4 & 6 MARKS

CHAPTER 1
Classification of networks based on
geography:
LAN- Local Area Network
1
Draw and explain block diagram of
communication system. MAN-Metropolitan Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
Considering the communication between CAN-Campus Area Network
two computers, the communication Differentiate between synchronous and PAN-Personal Area Network
system is as shown in above diagram It asynchronous communication. LAN: LAN is local area network. LAN is
has following five components: privately-owned networks covering a small
1) Message In Synchronous In Asynchronous
Transmission, data is Transmission, data is geographic area(less than 1 km), like a
2) Sender home, office, building or group of buildings.
3) Medium sent in form of blocks sent in form of byte
or frames. or character LAN transmits data with a speed of several
4) Receiver megabits per second.
5) Protocol Sender and Receiver Does not need clock MAN: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
1. Message: Message is the information use the same clock signal between the is a large computer network that spans
or data which is to be sent from signal sender and the metropolitan area or campus. 2. A MAN
sender to the receiver. A message can receiver typically covers an area up to 10 kms (city).
be in the form of sound, text, picture, It is more efficient In this transmission The best example of MAN is the cable
video or combination of and more reliable start bits and stop Television network, available in many cities.
them (multimedia) than asynchronous bits are added with WAN: WAN is wide area network. WAN is a
2. Sender: Sender is device such as host, transmission to data. long-distance communication network that
camera, workstation, telephone etc. transfer the large covers a wide geographic area, such as
which sends the message over amount of data state or country. The most common
medium example is internet.
3. Medium: The message originated Synchronous Asynchronous
transmission is fast. transmission is slow The transmission technology can be
from sender needs a path over which categorized broadly into two types:
it can travel to the receiver. Such path In Synchronous In asynchronous 1) Broadcast networks Broadcast networks
is called as medium or channel 4) transmission, time transmission, time have a single communication channel that
Receiver: It is the device which interval of interval of is shared or used by all the machines on the
receives the message and reproduces transmission is consta transmission is not network. Short messages called packets
it. A receiver can be host, camera, nt constant, it is random sent by any machine are received by all the
workstation, telephone etc . others. Broadcast systems generally use a
4. Protocol: A protocol is defined as set special code in the address field for
Classify the network based on geographical
of rules agreed by sender and addressing a packet to all the concerned
area and transmission technology.
receiver. Protocol governs the computers. This mode of operation is called
exchange of data in true sense broadcasting.
 3) In full-duplex mode both stations
2) Point-to-point networks Point to point
networks consists of many connections
between individual pairs of machines. To
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of
transferring of data between two devices connected
over a network. It is also called Communication
can transmit and receive data
simultaneously. The transmission
2
go from the source to the destination a Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of medium sharing can occur in two
packet on these types of network may information. There are three types of transmission ways, namely, either the link must
have to go through intermediate modes. contain two physically separate
computers before they reach the • Simplex Mode transmission paths or the capacity
desired computer • Half duplex Mode of the channel is divided between
Compare Analog and Digital signal. • Full duplex Mode signals traveling in both directions.-
1) In Simplex mode, the communication is One common example of full-duplex
An analog signal is A digital signal is a communication is the telephone
unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
a continuous wave discrete wave that network. When two people are
of the two devices on a link can transmit, the
that changes over carries communicating by a telephone line,
other can only receive. The simplex mode can use
a time period. information in both can talk and listen
the entire capacity of the channel to send data in
binary form. at the same time
one direction. -Keyboards, traditional monitors
An analog signal is A digital signal is and printers are examples of simplex devices.
represented by a represented by
sine wave square waves.
Analog signal has Digital signal has a
no fixed range. finite numbers i.e.
O and 1
An analog signal is A digital signal is
described by the described by bit 2) In half-duplex mode, each station can both
amplitude, period rate and bit transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
or frequency, and intervals. When one device is sending, the other can only
phase receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is
An analog signal is A digital signal is used in cases where there is no need for
more less communication in both directions at the same
prone to distortion prone to distortion time. The entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction-for example: Walkie-
Describe the process of data talkies
communication in various modes.
OR
Explain simplex, half duplex and full
duplex modes in data communication.
CHAPTER 2
Draw a neat diagram of twisted pair cable
Draw structural diagram of fibber optic cable
and write its functions.
3) Radio wave propagation is
susceptible to weather effects like
rain, thunder and storm etc.
3
and state its types. Fibber optic cable:
1. A fiber-optic cable is made up of glass or Describe line of sight transmission.
A twisted pair consists of two conductors
plastic. Line of sight communication:
(normally copper), each with its own plastic
2. It transmits signals in the form of light. 1) Line of sight (LoS) is a type of
insulation, twisted together, as
3. The outer jacket is made up of PVC or Teflon. communication that can transmit
shown in Figure.
4. Kevlar strands are placed inside the jacket to and receive data only where
strengthen the cable. transmit and receive stations are in
5. Below the Kevlar strands, there is another view of each other without any sort
plastic coating which acts as a cushion. of an obstacle between them.
6. The fiber is at the center of the cable, and it 2) Transmitting and receiving media
consists of cladding and glass core. should be in line of sight.
Types of Twisted-Pair Cables 7. The density of the cladding is less than that of 3) In line of sight communication, very
There are two types of twisted pair cables – the core high frequency signals are
(i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Functions of Optical Cable: transmitted in straight lines directly
These generally comprise of wires and 1) Single-mode fibers - Used to transmit one from antenna to antenna.
insulators. Unshielded twisted pair cables are signal per fiber (used in telephones and cable 4) Antenna must be directional, facing
classified into seven categories – TV) each other, and either tall enough or
Category 1 - UTP used in telephone lines with 2) Multi-mode fibers - Used to transmit many close enough together not to be
data rate <0.1 Mbps Category 2 - UTP used in signals per fiber (used in computer networks, effected by the curvature of earth.
transmission lines with a data rate of 2 Mbps local area networks) 5) Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave
Category 3 - UTP used in LANs with a data State the two advantages and disadvantages nor sky wave propagation modes
rate of 10 Mbps Category 4-UTP used in of unguided media. operate, and communication must
Token Ring networks with a data rate of 20 Advantages: be by line of sight
Mbps 1) Use for long distance communication. 6) For satellite communication, a signal
Category 5-UTP used in LANs with a data rate 2) High speed data transmission. above 30 MHz is not reflected by
of 100 Mbps 3) Many receiver stations can receive signals the ionosphere and therefore a
Category 6-UTP used in LANs with a data rate from same sender station signal can be transmitted between
of 200 Mbps Disadvantages: an earth station and a satellite
Category 7-STP used in LANs with a data rate 1) Radio waves travel through Lowest portion overhead that is not beyond the
of 10 Mbps of atmosphere which can have lot of noise horizon. For ground-based
(ii) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): and interfering signals communication, the transmitting
STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh 2) Radio wave communication through and receiving antennas must be
covering that encases each pair of insulated unguided media is an insecure within an effective line of sight of
conductor communication. each other.
7) This is better understood with the help of the
following diagram:
Describe Multiplexing techniques.
1) Multiplexing is a technique by which
4
different analog and digital streams of
transmission can be simultaneously
processed over a shared link.
2) Multiplexing divides the high capacity
medium into low capacity logical
medium which is then shared by
different streams. Communication is
possible over the air (radio frequency),
8) The figure depicts this mode of propagation using a physical media (cable), and light
very clearly. The line-of-sight propagation will (optical fiber).
not be smooth if there occurs any obstacle in 3) All mediums are capable of multiplexing.
its transmission path. When multiple senders try to send over a
9) As the signal can travel only to lesser distances single medium, a device called
in this mode, this transmission is used for Multiplexer divides the physical channel
infrared or microwave transmissions and allocates one to each.
What advantages does TDM have over FDM in a 4) On the other end of communication, a
circuit switched network? De-multiplexer receives data from a
single medium, identifies each, and sends
1) In TDM, each signal uses all of the bandwidth to different receivers.
some of the time, while for FDM, each signal Different multiplexing techniques are
uses a small portion of the bandwidth all of the 1. Frequency Division Multiplexing:
time. 1) When the carrier is frequency, FDM is
2) TDM uses the entire frequency range but used. FDM is an analog technology.
dynamically allocates time, certain jobs might 2) FDM divides the spectrum or carrier
require less or more time, which TDM can offer bandwidth in logical channels and
but FDM is unable to as it cannot change the allocates one user to each channel
width of the allocated frequency 3) Each user can use the channel frequency
3) TDM provides much better flexibility compared independently and has exclusive access
to FDM. of it
4) TDM offers efficient utilization of bandwidth 4) All channels are divided in such a way
Low interference of signal and minimizes cross that they do not overlap with each other.
talk Channels are separated by guard bands,
Guard band is a frequency which is not
used by either channel.
2. Time Division Multiplexing:
1) TDM is applied primarily on digital signals
but can be applied on analog signals as
Differentiate between FDM and TDM.
FDM divides the TDM divides and
2) Data Transfer: Once the circuit has been
5
established, data and voice are transferred
channel into two allocates certain from the source to the destination. The
well. or more time periods to dedicated connection remains as long as the
2) In TDM the shared channel is divided frequency ranges each channel in end parties communicate.
among its user by means of time slot. Each that do not an alternating 3) Circuit Disconnection: When data transfer is
user can transmit data within the provided overlap manner complete, the connection is relinquished.
time slot only. The disconnection is initiated by any one of
3) Digital signals are divided in frames, Frequency is Times scale is
the user. Disconnection involves removal of
equivalent to time slot ie. frame of an shared shared
all intermediate links from the
optimal size which can be transmitted in Used with Analog Used with both sender to the receiver
given time slot. TDM works in synchronized signals Digital signals
mode. and analog
4) Both ends, ie. Multiplexer and signals
Demultiplexer are timely synchronized and Interference is Interference is
both switch to next channel simultaneously high Low or negligible
5) When channel A transmits its frame at one
end, the De-multiplexer provides media to Utilization is Ineff Efficiently used
channel A on the other end. ective
6) As soon as the channel A's time slot Explain circuit switching networks
expires, this side switches to channel B. On with neat sketch.
the other end, the De-multiplexer works in Circuit switching is a connection-
a synchronized manner and provides media oriented network switching technique.
to channel B. Signals from different Here, a dedicated route is established
channels travel the path in interleaved between the source and the destination
manner and the entire message is transferred
through it.
Phases of Circuit Switch Connection:
1) Circuit Establishment In this phase, 4) The diagram represents circuit established
a dedicated circuit is established between two telephones connected by
from the source to the destination circuit switched connection. The blue boxes
through a number of intermediate represent the switching offices and their
switching centers. The sender and connection with other switching offices. The
receiver transmits communication black lines connecting the switching offices
signals to request and acknowledge represent the permanent link between the
establishment of circuits. offices.
Compare packet switched and circuit
switched network
Explain satellite communication.
1) Satellite is a manmade system which is
6
In-circuit switching In Packet switching kept in continuous rotation around the
has there are 3 directly data transfer earth in a specific orbit at a specific
phases: i) takes place. height above the earth and with specific
Connection speed.
Establishment. 2) In satellite communication, signal
Transfer.. ii) Data iii) transferring between the sender and
Connection Released receiver is done with the help of
In-circuit switching, In Packet switching, satellite.
each data unit each data unit just 3) In this process, the signal which is
knows the entire knows the final basically a beam of modulated Describe the principles of packet switching
path address which destination address microwaves is sent towards the satellite and circuit switching techniques with neat
is provided by the intermediate path is called UPLINK (6 GHz). diagram.
source decided by the 4) Then the satellite amplifies the signal Circuit Switching:
routers. and sent it back to the receiver's 1) When two nodes communicate with each
antenna present on the earth's surface other over a dedicated communication
In-Circuit switching, In Packet switching, called as DOWNLINK (4Ghz)
data is processed at data is processed at path, it is called circuit switching.
5) As the entire signal transferring is 2) There is a need of pre-specified route from
the source system all intermediate happening in space. Thus this type of
only nodes including the which data will travels and no other data is
communication is known as space permitted
source system. communication. The satellite does the 3) In circuit switching, to transfer the data,
Resource There is no resource functions of an antenna and the circuit must be established so that the data
reservation is the reservation because repeater together. If the earth along transfer can take place
feature of circuit bandwidth among with its ground stations is revolving and 4) Circuits can be permanent or temporary.
switching because users. is shared the satellite is stationery, the sending Applications which use circuit switching
the path is fixed for and receiving earth stations and the may have to go through three phases:
data transmission. satellite can be out of sync aver time. • Establish a circuit
Wastage of Less wastage of 6) Therefore Geosynchronous satellites are • Transfer the data
resources is more in resources as used which move at same RPM as that • Disconnect the circuit
Circuit Switching compared to of the earth in the same direction. 5) Circuit switching was designed for voice
Circuit Switching 7) So the relative position of the ground applications. Telephone is the best suitable
station with respect to the satellite example of circuit switching
never changes. B. However 3 satellites 6) Before a user can make a call, a virtual
are needed to cover earth's path between callers and called is
surface entirely. established over the network.
 Why is circuit switching preferred over
packet switching in
CHAPTER 3
Explain various IEEE communication standards.
7
voice communication?
A set of network standards developed by the
Switching is a mechanism by which IEEE. They include:
data/information sent from source 1) IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network
towards destination which are not management.
directly connected. Networks have 2) IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data
interconnecting devices, which receives link layer in the OSI Reference The IEEE
data from directly connected sources, divides this layer into two sublayers -- the
Packet Switching: stores data, analyse it and then logical link control layer and the media
1) The entire message is broken down into forwards to the next interconnecting access control (MAC) layer. The MAC layer
smaller chunks called packets. The device closest to the destination. varies for different network types and is
switching information is added in the Switching can be categorized as: defined by standards IEEE 802.3 through
header of each packet and transmitted 1) Circuit switching IEEE 802.5.
independently. 2) Packet switching 3) IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for bus
2) It is easier for intermediate networking 3) Message switching networks that use CSMA/CD. This is the
devices to store small size packets and they Circuit switching is preferred over
basis of the Ethernet standard.
do not take much resource either on carrier packet switching in voice
4) IEEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus
path or in the internal memory of switches. communication because:
networks that use a token passing
3) Packet switching enhances line efficiency as 1) In circuit switching, a dedicated
mechanism (token bus networks).
packets from multiple applications can be path is established between sender 5) IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer
multiplexed over the carrier. The internet and receiver which is maintained 6) IEEE 802.6: Standard for token-ring
uses packet switching technique. for entire duration of conversation. networks. Metropolitan Area Networks
4) Packet switching enables the user to 2) It provides continuous and (MANs).
differentiate data streams based on guaranteed delivery of data. 7) IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network Standards:
priorities. Packets are stored and forwarded 3) During the data transfer phase, no
802.11 is the collection of standards setup
according to their priority to provide addressing is needed. for wireless networking.
quality of service. 4) Delays are small.
5) It uses connection oriented service.
6) Message received in order r
to the destination
Explain LRC with example.
Longitudinal redundancy check(LRC):
6) In this matrix of bits, a parity bit (odd or
even) is calculated for each column. It
Explain wireless LAN 802.11 architecture.
Wireless LAN 802.11:
8
1) Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) is means 32 bits data plus 8 redundant bits The IEEE 802.11 standard defines the
the error detection method which is used are transmitted to receiver. physical layer and media access control
by upper layers to detect error in data 7) Whenever data reaches at the destination, (MAC) layer for a wireless local area
2) The other name for LRC is 2-D parity receiver uses LRC to detect error in data network. Wireless LANs transmit and
check. In this method, data which the 8) Advantage: LRC is used to detect burst receive data over the atmosphere, using
users want to send is organized into errors. radio frequency (RF) or infrared optical
tables of rows and columns Compare LRC and CRC. technology, thereby; eliminating the need
3) To detect an error, a redundant bit is for fixed wired connections.
Longitudinal Cyclic Redundancy
added to the whole block after addition 802.11 Architecture:
Redundancy Check Check (CRC) is one of
this block is transmitted to receiver side. The 802.11architecture defines two types
(LRC) is a method in the most common
4) This redundant bit is used by receiver to of services:
which a block of bits and powerful error
detect error. If there is no error, receiver 1) Basic services set (BSS)
is organized in table detecting codes in
accepts the data and discards the 2) Extended Service Set (ESS)
(rows and which a sequence of
redundant row of bits. i) Basic Services Set (BSS)
columns)calculate redundant bits, called
5) Example If a block of 32 bits is to be • The basic services set contain
the parity bit for each the CRC is appended
transmitted, it is divided into matrix of stationary or mobile wireless stations
column and the set of to the end of the unit
four rows and eight columns which as and a central base station called
this parity bit is also so that the resulting
shown in the following figure: access point (AP).
sending with original data unit become
The use of access point is optional.
data. From the block exactly divisible by a
• If the access point is not present, it is
of parity we can second,
known as stand-alone network. Such a
check the predetermined
BSS cannot send data to other BSSs.
redundancy binary number.
This type of architecture is known as
LRC of n bits can CRC is more powerful adhoc architecture.
easily detect than LRC • The BSS in which an access point is
Burst error of n bits. VRC and LRC in present is known as an
detecting errors. infrastructure network.
A longitudinal CRC is based
redundancy check on binary division
(LRC) is an error
detection method
based
on binary addition
 There are two types of stations in ESS:
(1) Mobile stations: These are normal
Describe various mobile
generations in detail. 9
stations inside a BSS. 1G- First generation:
(2) Stationary stations: These are AP 1) 1G refers to the first generation of
stations that are part of a wired LAN wireless mobile communication
Describe various IEEE standards for network where analog signals were used to
topologies. transmit data
A set of network standards developed by 2) It was introduced in the US in early
the IEEE. They include: 1980s and designed exclusively for
1) IEEE 802.1: Standards related to network voice communication.
management. 3) Features:
ii) Extend Service Set (ESS) • Speeds up to 2.4 kbps
An extended service set is created by joining two 2) IEEE 802.2: General standard for the data
link layer in the OSI Reference Model. • Poor voice quality
or more basic service sets (BSS) having access
The IEEE divides this layer into two • Large phones with limited battery
points (APS) These 1 extended networks are
sublayers - the logical link control (LLC) life
created by joining the access points of basic
layer and the media access control • No data security
services sets through a wired LAN known as
(MAC) layer. The MAC layer varies for • Used analog signals
distribution system.
different network types and is defined 2G-Second generation:
by standards IEEE 802.3 through IEEE 1) 2G refers to the second generation
802.5. of mobile telephony which used
3) IEEE 802.3: Defines the MAC layer for digital signals for the first time.
bus networks that use CSMA/CD. This is 2) It was launched in Finland in 1991
the basis of the Ethernet standard. and used GSM technology. 2G
4) EEE 802.4: Defines the MAC layer for bus networks used digital technology. It
networks that use a token passing implemented the concept of CDMA
mechanism (token bus networks). and GSM. Provided small data
5) IEEE 802.5: Defines the MAC layer for services like sms and mms.
token-ring networks. 6) IEEE 802 3) 2G capabilities are achieved by
6) Standard for Metropolitan Area allowing multiple users on a single
Networks (MANs). channel via multiplexing
7) IEEE 802.11 Wireless Network 4) Features
Standards: 802.11 is the collection of • Data speeds up to 64 kbps
standards setup for wireless networking. • Text and multimedia messaging
possible
• Better quality than 1G
• 2G requires strong digital signals to help
mobile phones work. If there is no network
• Expensive fees for 3G Licenses Services
4G- Fourth generation The main
5G-Fifth generation:
1) 5G is the 5th generation mobile 10
coverage in any specific area, digital signals purpose of 4G is to provide high speed, network. It is a new global wireless
would weak. high quality and high capacity to users standard after 1G, 2G, 3G, and 4G
• These systems are unable to handle complex while improving security and lower the networks
data such as Videos. When GPRS technology cost of voice and date services, 2) 5G enables a new kind of network that
was introduced, it enabled web browsing, e- multimedia and internet over IP. is designed to connect virtually
mail services and fast upload/download 4G-Fourth Generation everyone and everything together
speeds. 2G with GPRS is also referred as 2.5G, 1) mobile phones provides broadband including machines, objects, and
a step short of next mobile generation cellular network services and is devices.
3G- Third generations: successor to 3G mobile networks. 3) 5G wireless technology is meant to
1) Third generation (3G) of mobile telephony 2) It provides an all IP based cellular deliver higher multi-Gbps peak data
began with the start of the new millennium communications. The capabilities speeds, ultra low latency, more
and offered major advancement over provided adhere to IMT-Advanced reliability, massive network capacity,
previous generations. 3G has multimedia specifications as laid down by increased availability, and a more
services support along with streaming. International Telecommunication uniform user experience to more users.
2) In 3G universal access and portability across Union (ITU). 4) Higher performance and improved
different devices types are made possible. 3) Features efficiency empower new user
3G increased the efficiency of frequency • It provides an all IP packet switched experiences and connects new
spectrum by improving how audio is network for transmission of voice, industries.
compressed during a call. so more data, signals and multimedia. 5) Features
simultaneous calls can take place in same • It aims to provide high quality • High Speed, High Capacity 5G
frequency range. uninterrupted services to any technology providing large broadcasting
3) Like 2G, 3G evolved into 3.5G and 3.75G as location at any time. of data in Gbps.
more features were introduced in order to • As laid down in IMT-Advanced • Multi - Media Newspapers, watch T. V
bring about 4G. specifications, 4G networks should pro clarity as to that of an HD Quality.
4) Features: have peak data rates of 100Mbps for • Faster data transmission that of the
• Data speeds of 144 kbps to 2 Mbps highly mobile stations like train, car previous generations.
• High speed web browsing etc., and 1Gbps for low mobility • Large Phone Memory, Dialing Speed,
• Running web based applications like video stations like residence etc. clarity in Audio/Video Support
conferencing, multimedia e- mails, etc. • It also lays down that 4G networks interactive multimedia, voice, streaming
• Fast and easy transfer of audio and video files should make it possible for 1 Gbps video, Internet and
• 3D gaming downlink over less than 67 MHz • 5G is More Effective and
• TV Streaming/Mobile TV/ Phone Calls MUM1 bandwidth. More Attractive.
Large Capacities and Broadband Capabilities • They provide have smooth handoffs
across heterogeneous network areas
A system uses CRC on a block of 8 bytes. How
many redundant bits are sent per block? What is
Describe Bluetooth architecture technologies.
Bluetooth Architecture:
2) A slave in one piconet can act
as a master or primary in other11
the ratio of useful bits to total bits? Bluetooth architecture defines two types of f piconet.
1) CRC is one of the most common and powerful networks: AGA 3) Such a station or node can receive
error detecting code which can be describe as (1) Piconet messages from the master in the
follows. The polynomial code also known as 1) Piconet is a Bluetooth network that first piconet and deliver the
CRC with co-efficient of Os and 1s. In this consists sof one primary (master) node message to its slaves in other
method the sender and receiver must agree and seven active secondary (slave) nodes piconet where it is acting as master.
upon generator polynomial g(x) in advance. 2) Thus, piconet can have up to eight active This node is also called bridge
2) Both the high and low order bits of the nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations slave.
generator (divisor) must be 1. To compute the within the distance of 10 meters. 4) Thus a station can be a member of
checksum for some frame (data) with m bits, 3) There can be only one primary or master two piconets
the frame must be longer than generator station in each piconet. 5) A station cannot be a
polynomial. 4) The communication between the primary master in two piconets
3) The idea is to append checksum to the end of and the secondary can be one- to-
frame in such a way that the polynomial one or one-to-many.
represented by the checksum frame is
divisible by g(x). When the receive gets the
checksum frame it tries dividing it by g(x).
4) If there is remainder there has been a
transmission error and zero remainder means
no error in the transmission. r is degree of g(x)
polynomial.
Step by step procedure: 5) All communication is between master and
1. Append a string of zero bits to the lower order a slave. Salve-slave communication is not
end of data word(m) where r is less than the possible.
number of bits pre-decided divisor by 1 bit i.e. 6) In addition to seven active slave station, a
if divisor = 5 bits then r = 4 zeros. Now data piconet can have upto 255 parked nodes.
word contains more bits These parked nodes are secondary or
2. Divide the newly generated data unit in step 1 slave stations and cannot take part in
by the divisor. It is module - 2 division. communication until it is moved from
3. The remainder obtained after division is the r parked state to active state.
bit CRC (2) Scatternet
4. This CRC will replace the r zeros appended to 1) Scattemet is formed by combining various
the data unit to get the code word to be piconets.
transmitted.
With suitable diagram and describe
(i) STAR Topology
(ii) Ring Topology
A ring network is a network topology in
3) It is the broadcasting device.
4) It sends packets to all nodes in the network. 12
(ii) RING Topology which each node connects to exactly (iii) Switch:
(i) STAR Topology: two other nodes, forming a single 1) It is used to connect multiple computers in which it
Star topology is a network continuous pathway for signals through can direct a transmission to its specific destination.
topology where each Individual each node - a ring. Data travels from (Unicast the signals).
piece of a network is attached to node to node, with each node along 2) It is a unicasting device.
a central node (often called a hub the way handling every packet. Ring 3) It avoids unnecessary network traffic.
or switch). The attachment of topology refers to a specific kind of 4) It operates in both the physical and the data link layer.
these network pieces to the network setup in which devices are (iv) Bridge:
central component is visually connected in a ring and pass 1) It is a device which connects two or more segment of
represented in a form similar to a information to or from each other a network.
star. The hub and hosts, and the according to their adjacent proximity in 2) A bridge filters data traffic at a network boundary.
transmission lines between them, the ring structure. This type of 3) Bridges reduces the amount of traffic on a LAN by
form a graph with the topology of topology is highly efficient and handles dividing it into two segments.
fa star. Data on a star network heavier loads better than bus topology 4) It inspects incoming traffic and decides whether to
passes through the hub before forward or discard it.
Describe different connecting devices
continuing to its destination. The 5) It sends packets between two networks of same type.
used in computer network.
hub manages and controls all 6) A bridge operates in both the physical and the data
(1) Repeater: link layer.
functions of the network. It also
1) It is used to take the distorted, weak (v) Gateway:
acts as a repeater for the data
and corrupt input signal and 1) It is a node in a computer network, a key stopping
flow. The star network is one of
regenerate this signal at its output. point for data on its way to or from other networks.
the most common computer
2) It ensures that the signals are not 2) Gateway is protocol converter.
network topologies.
distorted or weak before it reaches 3) Gateway enables communication between different
the destination. network architecture and environments.
3) It recreates the bit pattern of the 4) It works at all layers of OSI model.
signal, and puts this regenerated (vi) Router:
signal back on to the transmission 1) It is a device that helps in determining the best and
medium shortest path out of the available paths, for a
4) It works in the physical layer with no particular transmission.
intelligent function. 2) Routers use logical and physical addressing to connect
(ii) Hub: two or more logically separate networks.
1) It is also known as multiport repeater. 3) Router read complex network address in packet and
2) It is normally used for connecting efficiently directs packets from one network to
stations in a physical star topology. another, reducing excessive traffic.
4) It works at Physical, Data-Link and
Network Layer of OSI model
Explain the working of following
topologies: 13
5) It Connect dissimilar networks. 1) Bus
(vii) Modem: 2) Ring
1) Modem works as modulator as well as 3) TREE
demodulator. (i) Bus Topology:
2) It is the device used to converts digital 1) In networking, a topology that allows
signals generated by the computer into all network nodes to receive the same
analog signals which can be transmitted message through the network cable
over a telephone or cable line Design suitable network layout for an
organization with five department. at the same time is called as bus
transforms incoming analog signals into topology.
their digital equivalents. 2) In this type of network topology, all
3) A two way communication is the nodes of a network are connected
established. to a common transmission medium
Draw and describe architecture for network having two endpoints.
using tree topology for an office in 3-storeys 3) All the data tha that travels over the
building. network is transmitted through a
common transmission medium
A tree topology is a special type of structure
known as the bus or the backbone of
in which many connected elements are
the network. When the transmission
arranged like the branches of a tree Here in
medium has exactly two endpoints,
the diagram the main switch is connected
the network topology is known by the
with three separate switches. For each floor
name, 'linear bus topology'.
separate switch is connected with
4) A network that uses a bus topology is
multiple terminals
referred to as a "Bus Network".
Working of Bus Topology: Fig shows
bus topology. topology The central
cable is the backbone of the network
and is known as Bus (thus the name).
5) Every workstation or node
communicates with the other device
through this Bus. A signal from the
source is broadcasted and it travels to
all workstations
connected to bus cable.
6) Although the message is broadcasted but
only the intended recipient, whose MAC
Explain the working of hub, switch and bridge.
(i) Hub:
14
address or IP address matches, accepts it. Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical
If the MAC/IP address of machine does layer of the OSI model that are used to connect
not match with the intended address, multiple devices in a network. They are generally
machine discards the signal used to connect computers in a LAN.
7) A terminator is added at ends of the Working:
central cable, to prevent bouncing of A hub has many ports in it. A computer which
signals. A barrel connector can be intends to be connected to the network is plugged
used to extend it (iii) Tree Topology: in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives
1) As its name implies in this at a port, it is broadcast to every other port,
topology devices make a tree without considering whether it is destined for a
structure. Tree topology particular destination device or not
integrates the characteristics of Features of Hubs:
star and bus topology. 1. A hub operates in the physical layer of the OSI
2) In tree topology, the number of model.
star networks are connected 2. A hub cannot filter data. It is a non-intelligent
using Bus. This main cable seems network device that sends message to all ports.
(ii) RING Topology: like a main stem of a tree, and 3. It primarily broadcasts messages. So, the
other star networks as the collision domain of all nodes connected through
1) A ring network is a network topology in branches. the hub stays one.
which each node connects to exactly two 3) It is also called expanded star 4. Transmission mode is half duplex
other nodes, forming a single continuous topology. Ethernet protocol is
pathway for signals through each node - a commonly used in this
ring. type of topology.
2) Data travels from node to node, with 4) Fig. shows tree topology. A tree
each node along the way handling every topology can also combine
packet. Ring topology refers to a specific characteristics of linear bus and
kind of network setup in which devices star topologies. It consists of
are connected in a ring and pass groups of star configure
information to or from each other workstations connected to a
according to their adjacent proximity in linear bus backbone cable.
the ring structure. 5) Tree topologies allow for the
3) This type of topology is highly efficient expansion of an existing network
and handles heavier loads better than bus and enable schools to configure a
topology network to meet their needs
(ii) Switch:
Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or
(iii) Bridge:
Bridges are used to connect similar
(i) Base Stations:
1) The base station is a common 15
a data link layer of the OSI model. They connect devices network segments. It combines two infrastructure component that
in a network and use packet switching to send, receive LANs to form an extended LAN. interfaces the wireless
or forward data packets or data frames over the Working: communications signals traveling
network A bridge accepts all the packets and through the air medium to a wired
Working: amplifies all of them to the other side. . network? Often referred to as a
A switch has many ports, to which computers are The bridges are intelligent devices that distribution system.
plugged in. When a data frame arrives at any port of a allow the passing of only selective 2) Therefore, a base station enables
network switch, it examines the destination address, packets from them. A bridge only users to access a wide range of
performs necessary checks and sends the frame to the passes those packets addressed from a network services, such as web
corresponding device(s). It supports unicast, multicast node in one network to another node browsing, e-mail access, and
as well as broadcast communications. in the other network, database applications.
3) A base station often contains a
wireless NIC that implements the
same technology in operation by
the user's wireless NIC. Residential
gateways and routers are more
advanced forms of base stations
that enable additional network
functions.
4) As show in Figure a base station
might support point-to-point or
Describe wireless infrastructure point-to
Features of Switches: components in detail. multipoint communications.
1) It is an intelligent network device that can be Wireless Network Infrastructures:
conceived as a multiport network bridge. The infrastructure of a wireless network
2) It uses MAC addresses (addresses of medium access interconnects wireless users and end
control sublayer) to send data packets to selected systems. The infrastructure might consist
destination ports. of base stations, access controllers,
3) It uses packet switching technique to receive and application connectivity software, and a
forward data packets from the source to the distribution system. These components
destination device. enhance wireless communications and
4) It is supports unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one- fulfill important functions necessary for
to-many) and broadcast (one- toall) communications specific applications.
(ii) Access Controllers:
1) In the absence of adequate security,
CHAPTER 5
Draw and explain layered architecture of OSI model.
16
quality of service (QoS), and roaming Draw and explain OSI reference model.
mechanisms in wireless network
OSI model (Open System Interconnection) model was developed by ISO (international standard
standards, companies offer access-
organization) which provides way to understand how internetwork operates It gives guidelines
control solutions to strengthen
for creating network standard. OSI model has 7 layers as shown in the figure. Application Layer,
wireless systems.
Presentation Layer, Session Layer, Transport Layer Network Layer, Data link Layer and Physical
2) The key component to these
Layer
solutions is an access controller,
Physical (Layer 1): OSI Model, Layer 1 conveys the bit stream-electrical impulse, light or radio
which is typically hardware that
signal through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the hardware
resides on the wired portion of the
means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining cables, cards and physical
network between the access points
aspects.
and the protected side of the
Data Link (Layer 2): At OSI Model, Layer 2, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It
network.
furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the physical
3) Access controllers provide centralized
layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sub layers:
intelligence behind the access points
The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sub layer
to regulate traffic between the open
controls how a computer on the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it.
wireless network and important
The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error
resources. In some cases, the access
Network (Layer 3): Layer 3 provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths,
point contains the access control
known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and forwarding are
function.
functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling, congestion control
(iii) Application Connectivity Software
and packet sequencing.
1) Web surfing and e-mail generally
Transport (Layer 4): Model, Layer 4, provides transparent transfer of data between end systems,
perform well over wireless networks.
or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It ensures complete
All it takes is a browser and e-mail
data transfer from source to destination.
software on the client device.
Session (Layer 5): This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
2) Users might lose a wireless
applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges,
connection from time to time, but
and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals with session and connection
the protocols in use for these
coordination.
relatively simple applications are
Presentation (Layer 6): This layer provides independence from differences in data representation
resilient under most conditions.
(e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa. The
3) Special application connectivity
presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the application layer can accept.
software is necessary as an interface
This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing freedom from
between a user's computer device
compatibility problems. It is sometimes called the syntax & semantics.
and the end system hosting the
Application (Layer 7): OSI Model, Layer 7, supports application and end-user processes.
application's software or database.
Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application services for file.
Draw and explain TCP/IP model.
OR
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1) Lowest layer of the all.
6) Transport layer also arrange the packets
to be sent, in sequence 17
Explain configuration of TCP/IP 2) Protocol is used to connect to the host, so Layer 4: Application Layer
protocol in network. that the packets can be sent over it. 3 . 1) The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control 3) Varies from host to host and network to applications that were at the protocol stack.
Protocol and Internet Protocol has network Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc. t
following features Layer 2: Internet layer the top of
1) Support for a flexible 1) Selection of a packet switching network 2) Telnets a two-way communication protocol which
architecture. Adding more which is based on a connectionless allows connecting to a remote machine and run
machines to a network was Internetwork layer is called a internet layer. applications on it.
easy. 2) It is the layer which holds the whole 3) FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is protocol that allows
2) The network is robust, and architecture together. File transfer amongst computer users connected
connections remained intact 3) It helps the packet to travel independently over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
until the source and to the destination. 4) SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a
destination machines were 4) Order in which packets are received is protocol, which is used to transport electronic
functioning. The main idea was different from the way they are sent. mail between a source and destination, directed
to allow one application on one 5) IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer. via a route.
computer to talk to (send data 6) The various functions performed by the 5) DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP
packets) another application Internet Layer are: address into a textual address for Hosts
running on different computer. • Delivering IP packets connected over a network.
3) Different Layers of TCP/IP • Performing routing 6) It allows peer entities to carry conversation.6.It
Reference Model Below: • Avoiding congestion defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP.
Layer 3: Transport Layer
1) It decides if data transmission should be on
parallel path or single path.
2) Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting
or splitting on the data is done by transport
layer.
3) The applications can read and write to the
transport layer.
4) Transport layer adds header information to
the data.
5) Transport layer breaks the message (data)
into small units so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer.
DEMY
Describe the major functions of network
layer in TCP/IP protocol suite.
Functions of Physical Layer:
1) Physical layer is the actual carrier of
Describe types of IP address classes.
18
Class A: Class A range for first byte is 0-127.
1) Internetworking: This is the main information between computers
Class A type of IP addresses have First byte
duty of network layer. It provides the 2) Communication between computers happens consisting of Network address with first bit
logical connection between different due to physical layer
3) Data is actually carried between every as 0 and the next 3 bytes with host id.
types of networks. Hence, number of hosts are more when
2) Addressing: Addressing is necessary adjacent node (computers/routers) by
transmission of Electromagnetic/optical signals compared to number of networks. The
to identify each device on the default subnet masks for class A networks
internet uniquely. This is similar to at the physical layer over wired/wireless media
Physical layer therefore encompasses the set is 255.0.0.0. Class A networks have their
telephone system. The address used network addresses from 1.0.0.0 to
in the network layer should uniquely of all protocols/standards used in different
types of Wired/Wireless interfaces and the 126.0.0.0, with the zero's being replaced by
and universally define the connection node addresses.
of a computer. telecommunication links connecting them
4) It also includes the mechanical, electrical and Class B: Class B range for first byte is 128-
3) Routing: In a network, there are 191. This type has first two bytes specifying
multiple roots available from a timing specifications for different network
interfaces network ID with starting two bits as 10 and
source to a destination and one of last two bytes referring to host ID. The
them is to be chosen. The network Functions of Data Link Layer:
1) Data link layer receives the data from the default subnet masks for class B is
layer decides the root to be taken. 255.255.0.0. Network addresses for these
This is called as routing. network layer & divide it into manageable
units called frames. ranges from 128.0.0.0 to 191.0.0.0.
4) Packetizing: The network layer Class C: Class C range for first byte is 192-
encapsulates the packets received 2) It then provides the addressing information by
adding header to each frame. 223. This class has first three bytes
from upper layer protocol and makes referring to network with starting bits as
new packets. This is called as 3) Physical addresses of source & destination
machines are added to each frame. 110 and last byte signifies Host ID. Here,
packetizing. It is done by a network number of networks is more when
layer protocol called IP 4) It provides flow control mechanism to ensure
that sender is not sending the data at the compared to number of hosts in each
(Internetworking Protocol). network. The default subnet masks for
speed that the receiver cannot process.
Describe the functions of physical and 5) It also provide error control mechanism to class C is 255.255.255.0 The network IP
data link layer of OSI model. detect & retransmit damaged, duplicate, or addresses for these range from 192.0.0.0 to
OR lost frame, thus adding reliability to physical 223.0.0.0.
State the functions of any two layer. Class D: Class D range for first byte is 224-
layers of OSI Model. 6) Another function of data link layer is access 239 Class D is used for multicasting and its
control. When two or more devices are starting bits are 1110
attached to the same link, data link layer Class E: Class E range for first byte is 240-
protocols determine which device has control 255.Class B is reserved for future use and
over the link at any given time. its starting bits are 1111
 Compare between IPV4 and IPV6
Source and Source and
19
destination addresses destination addresses
are 32 bits (4 bytes) in are 128Bits (16 bytes)
length. in length.
No. addresses are Larger addressing 3) ARP finds the hardware address, also
limited to number of area known as Media Access Control (MAC)
bits (32 bits) address, of a host from its known IP
address.
Uses broadcast There are no IPv6 4) It is responsible to find the hardware
addresses to send broadcast addresses. address of a host from a know IP address
traffic to all nodes on Instead, scoped there are three basic ARP terms.
a subnet. addresses aroused The important terms associated with ARP are:
multicast (1) Reverse ARP
Fragmentation is Fragmentation is not (2) Proxy ARP
supported at supported at routers. (3) Inverse ARP
Originating hosts and It is only supported at Subnetting:
intermediate routers. the originating host 1) Dividing the network into smaller
IP header IP header does not contiguous networks or subnets is called
includes a checksum include a checksum. subnetting. Suppose we take a network of
List the protocols related to all layers of class A. So, in class A, we have 224 hosts.
OSI reference model. Explain ARP, subnetting and supernetting So to manage such a large number of
with example. hosts is tedious.
OSI MODEL PROTOCOLS ARP: 2) So if we divide this large network into the
1) Most of the computer smaller network then maintaining each
Application Layer FTP, HTTP, Telnet
programs/applications suse logical address network would be easy. Suppose we have
Presentation Layer JPEG, MPEG (IP address) to send/receive messages, a class C network having network ID as
Session Layer NFS, SQL, PAP however, the actual communication 201.10.1.0(range of class C 192-223).
happens over the physical address (MAC 3) So the total number of hosts is 256 (for
Transport Layer TCP, UDP class C host is defined by last octet i.e. 2).
address) i.e from layer 2 of the OSI model.
Network Layer IPv4, IPv6 2) So our mission is to get the destination But, the total usable host is 254. This is
Data Link Layer ARP, CDP,STP MAC address which helps in because the first IP address is for the
communicating with other devices. This is network ID and the last IP address is
Physical Layer Ethernet, Wi-Fi Direct Broadcast Address (for sending any
where ARP comes into the picture, its
functionality is to translate IP address to packet from one network to all other hosts
physical addresses. of another network).
4) So, in subnetting we will divide these 254 Describe the process of DHCP server
hosts logically into two networks. In the configuration.
above class C network, we have 24 bits for OR
Network ID and the last 8 bits for the Host Explain the process of DHCP server configuration.
ID. 1) DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is
Supernetting: a client-server protocol that uses DHCP servers
1) Supernetting is the opposite of Subnetting. and DHCP clients.
In subnetting, a single big network is 2) A DHCP server is a machine that runs a service
divided into multile smaller subnetworks. that can lease out IP addresses and other
2) In Supernetting, multiple networks are TCP/IP information to any client that requests
combined into a bigger network termed as them.
a Supernetwork or Supernet. Supernetting 3) The DHCP server typically has a pool of IP
is mainly used in Route Summarization, addresses that it is allowed to distribute to
where routes to multiple networks with clients, and these clients lease an IP address
similar network prefixes are combined into from the pool for a specific period of time,
a single routing entry, with the routing usually several days.
entry pointing to a Super network, 4) Once the lease is ready to expire, the client
encompassing all the networks. contacts the server to arrange for renewal.
3) This in turn significantly reduces the size of DHCP clients are client machines that run
routing tables and also the size of routing special DHCP client software enabling them to
updates exchanged by routing protocols. communicate with DHCP server.
More specifically, when multiple networks
are combined to form a bigger network, it
is termed as super-netting
4) Super netting is used in route aggregation
to reduce the size of routing tables and
routing table updates
5) There are some points which should be
kept in mind while supernetting:
1. All the IP address should be contiguous.
2. Size of all the small networks should be
equal and must be in form of 2n.
3. First IP address should be exactly divisible
by whole size of supernet.
For example:
DHCP clients obtain a DHCP lease for an IP address, 1. Empty information frames are Your company has the network id 165.130.0.0.
a subnet mask, and various DHCP options from continuously circulated on the You are responsible for creating subnets on the
DHCP servers in a four-step process: ring. network, and each subnet must provide at
DHCP DISCOVER: The client broadcasts a request 2. When a computer has a message least 1000 host ids. What subnet mask meets
for a DHCP server. to send, it inserts a token in an the requirement for the minimum number of
DHCPOFFER: DHCP servers on the network offer an empty frame (simply changing a host ids and provides the highest number of
address to the client. 0 to a 1 in the token bit part of subnets?
DHCPREQUEST: The client broadcasts a request to the frame) and a message and a The given network id 165.130.0.0 is class B
lease an address from one of the offering DHCP destination (Range of class B is 128.0.0.0 to
servers. identifier in the frame 191.255.255.255) with subnet mask of
DHCPACK: The DHCP server that the client 3. The frame is the examined by 255.255.252.0 creates 62 subnets with 1022
responds to acknowledges the client, assigns it any each successive workstation. If host each.
configured DHCP options, and updates its DHCP workstation sees that it is the In binary format subnet mask reads:
database. The client then initializes and binds its destination of the message, it 11111111.11111111.11111100.00000000
TCP/IP protocol stack and can begin copies the message from the To calculate the number of host ids available
network communication frame and changes the token for each subnet is based on the number of
back to 0. digits remaining in the network address.
What is the MAC protocol used in TOKEN ring
4. When the frame gets back to The number of possible host ids in each subnet
LAN's? What happens if the token is lost?
originator, it sees that message ranges from 00000001 through 11111110.
1) Token ring local area network (LAN) network is has been copied and received. So, in the network 165.130.0.0/22, host
a communication protocol for local area There are two error conditions that addresses can range from 165.130.0.1
networks.it uses special three-byte frame could cause the token ring to break through 165.130.254
called a "token" that travels around a logical down.
ring of workstations or servers. • One is the lost token in which
2) This token passing is a channel access method case there is no token in the ring.
providing fair access for all stations, and • Other is the busy token that
eliminating the collision of contention-based circulates endlessly.
access methods. • To overcome these problems, the
3) Introduced by IBM in 1984, it was then IEEE 802 standard specifies that
standardized with protocol IEEE 802.5 and was one of the stations must be
fairly successful, particularly in the corporate designated as "active monitor".
environments, but gradually eclipsed by the The monitor detects the lost
later versions of Ethernet. The IEEE 802.5 Token condition using a timer by time-
ring technology provides for data transfer rates out mechanism and recovers by
of either 4 or 16 Mbps. using a new free token
4) It works in the following manner: