx + nx n−1 .x 2 .x n dx) (2.36)
[0,0] x=0
Z x=1
= (x 2n+1 dx + nx 2n+1 dx) (2.37)
x=0
1 n
= + (2.38)
2n + 2 2n + 2
1
= (2.39)
2
This result is independent of n.
In fact, for the last example field F = xy 2 ı̂ + x 2 y̂ you could try any path between the
same two points and the result would always be 1/2.
If you tried another pair of points, the line integral would (in general) not be 1/2, but
whatever result you derived would again be independent of the path.
This happens when the field F being moved through is a conservative field. Line
integrals through a conservative field depend only on the the start and end positions,
not on the path.
2/12 LECTURE 2. SCALAR FIELDS AND THE GRAD OPERATOR.

2.7 Conservative fields

To summarize that result, and to introduce an obvious corollary,
If F is a conservative field
RB
• The line integral A F · dr is independent of path between A and B.
H
• The line integral around a closed path F · dr is zero.

But how can we recognize F is conservative without checking every path?

Consider the 2D scalar field U(x, y ) = x 2 y 2 /2. Recall the definition of the perfect or
total differential
∂U ∂U
dU = dx + dy (2.40)
∂x ∂y
which in this case is

dU = y 2 xdx + y x 2 dy . (2.41)

So our line integral is actually the integral of a total differential, and

Z B Z B Z B
2 2
F · dr = (y xdx + y x dy ) = dU = UB − UA , (2.42)
A A A

which depends only on the difference in U between start and end points, not on the
path between them.
In other words

If vector field F is the gradient ∇ U of a scalar field U then F is conservative.

The scalar field U is then a potential field.

All scalar potential fields U have an associated vector field ∇ U, but not every vector
field F is the gradient of a scalar field.
Think for a moment about any electric field and any gravitational field. Are they
conservative?

Revised December 4, 2020

Lecture 3

Vector fields and the Div and Curl operators

In Lecture 2 we introduced the del operator which when applied to a scalar field U(r)
generate the vector field of gradients, ∇ U.
In this lecture we delve further into the properties of fields. We again use the del
operator, but now apply it to vector fields, to obtain the

• the divergence of a vector field, and

• the curl of a vector field.

The divergence of vector field is a scalar field, while the curl of the vector field is a
vector field. As with grad, you will need to know how to apply the operator, and its
underlying physical meaning and use. Although it might not be immediately obvious to
you, together these operators provide a powerful method of describing physics in 3D
without involving arbitrary coordinate systems.

3.1 The divergence of a vector field

The divergence computes a scalar quantity from a vector field by differentiation.
If a(x, y , z) is a vector function of position in 3 dimensions, that is a = ax ı̂ + ay ̂ + az k̂,
then its divergence at any point is defined in Cartesian co-ordinates by
∂ax ∂ay ∂az
div a = + + . (3.1)
∂x ∂y ∂z
To clarify the notation used here, ax denotes the x-component of a, and ax is a function
of (x, y , z); and similarly for the other components.
But we can write the divergence as a scalar product between the ∇ operator and the

1
3/2 LECTURE 3. VECTOR FIELDS AND THE DIV AND CURL OPERATORS

vector field:
 
∂ ∂ ∂
div a ≡ ∇ · a = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ ·a . (3.2)
∂x ∂y ∂z
This reminds you that the divergence of a vector field is a scalar field. You cannot
compute the divergence of scalar field.

3.2 Some examples of divergence evaluation

You should work through these: here we’ll look at examples (1) and (3).

a div a
1) c 0
2) xı̂ 1
3) r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂ 3
4) r/r 3 0
5) r c, for c constant (r · c)/r

♣ Example (1)
As c = cx ı̂ + cy ̂ + cz k̂ and all the cx,y ,z are constant it is obvious on differentiation that
the divergence is zero. A field with zero divergence is described as solenoidal. In P2
you will learn that the magnetic field strength1 H inside a long thin straight solenoid
with its axis aligned, say, with k̂ is uniform with a value of

H = nIk̂ (3.3)

where n is the number of turns per unit length and I is the current flowing. The lines
of H are all parallel — they do not diverge.

I
Figure 3.1: The H (magnetic field strength) inside a solenoid fed with dc I is constant.

Note that although the solenoid is a convenient way of remembering the description,
we will now see that other non-constant fields can also have zero divergence.
1
Note the distinction between magnetic field strength H (units: A m−1 ) and flux density B (units: Tesla or Wb m−2 ).
3.3. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIVERGENCE 3/3

♣ Example (3)
Consider the x component of a = r/r 3

ax = x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−3/2 . (3.4)
∂ax ∂ n 2 2 2 −3/2
o
⇒ = x (x + y + z ) (3.5)
∂x ∂x
−3 2
= 1 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−3/2 + x (x + y 2 + z 2 )−5/2 2x (3.6)
2
= r −3 1 − 3x 2 r −2 .


(3.7)

The terms in y and z are similar (with 3x 2 replaced by 3y 2 etc), so that

div (r/r 3 ) = r −3 1 + 1 + 1 − 3(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )r −2 = r −3 (3 − 3)

(3.8)
= 0.

Note that r/r 3 = r̂/r 2 . So a radial vector field with a 1/r 2 magnitude dependence has
zero divergence.

3.3 The significance of the divergence

Imagine a flow of water, spraying out of a hosepipe, say. The flow, just like the wind
in Fig. 2.1(b), is a vetor field. Let’s denote it by a(r). To be precise, this vector has
magnitude equal to the mass of water crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction
of a per unit time. Now we take an infinitesimal volume element dV and figure out the
balance of the flow of a in to, and out of, dV .

Figure 3.2: Elemental volume for calculating divergence.

In Cartesian co-ordinates the volume element dV = dxdy dz. Think first about the
face of area dxdz perpendicular to the y axis and facing outwards in the negative y
direction. That is, the one with surface area dS = −dxdz̂ (coloured pink in Fig. 3.2).
3/4 LECTURE 3. VECTOR FIELDS AND THE DIV AND CURL OPERATORS

The component of the vector a normal to this face is a ·̂ = ay , and is pointing inwards,
and so the its contribution to the OUTWARD flux from this surface is

a · dS = − ay (x, y , z) dx dz . (3.9)

To be clear, ay (x, y , z) is the y -component of a measured at position (x, y , z). Re-

member that a is a vector field and has, in general, a different value at each point
(x, y , z) in that field.
A similar contribution, but of opposite sign, will arise from the opposite face (coloured
blue in Fig. 3.2), but we must remember that we have moved along y by an amount
dy . Hence the OUTWARD flux is
 
∂ay
ay (x, y +dy , z) dx dz = ay + dy dx dz . (3.10)
∂y
Adding both gives the total outward flux from these two faces as
 
∂ay ∂ay ∂ay
− ay + ay + dy dx dz = dy dx dz = dV . (3.11)
∂y ∂y ∂y
Summing the other faces gives a total outward flux from the volume
 
∂ax ∂ay ∂az
Total OUTWARD flux (efflux) = + + dV = ∇ · a dV (3.12)
∂x ∂y ∂z

So we see that

The divergence of a vector field is a measure of net efflux per unit volume at each
point in the field.

An equivalent statement is:

The divergence of a vector field is the net flux generation per unit volume at each
point in the field.

Note that flux generation must always gives rise to efflux, so there is no ambi-
guity here.
3.4. FLUX DENSITY AND FLUX 3/5

3.4 Flux density and flux

From your work in P2 you are familiar with magnetic flux density B and electric flux
density D, and have no doubt made sketches of these which represent the flux density
by the number of field lines per unit area. As we’ve already discussed, flux implies a
flow of something, and other quantities can be similarly represented as a flux and flux
density — the flow of a fluid, heat, radiation, and so on.
The “per unit area” in the definition of a flux density refers to an area which cuts the
flow locally at 90◦ — that is, an area whose normal lies along the direction of flow.
But to evaluate a local element of flux, dF , flowing through an actual surface we
need to multiply the flux density by an element of area on the actual surface — that
is, taking care of vector orientation. The effective area intersecting the flow depends
on the cosine of the angle between the flow and the surface normal. Thus, following
Figure 3.3, the elements of flux through each dS is

dF = B · dS . (3.13)

Figure 3.3: A dS with direction lying along the field direction captures all the available flux, while when
perpendicular it captures none.

If we want to find the total flux through some extended surface R we have to perform
a surface integral
Z
F = B · dS . (3.14)
S

We have to be aware that both B and dS will change as we moved over the surface
— B in magnitude and direction, and dS just in direction.
We will come back to deal with simple curved surfaces in Lecture 4, but here is a
simpler example where the vector surface is in a fixed direction.
3/6 LECTURE 3. VECTOR FIELDS AND THE DIV AND CURL OPERATORS

3.4.1 ♣ Example
R
Q: Evaluate the flux B · dS through the side of a unit cube at x = 1 in the direction
of increasing x when B=yı̂ + z̂ + x k̂.

Figure 3.4:

A: Refer to Fig. 3.4. dS is perpendicular to the surface. Its ± direction actually depends
on the nature of the problem, but we are told here to use the +ı̂ direction.
Hence the element of surface area is

dS = dy dz ı̂ . (3.15)

Thus, through the face of the cube at x = 1,

B · dS = (yı̂ + z̂ + x k̂) · (dy dz ı̂) (3.16)

1 k̂) · (dy dz ı̂)
= (yı̂ + z̂ + |{z} (3.17)
x=1
= y dy dz . (3.18)

Now just perform a double integration over the face ...

Z Z 1 Z 1
⇒ B · dS = y dy dz (3.19)
Face z=0 y =0
1 2 1 1
= y 0
z|10 = . (3.20)
2 2
3.5. THE CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD 3/7

3.5 The curl of a vector field

You have applied the del operator ∇ to a scalar field ∇ U to obtain the gradient, and
dotted it with a vector field ∇ · a to obtain the divergence. You are now overwhelmed
by the urge to cross it with a vector field.
This delivers the curl of a vector field:

curl(a) ≡ ∇ × a . (3.21)

The best way to work it out is to follow the pseudo-determinant recipe for vector
products, so that

ı̂ ̂ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×a = (3.22)
∂x ∂y ∂z
ax ay az
     
∂az ∂ay ∂ax ∂az ∂ay ∂ax
= − ı̂ + − ̂ + − k̂ (3.23)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

where, as before, ax is the x-component of a, and so on.

3.6 ♣ Examples of curl evaluation

Here are two straightforward examples, with a sketch of the the field a for the first
case.

y y

a ∇×a
x x

1) −yı̂ + x̂ 2k̂

2) x 2 y 2 k̂ 2x 2 yı̂ − 2xy 2 ̂

Examples Sketch of field a in Example (1)

Working through the first,

ı̂ ̂ k̂
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×a= = (0 − 0)ı̂ − (0 − 0)̂ + (1 − (−1))k̂ = 2k̂ . (3.24)
∂x ∂y ∂z
−y x 0
3/8 LECTURE 3. VECTOR FIELDS AND THE DIV AND CURL OPERATORS

3.7 The signficance of curl

Example 1) provides a clue. The field a = −yı̂ + x̂ is sketched above, and looks like
the velocity field you would calculate as the velocity field of an object rotating with
ω = [0, 0, 1].) This field has a curl of 2k̂, which is in the right-hand screw sense out of
the page. You can also see that a field like this
H must give a non-zero value to the line
integral around the complete loop, denoted C a · dr.
H
That line integral, C a · dr, is called the circulation of the vector field a around path
C, and ...
The curl of the vector field a is the circulation per unit area (or vorticity) of the
field, measured in the local plane of the chosen area.

It is no surprise then that a vector field with zero curl is said to be irrotational.

3.7.1 Mathematical derivation

One can understand curl’s mathematical definition by constructing the rectangular
element dx by dy shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: A small element used to calculate curl.

Consider the circulation round the perimeter of a rectangular element. The fields in
the x direction at the bottom and top are
∂ax
ax (x, y , z) and ax (x, y + dy , z) = ax (x, y , z) + dy , (3.25)
∂y
and the fields in the y direction at the left and right are
∂ay
ay (x, y , z) and ay (x + dx, y , z) = ay (x, y , z) + dx (3.26)
∂x
where, as in the case of div, we have to be careful to calculate components at the
correct positions.
3.8. COMBINING VECTOR OPERATORS 3/9

Starting at the bottom and working round in the anticlockwise sense, the four con-
tributions to the circulation dC are therefore as follows, where the minus signs take
account of the path being opposed to the field:

dC = + [ax dx] + [ay (x+dx, y , z) dy ] − [ax (x, y +dy , z) dx] − [ay dy ] (3.27)
     
∂ay ∂ax
= + [ax dx] + ay + dx dy − ax (y )+ dy dx − [ay dy ]
∂x ∂y
 
∂ay ∂ax
= − dx dy ∇ × a) · dS
= (∇ (3.28)
∂x ∂y

where dS = dxdy k̂. This satisfies the definition above.

3.8 Combining vector operators

The operators grad, div and curl provide a powerful method of describing and manip-
ulating scalar and vector fields. It is possible also to combine operators, with some
combinations providing short cuts during analysis.
HLT contains many of them, and here we will state a few, but then use just two. The
important thing to remember is that the partial derivatives involved are “live”, so that
the product rule is often needed. (It is of course possible to derive these using brute
force, but the more elegant way is using the Levi-Civita symbol, the Kronecker delta,
and Einstein summation.)

3.8.1 div (gradU) or ∇2 of a scalar field

Recall that ∇ U of any scalar field U is a vector field. Recall also that we can compute
the divergence of any vector field. So we can certainly compute ∇ · (∇ ∇U).
    
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∇U) = ı̂
∇ · (∇ + ̂ + k̂ · ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ U (3.29)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
   
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ · ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ U (3.30)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
 2
∂2 ∂2

∂
= + + U (3.31)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
 2 2 2

∂ U ∂ U ∂ U
or ∇2 U = + + (3.32)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

∇2 is called the Laplacian, and it occurs frequently when modelling diffusion for heat
and fluid flow, electric potentials, and wave propagation in 3D.
3/10 LECTURE 3. VECTOR FIELDS AND THE DIV AND CURL OPERATORS

3.8.2 curl grad U = 0

ı̂ ̂ k̂
∇ × ∇U = ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z (3.33)
∂U/∂x ∂U/∂y ∂U/∂z
 2
∂ 2U

∂ U
= ı̂ − + ̂ () + k̂ () =0 , (3.34)
∂y ∂z ∂z∂y

Note that the output is a zero vector. This indicates, for example, that no electric field
E possesses circulation. Can you demonstrate why?

3.8.3 div curl a = 0

∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z

∇ × a) = ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z
∇ · (∇ (3.35)
ax ay az
∂ 2 az ∂ 2 ay ∂ 2 az ∂ 2 ax ∂ 2 ay ∂ 2 ax
= − − + + − = 0(3.36)
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z∂x ∂z∂y

3.8.4 div and curl of Ua

Suppose U(r) is a scalar field and that a(r) is a vector field. The product Ua is a vector
field, so we can compute its divergence and curl. (For example the density ρ(r) of a
fluid is a scalar field, and the instantaneous velocity of the fluid v(r) is a vector field.
The mass flow rate is ρ(r)v(r).)
The divergence (a scalar) of the product Ua is given by:
∇ · a) + (∇
∇ · (Ua) = U(∇ ∇U) · a (3.37)
Similarly the curl of the vector field Ua, and the result should be a vector field:
∇ × a + (∇
∇ × (Ua) = U∇ ∇U) × a . (3.38)

3.8.5 curl curl a

The following important identity is stated, and left as an exercise:
∇ × (∇ ∇ · a) − ∇2 a
∇ × a) = ∇(∇ (3.39)
where
∇2 a = ∇2 ax ı̂ + ∇2 ay ̂ + ∇2 az k̂ . (3.40)
3.8. COMBINING VECTOR OPERATORS 3/11

3.8.6 div(a × b)
∇ · (a × b) = b · (∇
∇ × a) − a · (∇
∇ × b) . (3.41)

3.8.7 [**An Aside**] Combining identities in physical problems

There is no better example of the description power of vector operators than their use in
showing that Maxwell’s four equations give rise to electromagnetic wave propagation.
Denoting the volume density of free charge in a medium by ρ, its conductivity by σ,
and permittivities and permeabilities by r o and µr µo , and the current density by J,
the four equations are
∂ ∂
∇ · D = ρ ∇ · B = 0 ∇ × E = − B ∇ × H = J + D
| {z } | {z } ∂t ∂t
Gauss No free magnetic monopoles
| {z } | {z }
Faraday-Lenz Ampère
In addition, we can assume the following, which should all be familiar to you:
J
| ={zσE} B = µr µ0 H D = r 0 E
Ohm’s Law in vectors
We’ll assume that our medium contains no free charge and has zero conductivity.
Then
∇·D = r 0 ∇ · E = ρ = 0 ⇒ ∇ · E = 0.
∇·B = µr µ0 ∇ · H = 0 ⇒∇·H=0
(3.42)
∇×E = −∂B/∂t = −µr µ0 (∂H/∂t)
∇×H = J + ∂D/∂t = r 0 (∂E/∂t)
Above we found that “curl curl = grad div minus delsquared” — so here
∇ × (∇ ∇ · E) − ∇2 E
∇ × E) = ∇ (∇ = ∇ × (−µr µ0 (∂H/∂t)) (3.43)
But we know ∇ · E = 0. Also we can swap the order of partial differentiation on the
rhs (remember that from Calculus II.1 ...) so we arrive at
 
∂ ∂ ∂E
−∇2 E = −µr µ0 (∇ ∇ × H) = −µr µ0 r 0 (3.44)
∂t ∂t ∂t
2 ∂ 2E
⇒ ∇ E = µr µ0 r 0 2 (3.45)
∂t
A similar equation for H can be found (by taking ∇ × (∇ ∇ × H)). These are 3D wave
equations — the solutions for both the electric and magnetic fields are waves with
√ √
phase velocity v = 1/ µr µ0 r 0 . In a vacuum, this is c = 1/ µ0 0 = 3 × 108 m s−1 .
The important points here are: (i) that our knowledge of the grad, div and curl of fields
have made a daunting task really straightforward; and (ii) that we never once had to
worry about coordinate systems.
3/12 LECTURE 3. VECTOR FIELDS AND THE DIV AND CURL OPERATORS

3.9 Summary
In this lecture we have

• Defined and explain the div and curl of a vector field.

• We saw how operators could be combined using the basic rules of differential
calculus.
• We also introduced the idea of the surface integral so that we could consider
divergence in terms of net efflux from a volume.

Revised December 4, 2020

Lecture 4

Vector calculus in other coordinate systems

4.1 Introduction
We have defined the grad, div, and curl operators, and developed line and surface
integrals using Cartesian coordinates. However, as you learnt in your Calculus 2.1
course on multiple integration, the symmetry of a particular problem might indicate
that another coordinate system should be adopted (for example, plane, cylindrical, or
spherical polars).
The grad, div, and curl operators can be transformed to give direct expressions in other
systems. Indeed, their definitions are in HLT. However, this is often unnecessary. When
the scalar or vector field is given in Cartesians, it is often easier to evaluate ∇ U, etc,
in Cartesians, and then transform. Furthermore, after finding grad, div or curl, one is
usually interested in performing a line integral or surface integral, and one is best off
delaying transforming to new coordinates until the last moment. Examples later will
make this clear.

4.2 Curvilinear and orthogonal curvilinear coordinates

Before considering the common sets of polar coordinates, we ought first to consider a
general curvilinear coordinate system, Ouv w . In this, the vectors spanning 3D space
û, v̂, and ŵ, do not have to be a right angles to one another — they can the edges of
any parallelogram.
An orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system is (unsuprisingly) one where they are or-
thonal, so that û×v̂=ŵ, as are its cyclic permutations v̂×ŵ=û, and ŵ×û=v̂.
In Calculus 2.1 you learnt that when changing variables from Cartesians Oxy z to some
general coordinate system Ouv w we could not simply replace an area element dxdy
by dudv ; or a volume element dxdy dz by dudv dw . The reason was that du and so
on were not guaranteed to be proper lengths.
In multiple integration you saw that the correction factor to apply to the elements

1
4/2 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

could be found as the modulus of the Jacobian. But you will recall that you reached
that by considering the area of parallelograms and the volumes of parallelopipeds. We
will repeat the analysis here, but your greater knowledge of vectors will provide greater
insight.

4.2.1 Transforming the position vector and its differential

We have seen the central role that the position vector and its differential plays in vector
calculus, and it makes sense to start here with them in Cartesians
r = xı̂ + y̂ + z k̂
dr = dxı̂ +p dy̂ + dz k̂ (4.1)
|dr| = ds = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 .

In general curvilinear coordinates we are interested in writing the position vector r and
its differential dr as a sum of terms involving the unit vectors û, v̂, and ŵ.
But the very first thing to stress is that

r =6 uû + v v̂ + w ŵ 
dr = 6 √
duû + dv v̂ + dw ŵ THESE ARE BAD (4.2)
|dr| = ds 6= 2 2
du + dv + dw 2 

The badness arises because length or ‘metric’ scales have been lost.
Instead we must write
dr = hu duû + hv dv v̂ + hw dw ŵ (4.3)
where the hu,v ,w are metric scale coefficients which turn du etc into proper lengths.
To find expressions for the scale parameters, remember that the position vector must
be some function of u, v , w — r = r(u, v , w ) — and so the total or perfect differential
can be written without thought as
     
∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = du + dv + dw . (4.4)
∂u ∂v ∂w
Now compare Eq. (4.4) that with Eq. (4.3): because u, v , and w , and hence du, dv ,
and dw are independent, we can match coefficients of du etc, and write that
     
∂r ∂r ∂r ∂x ∂y ∂z
hu û = and hence hu = , where = ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ . (4.5)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
and similarly for v and w . This looks complicated — but for any transformation we
will know x = x(u, v , w ), etc, so can work out ∂r/∂u, etc. A grind, but not difficult.
4.2. CURVILINEAR AND ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 4/3

To summarize so far:

If we are considering coordinates u, v , w

r = x(u, v , w )ı̂ + y (u, v , w )̂ + z(u, v , w )k̂ (4.6)

and

dr = hu duû + hv dv v̂ + hw dw ŵ (4.7)

We know
∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = du + dv + dw . (4.8)
∂u ∂v ∂w
so that
∂r ∂r ∂r
hu = hv = hw = (4.9)
∂u ∂v ∂w
and
" 2  2  2 #1/2
∂r ∂x ∂y ∂z
= + + and similiarly for v , w . (4.10)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u

Don’t try to remember all this! The key to unlock all this is (i) writing down the perfect
differential, and making the comparison between Eq. (4.7) and Eq. (4.8).
Fig. 4.1 is a 2D illustration that under transformation vector dr remains the same, but
must be described differently in Cartesian and curvilinear coordinates. (The diagram is
similar to that in Calculus 2.1.)
y y

x x

Figure 4.1: Lines of constant u and v appear as curves on the xy -plane.

4/4 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

4.3 Line, surface, volume integrals, in curvi/orthog-curvi coords

Line integrals: If you want to perform a line integral in the û direction, the vector line
element you want is (and similarly for the other directions)
dr = hu duû + hv dv v̂ + hw dw ŵ (4.11)

Surface integrals: Consider the curvilinear trio û, v̂, ŵ. If you want a surface element
in the ŵ direction, use (and similarly for the other directions)
dSw = hu hv dudv (û × v̂) = h
| u hv du
{z dv ŵ} (4.12)
for an orthogonal curvilinear trio

Volume integrals: And the extension to volume elements (a scalar) is also obvious.
The volume element is a parallelopiped, given by

dV = (hu duû) × (hv duv̂) · (hw dw ŵ) (4.13)

= hu hv hw du dv dw (û × v̂) · ŵ = |hu hv hw du
{z dv dw} (4.14)
for an orthogonal curvilinear trio

4.3.1 Two questions ...

1. What are Orthogonal curvilinear coords?

They are ones where the û, v̂ and ŵ vectors are mutually perpendicular. They form a
right-handed set with
û × v̂ = ŵ (4.15)
and so on, cyclically.
2. Do Jacobians still work?

Yes — and yes for all curvilinear coordinate systems, irrespective of whether orthogonal
or not.
Thinking about volume elements we know that
 
∂r ∂r ∂r
hu hv hw (û × v̂) · ŵ = × · (4.16)
∂u ∂v ∂w
But
 
∂r ∂x ∂y ∂z
= ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ (4.17)
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
4.3. LINE, SURFACE, VOLUME INTEGRALS, IN CURVI/ORTHOG-CURVI COORDS 4/5

and similarly for v and w . Putting the components of ∂r/∂u on the top line and those
for v and w on the second and third, the scalar triple product becomes
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂u ∂u ∂u
∂x ∂y ∂z
mod hu hv hw (û × v̂) · ŵ = mod ∂v ∂v ∂v
. (4.18)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂w ∂w ∂w

If we were always sure that the coordinates were a right-handed trio the mod would be
unnecessary on both sides. The modulus is used as an insurance.

4.3.2 All the polars are orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems

Let us now specialize the analysis to the three common examples of orthogonal curvi-
linear coordinates — plane, cylindrical, and spherical polars.
In each case let us following a standard plan to understand the geometry involved:

1. Define the unit basis vectors

2. Determine the position vector
3. Determine the h coefficients
4. Use these to define the differential of the position vector. The general line element
is identical to the differential
5. Use the components of the line element to define the vector surface element(s)
6. Use the components of the line element to define the scalar volume element
4/6 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

4.4 Plane polars: key geometry

1. Unit basis vectors Figure 4.2:

r̂ = (cos φı̂ + sin φ̂) (4.19)

φ̂ = (− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂) (4.20)

2. Position vector
r = rr̂ = r cos φı̂ + r sin φ̂ (4.21)
3. Metric scale coefficients
hr r̂ = ∂r/∂r = cos φı̂ + sin φ̂ ⇒hr = 1
hφ φ̂ = ∂r/∂φ = r (− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂) ⇒hφ = r
4. Differential
dr = hr drr̂ + hφ dφφ̂ = drr̂ + r dφφ̂ (4.22)
5. Surface element
The element is in the plane, but its normal sticks out of the plane — which is dodgy
in plane polars. This indicates that the scalar value will suffice here!

dS = hr hφ dr dφ(r̂ × φ̂) = r dr dφ k̂ (4.23)

dS = r dr dφ . (4.24)

6. Volume element There isn’t one! We are in flat world.

NB: We’ve (very properly) used the h coefficients to calculate values, but do notice
that the results “make sense” from simple considerations. (Eg, swinging the line of
length r around angle dφ traces a length r dφ.
4.4. PLANE POLARS: KEY GEOMETRY 4/7

4.4.1 ♣ Example: Line integral in plane polars

H
Q: Evaluate the line integral C f · dr, where f = −y 3 ı̂ + x 3 ̂ and the path (or contour)
C is the circle of radius A in the xy -plane, centred on the origin.

A: On the circle of interest r = A is fixed, and we only need φ to define exactly where
we are.
We know that
x = A cos φ and y = A sin φ , (4.25)
so that
f = −y 3 ı̂ + x 3 ̂ = A3 (− sin3 φı̂ + cos3 φ̂). (4.26)

In general,
dr = drr̂ + r dφφ̂ , (4.27)
but on the chosen path r = A and so dr = 0. Hence
dr = Adφφ̂ = Adφ(− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂) . (4.28)

Taking the dot products

I Z 2π  
3π 3π 3π
f · dr = A4 (sin4 φ + cos4 φ)dφ = A4 + = A4 . (4.29)
C φ=0 4 4 2

Notice that we used a mixture of Cartesians for the vectors, and polars for the coeffi-
cients. This is perfectly permissible. We could have converted f to use r̂ and φ̂, etc,
but the approach taken is easier.
Notice too that we could have found dr by writing
dr = dxı̂ + dy̂ = Adφ(− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂) (4.30)
4/8 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

4.5 Cylindrical polars: key geometry

1. Unit vectors
These are as in plane polars, but with the addition of a ẑ axis along the Cartesian k̂
direction.

r̂ = cos φı̂ + sin φ̂ (4.31)

φ̂ = − sin φı̂ + cos φ̂ (4.32)
ẑ = k̂ (4.33)

2. Pos vector
There a source of confusion here! The position vector does not point in the direction
of the radial unit vector r̂, so that r r̂ is NOT the position vector! Instead we denote
the position vector by rpos . Then

rpos = r cos φı̂ + r sin φ̂ + z k̂ (4.34)

= rr̂ + zẑ (4.35)
4.5. CYLINDRICAL POLARS: KEY GEOMETRY 4/9

Figure 4.3:

3. Calculation of h using rpos

Recall that rpos = r cos φı̂ + r sin φ̂ + z k̂, so that ...
∂rpos /∂r = hr r̂ = cos φı̂ + sin φ̂ (4.36)
∂rpos /∂φ = hφ φ̂ = r (− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂) (4.37)
∂rpos /∂z = hz ẑ = ẑ (4.38)
⇒hr = 1, hφ = r, hz = 1 . (4.39)

4. The differential
drpos = dr r̂ + r dφ φ̂ + dz ẑ (4.40)

5. Surface elements
There are three, but the last very rare! The first relates to the patch on the wallr; the
second to the patch on the top (or, with a change in sign, on the base).
dSr = hφ hz dφ dz (φ̂ × ẑ) = r dφ dz r̂ (4.41)
dSz = DIY = r dr dφẑ (4.42)
dSφ = DIY = dr dz φ̂ Can you sketch this? (4.43)

6. Volume element
You know what to expect, but in full:
dV = hr hφ hz dr dφ dz (r̂ × φ̂) · ẑ (4.44)
= 1 r 1 dr dφ dz ( 1 ) = r dr dφ dz . (4.45)

Again, notice that the geometry makes sense, without resorting to the h coefficients.
4/10 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

4.5.1 ♣ Example. Surface integral using cylindrical polars.

Q: Find the surface integral of the field f = (x 2 + y 2 )(xı̂ + y̂) + z 3 k̂ over the upper
surface and side wall of a cylinder of radius A and height h aligned with z-axis and with
its base sitting on the z = 0 plane.
A: Unlike the previous example, here it is convenient (but not essential) to express
quantities using r̂ and ẑ as the vectors. So, we write

f = r 2 r + z 3 ẑ = r 3 r̂ + z 3 ẑ . (4.46)

Top: The surface element for the top is

dSz = r dr dφ ẑ , (4.47)

Hence for the top, as r̂ · ẑ = 0, and then z = h,

ZZ Z 2π Z A Z 2π Z A
f · dSz = (r 3 r̂ + z 3 ẑ) · r dr dφẑ = dφ h3 r dr = 2πh3 (A2 /2) .
top φ=0 r =0 φ=0 r =0
(4.48)

Side: Remembering that the radius is A, the surface element for the side wall is

dSr = Adφdzr̂ . (4.49)

Around the side r = A, so

ZZ Z 2π Z h Z 2π Z h
3 3 4
f ·dSr = (r r̂ +z ẑ)·dzAdφr̂ = A dφ dz = A4 2πh . (4.50)
side φ=0 z=0 φ=0 z=0

Hence the total is

ZZ  2 
2 h 2
f · dS = 2πhA +A . (4.51)
top+side 2
4.6. SPHERICAL POLARS: KEY GEOMETRY 4/11

4.6 Spherical polars: key geometry

1. Unit vectors

r̂ = sin θ cos φı̂ + sin θ sin φ̂ + cos θk̂ (4.52)

θ̂ = cos θ cos φı̂ + cos θ sin φ̂ − sin θk̂ (4.53)
φ̂ = − sin φı̂ + cos φ̂ (4.54)
r̂×θ̂ = φ̂ (and cyclic permutations) (4.55)

2. Position vector

r = r sin θ cos φı̂ + r sin θ sin φ̂ + r cos θk̂ (4.56)

= rr̂ (4.57)

The whole show The unit vectors enlarged

Figure 4.4:
4/12 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

3. h parameters

∂r
1/2
hr = = sin2 θ cos2 φ + sin2 θ sin2 φ + cos2 θ =1 (4.58)
∂r
hθ = grind = r (4.59)
hφ = grind = r sin θ (4.60)

4. Differential

dr = dr r̂ + r dθ θ̂ + r sin θ dφ φ̂ (4.61)

5. Surface elements:

dSr = r 2 sin θ dθ dφ r̂ (4.62)

⇒dSr = A2 sin θ dθ dφ r̂ at fixed radius A (4.63)
dSφ = DIY but rarely seen (4.64)
dSθ = DIY even more rarely seen (4.65)

6. Volume element

dV = hr hθ hφ dr dθ dφ (r̂ × θ̂) · φ̂ (4.66)

= 1 r r sin θ dr dθ dφ (1) (4.67)
= r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ (as expected!) (4.68)
4.6. SPHERICAL POLARS: KEY GEOMETRY 4/13

4.6.1 ♣ Example: Surface integral in spherical polars

R
Q: Evaluate S f · dS, where f = z 3 k̂ and S is the sphere of radius A centred on the
origin.
A: In spherical polars z = r cos θ and r = A on the surface of the sphere. Thus on the
surface

f = A3 cos 3 θ k̂ and dS = A2 sin θ dθ dφ r̂ (4.69)

Hence
Z Z 2π Z π
f · dS = A3 cos 3 θ A2 sin θ [k̂ · r̂] dθdφ . (4.70)
S φ=0 θ=0

But k̂ · r̂ = cos θ, so that

Z Z 2π Z π
5
f · dS = A dφ cos 3 θ sin θ [cos θ] dθ (4.71)
S 0Z 0
π
= A5 2π cos 4 θ sin θ dθ
0
1 π 4πA5
= 2πA5 − cos5 θ 0 =
5 5
4/14 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

4.7 Line, surface, & volume integrals involving div, grad, & curl.
♣ Q(i): The vector field v is
x y z
v= ı̂ + ̂ + k̂ . (4.72)
r r r
Find v · dS integrated over the surface of a sphere of radius A.
A(i): You notice that the problem involves spherical symmetry.
r
Thinking about the position vector r indicates that v = = r̂ .
r
But on the surface of a sphere of radius A

dS = dSr̂ = A2 sin θ dθ dφr̂ (4.73)

Z Z π Z 2π
⇒ v · dS = A2 sin θdθ dφ(r̂ · r̂ )
|{z} = 4πA2 (4.74)
θ=0 φ=0 unity

R
Q(ii): Find the divergence of v and derive ∇ · vdV integrated over the volume of the
same sphere.
A(ii): We have to find div v. If you were wondering, there is a formula for this which
use spherical polars directly. But we are to use only the Cartesian system.
Now think about each component of v in Cartesians ...
x x
vx = = 2 (4.75)
r (x + y + z 2 )1/2
2

Differentiating wrt x gives

∂vx (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )1/2 − x 2 (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−1/2 r − x 2 /r
= = . (4.76)
∂x (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) r2

Symmetry can be used to write the other contributions.

3r − (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )/r 2
∇·v =
⇒∇ 2
= . (4.77)
r r
4.7. LINE, SURFACE, & VOLUME INTEGRALS INVOLVING DIV, GRAD, & CURL. 4/15

A(ii) ctd: To finish, we must integrate 2/r through the volume of a sphere of radius
A. This is a straightforward multiple integral in spherical polars ...
We know

dV = r 2 sin θ dr dθ dφ (4.78)

and hence
Z Z A Z π Z 2π
2 2
∇ · vdV = r| sin θdr
{z dθ dφ} (4.79)
r =0 θ=0 φ=0 r
dV
Z A Z π Z 2π
= 2 r dr sin θ dθ dφ
r =0 θ=0 φ=0
2 A π 2π
r
= 2 (− cos θ) φ
2 0 0 0
= 4πA2

So we have the same result from both integrals!

This is an example of Gauss’ Law which you will learn about next year. In short it says
Z Z
v · dS = ∇ · vdV (4.80)
S V

where V is a volume and S is the surface of that volume.

4/16 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

♣ Q(i): A vector field is v = 2yı̂ − x̂ + z k̂.

R
Find curl v and then evaluate S curl v · dS integrated over the surface of a hemisphere
of radius A centred at the origin and for which z ≥ 0.
A(i):
ı̂ ̂ k̂
(i) ∇ × v = ∂/∂x ∂/∂y ∂/∂z = ı̂(0) − ̂(0) + k̂(−3) = −3k̂
2y −x z
The surface element on the hemisphere’s surface is dS = A2 sin θ dθ dφr̂.
Hence (note the θ = π/2 limit for the hemisphere!)
Z Z π/2 Z 2π
2
∇ × v) · dS = −3A
(∇ sin θdθdφ(k̂ · r̂) (4.81)
S θ=0 φ=0

But (k̂ · r̂) = cos θ, so

Z Z π/2 Z 2π
2
∇ × v) · dS = −3A
(∇ sin θ cos θdθ dφ (4.82)
S θ=0 φ=0
π/2 2π
2 1 2
= −3A sin θ φ
2 0 0
1
= −3A2 2π
2
= −3πA2
4.7. LINE, SURFACE, & VOLUME INTEGRALS INVOLVING DIV, GRAD, & CURL. 4/17
R
Q(ii): Derive the line integral C v · dr where C is the closed circular contour x 2 + y 2 =
A2 , z = 0.
A(ii): The circle has radius A, and dr = A dφ φ̂ = A dφ(− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂). Hence

v · dr = (2yı̂ − x̂ + z k̂) · (A dφ(− sin φı̂ + cos φ̂)) (4.83)

= A (−2y sin φ − x cos φ) dφ

But on the circle x = A cos φ and y = A sin φ, so

Z Z 2π
v · dr = A2 (−2 sin2 φ − cos2 φ) dφ (4.84)
C φ=0
R 2π R 2π
But 0 sin2 φdφ = 0 cos2 φdφ = π, so that
Z
v · dr = A2 (−3π) = −3πA2 . (4.85)
C

Again the results are the same!

This is an example of Stokes Law which in short tells us that
Z Z
v · dr = curl v · dS (4.86)
C S

when C is some bounding contour, and S is any “capping” surface bounded by C.

More next year!
4/18 LECTURE 4. VECTOR CALCULUS IN OTHER COORDINATE SYSTEMS

4.8 Summary
Our analysis has provided a method of using the definition of the position vector r in a
new coordinate system to find

• the metric coefficients or length scales hu,v ,w associated with each key axis

hu = |(∂r/∂u)| etc; (4.87)

• the directions of the base coordinate vectors

û = (∂r/∂u)/hu etc; (4.88)

• the definition of the general line element

dr = hu duû + hv dv v̂ + hw dw ŵ (4.89)

which you can simplify if one or more of du, dv and dw are zero on your particular
path;
• the definition, size and direction of the surface elements dS; and
• the definition and size of volume element dV .

We also found that ...

• for our commonly used systems of polars, the results are remarkably intuitive.

Revised December 4, 2020