Carbon and its Compounds

▪ All living structures are carbon based. The

amount of carbon present in the earth’s
crust and in the atmosphere is quite
meagre.
▪ The earth’s crust has only 0.02% carbon in
the form of minerals (like carbonates,
hydrogen carbonates, coal and petroleum)
and the atmosphere has 0.03% of carbon
dioxide

BONDING IN CARBON – THE COVALENT BOND

▪ ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points and conduct (i) It could gain four electrons forming C4– anion. But it would be
electricity in solution or in the molten state
▪ The atomic number of carbon is 6 difficult for the nucleus with six protons to hold on to ten
▪ We know that the reactivity of elements is explained as their electrons, that is, four extra electrons.
tendency to attain a completely filled outer shell, that is, attain
noble gas configuration. (ii)It could lose four electrons forming C4+ cation. But it would require
▪ Elements forming ionic compounds achieve this by either gaining or a large amount of energy to remove four electrons leaving behind a
losing electrons from the outermost shell.
▪ In the case of carbon, it has four electrons in its outermost shell and carbon cation with six protons in its nucleus holding on to just two
needs to gain or lose four electrons to attain noble gas electrons
configuration.
▪ If it were to gain or lose electrons –
▪ Carbon overcomes this problem by sharing its valence ▪ Covalently bonded molecules are seen to have strong bonds
electrons with other atoms of carbon or with atoms of within the molecule, but intermolecular forces are small.
other elements. ▪ This gives rise to the low melting and boiling points of these
▪ Not just carbon, but many other elements form molecules ▪ points of these compounds. Since the electrons are shared
by sharing electrons in this manner. between atoms and no charged particles are formed, such
▪ The shared electrons ‘belong’ to the outer shells of both covalent compounds are generally poor conductors of
the atoms and lead to both atoms attaining the noble gas electricity
configuration. ▪ The shared pair of electrons is said to constitute a single
▪ Methane is widely used as a fuel and is a major component covalent bond between the two hydrogen atoms
of bio-gas and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) ▪ A single covalent bond is also represented by a line between
the two atoms

▪ These two different structures result in diamond and graphite having very
▪ Methane is widely used as a fuel and is a major component of bio-gas and
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). It is also one of the simplest compounds different physical properties even though their chemical properties are the
formed by carbon. Methane has a formula CH4
same.
❖ Allotropes of carbon :- ▪ Diamond is the hardest substance known while graphite is smooth and
▪ In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms forming
a rigid three-dimensional structure
slippery.
▪ Graphite is also a very good conductor of electricity unlike other non-metals
▪ In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms in the
same plane giving a hexagonal array ▪ Fullerenes form another class of carbon allotropes. The first one to be
identified was C-60 which has carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a
▪ One of these bonds is a double-bond, and thus the valency of carbon is
satisfied. Graphite structure is formed by the hexagonal arrays being placed in football. Since this looked like the geodesic dome designed by the US
layers one above the other architect Buckminster Fuller, the molecule was named fullerene
▪ Carbon has the unique ability to form bonds with other atoms of carbon, giving rise ▪ Since carbon has a valency of four, it is capable of bonding with four other
to large molecules. This property is called catenation. These compounds may have atoms of carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element. Compounds
long chains of carbon, branched chains of carbon or even carbon atoms arranged in of carbon are formed with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, Sulphur, chlorine and
rings. many other elements giving rise to compounds with specific properties which
▪ Compounds of carbon, which are linked by only single bonds between the carbon depend on the elements other than carbon present in the molecule
atoms are called saturated compounds. Compounds of carbon having double or
triple bonds between their carbon atoms are called unsaturated compounds ▪ the bonds that carbon forms with most other elements are very strong
making these compounds exceptionally stable.
▪ No other element exhibits the property of catenation to the extent seen in carbon ▪ One reason for the formation of strong bonds by carbon is its small size. This
compounds. Silicon forms compounds with hydrogen which have chains of upto enables the nucleus to hold on to the shared pairs of electrons strongly. The
seven or eight atoms, but these compounds are very reactive. bonds formed by elements having larger atoms are much weaker
▪ The carbon-carbon bond is very strong and hence stable. This gives us the large
number of compounds with many carbon atoms linked to each other ▪ The two characteristic features seen in carbon, that is, tetravalency and
catenation, put together give rise to a large number of compounds

Saturated and Unsaturated Carbon Compounds Chains, Branches and Rings

➢ All these carbon compounds which contain just carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons. Among these, the saturated
hydrocarbons are called Alkanes. ▪ Carbon also forms bonds with other elements such as halogens,
➢ The unsaturated hydrocarbons which contain one or more double oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. In a hydrocarbon chain, one or more
bonds are called Alkenes.
➢ Those containing one or more triple bonds are called Alkynes. hydrogens can be replaced by these elements, such that the valency of
carbon remains satisfied. In such compounds the elements replacing
hydrogen is referred to as a heteroatom.
▪ These heteroatoms and the group containing these confer specific
properties to the compound, regardless of the length and nature of the
carbon chain and hence are called functional groups

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS ▪ Saturated hydrocarbons will generally give a clean flame while unsaturated
carbon compounds will give a yellow flame with lots of black smoke
❖Combustion :-
▪ However, limiting the supply of air results in incomplete combustion of
▪ Carbon, in all its allotropic forms, burns in oxygen to give carbon
even saturated hydrocarbons giving a sooty flame.
dioxide along with the release of heat and light.
▪ Most carbon compounds also release a large amount of heat and light ▪ The gas/kerosene stove used at home has inlets for air so that a sufficiently
on burning. These are the oxidation reactions that you learnt about in
oxygen-rich mixture is burnt to give a clean blue flame
the first Chapter –
▪ Fuels such as coal and petroleum have some amount of nitrogen and
(i) C + O2 → CO2 + heat and light
Sulphur in them. Their combustion results in the formation of oxides of
(ii) CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light
(iii)CH3CH2OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O + heat and light Sulphur and nitrogen which are major pollutants in the environment.
 Oxidation Addition Reaction

▪ Unsaturated hydrocarbons add hydrogen in the presence of catalysts

▪ Carbon compounds can be easily oxidized on combustion. In such as palladium or nickel to give saturated hydrocarbons.
addition to this complete oxidation, we have reactions in which ▪ Catalysts are substances that cause a reaction to occur or proceed at a
different rate without the reaction itself being affected.
alcohols are converted to carboxylic acids ▪ This reaction is commonly used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oils
▪ Alkaline potassium permanganate or acidified potassium using a nickel catalyst.
▪ Vegetable oils generally have long unsaturated carbon chains while
dichromate are oxidizing alcohols to acids, that is, adding animal fats have saturated carbon chains
oxygen to the starting material. Hence they are known as ▪ Animal fats generally contain saturated fatty acids which are said to be
harmful for health.
oxidizing agents ▪ Oils containing unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking

TWO COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS - ETHANOL AND ETHANOIC ACID

Substitution Reaction
▪ Saturated hydrocarbons are fairly unreactive and are inert in the
▪ Ethanol is a liquid at room temperature Ethanol is commonly called
presence of most reagents. However, in the presence of sunlight, chlorine
alcohol and is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
is added to hydrocarbons in a very fast reaction.
▪ In addition, because it is a good solvent, it is also used in medicines
such as tincture iodine, cough syrups, and many tonics
▪ Chlorine can replace the hydrogen atoms one by one. It is called a
▪ Ethanol is also soluble in water in all proportions. Consumption of
substitution reaction because one type of atom or a group of atoms takes
small quantities of dilute ethanol causes drunkenness
the place of another
▪ CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl (in the presence of sunlight)
❖ Reactions of Ethanol:- Properties of Ethanoic Acid

(i) Reaction with sodium – ▪ Ethanoic acid is commonly called acetic acid and belongs to a group of acids called
▪ 2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2O– Na+ + H2 carboxylic acids.
▪ Alcohols react with sodium leading to the evolution of hydrogen. With ▪ 5-8% solution of acetic acid in water is called vinegar and is used widely as a
ethanol, the other product is sodium ethoxide preservative in pickles.

▪ Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon: Heating ethanol at 443 K with ▪ The melting point of pure ethanoic acid is 290 K and hence it often freezes during

excess concentrated sulphuric acid results in the dehydration of ethanol to winter in cold climates. This gave rise to its name glacial acetic acid.
▪ The group of organic compounds called carboxylic acids are obviously characterized
give ethene
by a special acidity. However, unlike mineral acids like HCl, which are completely
▪ The concentrated sulphuric acid can be regarded as a dehydrating agent
ionized, carboxylic acids are weak acids
which removes water from ethanol

Reactions of ethanoic acid:

▪ Reaction with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates: Ethanoic acid
▪ Esters are most commonly formed by reaction of an acid and an alcohol.
▪ Ethanoic acid reacts with absolute ethanol in the presence of an acid catalyst reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a
to give an ester
▪ Esters are sweet-smelling substances. These are used in making perfumes salt, carbon dioxide and water.
and as flavouring agents. Esters react in the presence of an acid or a base to
give back the alcohol and carboxylic acid. This reaction is known as ▪ The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate.
saponification because it is used in the preparation of soap.
▪ Soaps are sodium or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acid.
▪ Reaction with a base: Like mineral acids, ethanoic acid reacts with a base ▪ 2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
such as sodium hydroxide to give a salt (sodium ethanoate or commonly
called sodium acetate) and water ▪ CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

▪ NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

 SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
▪ reaction of soap with the calcium and magnesium salts, which cause the
▪ The molecules of soap are sodium or potassium salts of long-chain hardness of water. Hence you need to use a larger amount of soap. This
carboxylic acids.
problem is overcome by using another class of compounds called detergents
▪ The ionic-end of soap dissolves in water while the carbon chain
dissolves in oil. as cleansing agents.
▪ The soap molecules, thus form structures called micelles where one ▪ Detergents are generally ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain
end of the molecules is towards the oil droplet while the ionic-end
faces outside. carboxylic acids. The charged ends of these compounds do not form
▪ This forms an emulsion in water. The soap micelle thus helps in insoluble precipitates with the calcium and magnesium ions in hard water.
dissolving the dirt in water and we can wash our clothes clean
Thus, they remain effective in hard water.
▪ Detergents are usually used to make shampoos and products for cleaning
clothes