Unit-1

Classification of Computer by data processed

Computer systems may be classified according to the data they are designed to
process or they may be classified according to their size and capabilities.

The data required for processing may be obtained either as a result of counting or
through some measuring device. Data obtained through counting is known as
discrete data, while that obtained through measuring instruments is known as
continuous data. An example of discrete data is the number of marks obtained by
a student in an examination, while the constant monitoring of the Electro-
Cardiogram of a patient is an example of continuous data.

There are three types of computer under this category. They are:

1. Analog computer 2. Digital Computer 3. Hybrid Computer

1. Analogue Computer :

Analog computers are specifically designed to process analog data. It is a type of

continuous data that continually changes and does not have discrete values.
These types of computers are being used when the users are not familiar with the
exact values like temperature, speed, current, and pressure.

An interesting feature of analog computers is accepting the measuring device's

data without converting it into relevant codes and numbers. This essential feature
allows analog computers to measure continuous changes in physical quantity.
Examples of analog computers are the mercury thermometer(used to determine
the temperature of body, liquid, and vapor) and speedometer(Used for measuring
speed.)

2. Digital Computers:

These computers are designed in such a way that they can easily perform
calculations and logical operations at high speed. Such a type of computer takes
up raw data as input and processes it with programs stored in its memory to
produce the final output. A Digital computer only understands the binary input 0
and 1, so the raw input data is converted to 0 and 1 by the computer and further
processed by the computer to give the result or final output. Present-day modern
electronic gadgets such as laptops, and desktops including smartphones are
digital computers.

OR

These are computer designed to processed data in discrete numerical form which
are represented by discrete signal using binary code, numbers, letters, and
symbols are represented by codes based on the binary number system consisting
of two digits .i.e. 1,0 the digital computer must convert all data to binary form.
Generally, results from digital computer are more than the results from analog
computers. They are used for counting and calculating numbers. Examples are
calculator, adding machine, counting machine, etc.

3.Hybrid Computers ( Analogue + Digital ) :

A hybrid computing system is one in which desirable characteristics of both the
analog and digital computers are integrated. In an intensive care unit, analog
computers may measure the patient’s heart rate, temperature, etc. The
measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to the digital
part of the system which will thereafter regulate the flow of certain medications.

They can be used for both counting and measuring. In fact, they are very useful in
the control of manufacturing and processing.
 Unit-2:

Types of Codes

1. ASCII
2. BCD
3. EBCDIC
4. UniCode

1. ASCII

 ASCII, abbreviation of American Standard Code For Information

Interchange.
 It is a standard data-transmission code that is used by smaller and less-
powerful computers to represent both textual data (letters, numbers, and
punctuation marks).
 ASCII is used in electronics communication, i.e. it converts information into
standardized digital formats that allow computers to communicate with
each other and to efficiently process and store data.
 The ASCII code was originally developed for teletypewriters but eventually
found wide application in personal computers.
 It is an encoding standard that represents digits, letters, and symbols using
seven digit binary numbers i.e. sequences of 0’s & 1.
 The digits can be 1, 2, 3, etc. while the letters are… a, b, c, A, B, C, etc. The
symbols are characters like !, $, and #.
 Therefore, it is possible to convert any piece of text to the corresponding
set of numbers using ASCII, which is easier to store them in the computer
memory.
 The code can represent 128 different characters, since there are 128
different possible combinations of seven 0’s and 1’s.
 For example, the binary sequence 1010000 represents an uppercase “P,”
while the sequence 1110000 represents a lowercase “p.”
 The ASCII table is divided into three different sections.
o Non-printable, system codes between 0 and 31.
o Lower ASCII, between 32 and 127. This table originates from the
older, American systems, which worked on 7-bit character tables.
o Higher ASCII, between 128 and 255. This portion is programmable;
characters are based on the language of your operating system or
program you are using. Foreign letters are also placed in this section.
 For example: hello
ASCII: 104 101 108 108 111
For example: Computer
ASCII: 67 111 109 112 117 116 101 114

2. BCD

 Binary-Coded Decimal
 BCD is also known as packet decimal and is numbers 0 through 9 converted
to four-digit binary.
 It is four bit number
 A list of the decimal numbers 0 through 9 and the binary conversion in
table.
 The BCD code is so called 8421 code because each of the four bits is given a
'weighting' according to its column value in the binary system. The least
significant bit (lsb) has the weight or value 1, the next bit, going left, the
value 2, next bit value 4, and msb 8.
 Decimal to BCD
356 3-0011
5-0101
6-0110

356 00110100110

(110100110)BCD
Decimal : 25
BCD in 8421 8 4 2 1
For 2= 0010 = 0+0+2+0
5 = 0101 = 0+4 +0+1
Therefor, (25)10 (00100101)BCD (100101)BCD
3. EBCDIC
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
 EBCDIC was first developed by IBM and is a coding method that present
letters, numbers, or other symbols in a binary language.
 EBCDIC is similar to ASCII commonly used on most computers and
computer equipment today.
 EBCDIC uses 8 bits to represent a single character, and it represents a 256
(28) alphanumeric and special characters.
 Several disadvantages to EBCDIC. When compared to ASCII, the same
character which takes 7 bits to represent in ASCII will take 8 bits in EBCDIC.
Therefore, EBCDIC is less efficient than ASCII.
For example,
“computer” in EBCDIC, c = 83, o=96 m=94, p=97, u=A4, t=A3, e=85, r=99
Therefor, “computer” in EBCDIC = 83 96 94 97 A4 A3 85 99
4. UniCode
 A worldwide standard where each character uses a unique number
between U+0000 and U+10FFFF.
 Unicode may be 8-bit, 16-bit, or 32-bit. Numbers, mathematical notation,
popular symbols and characters from all languages are assigned a code
point.
 A common type of Unicode is UTF-8, which utilizes 8-bit character
encoding.
 It is often used in Linux environments, to encode foreign characters so they
display properly when output to a text file.
 Unicode can represent 65000 different characters and symbols of different
languages.
 For example, Capital letters A to Z represents with U+0041 to U+005A and
small letters a to z represents with U+0061 to U+007A.
A - U+0041 H - U+0048 O - U+004F V - U+0056
B - U+0042 I - U+0049 P - U+0050 W - U+0057
C - U+0043 J - U+004A Q - U+0051 X - U+0058
D - U+0044 K - U+004B R - U+0052 Y - U+0059
E - U+0045 L - U+004C S - U+0053 Z - U+005A
F - U+0046 M - U+004D T - U+0054
G - U+0047 N - U+004E U - U+0055
 “HELLO” in unicode is “U+0048 U+0045 U+004C U+004C U+004F”
 "Computer" would be written in English Unicode.
U+0043 U+006F U+006D U+0070 U+0075 U+0074 U+0065 U+0072
Binary Code:
 Binary code is used in digital computers.
 It is based on a binary number system in which there are only two
possible states, off and on, usually symbolized by 0 and 1.
 Whereas in a decimal system, which employs 10 digits, each digit
position represents a power of 10 (100, 1,000, etc.), in a binary
system each digit position represents a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, etc.).
 In binary code, each decimal number (0–9) is represented by a set of
four binary digits, or bits.

Units of Digital Number System:

 bit is short for binary digit.
 It's a single unit of information with a value of either 0 or 1 (off or on,
false or true, low or high).
 A bit is the smallest unit of computer measurement.
 Eight bits make a byte, as shown in the picture.
 If you had two bytes (word) it would be 16 bits (2 x 8=16), and 10
bytes would be 80 bits (10 x 8=80).
 Because all information (even a single character) is larger than a bit; a
byte is the smallest unit of measurement to measure a file.
Nibble:

 A nibble is a fundamental unit of storage. A nibble represents four

bits or half of a byte.
 Nibbles are also useful in various encoding schemes, memory
addressing, and simplifying the representation of binary-coded data.
Carry Bit:

 A carry bit, also known as a carry flag, is a single bit in a computer

processor's system status register that indicates when an arithmetic
carry or borrow has occurred in the most significant arithmetic logic
unit (ALU) bit position.

Parity Bit:

 A parity bit, also known as a check bit, is a single bit of data added to
a binary string to help detect errors during data transmission or
storage. The parity bit's value is either 0 or 1, and it's automatically
selected to ensure that the total number of 1s in the data is even or
odd.
 There are two types of parity bits: even and odd:
Even parity:
o If the count of 1s in a given set of bits is odd, the parity bit's
value is set to 1 to make the total count even. If the count is
already even, the parity bit's value is set to 0.
Odd parity:
o The coding is reversed from even parity. If the count of 1s is
even, the parity bit's value is set to 1 to make the total count
odd. If the count is already odd, the parity bit's value is set to
0.
 When the data is received, the number of 1s is checked. If it's
different from the parity bit's value, an error has likely occurred. For
 example, if the parity bit is odd and the data has an even number of
1s, the total number will be odd, causing an error.

Other value in comparison of bit:

Unit Shortened Capacity

Bit B 1 or 0

Nibble nb 4 bits

Byte B 8 bits

KiloByte KB 1024
bytes

MegaByte MB 1024 KB

GigaByte GB 1024 MB

TeraByte TB 1024 GB

PetaByte PB 1024 TB
What is Number System?
 A digital system can understand positional number system only where
there are a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different
values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
 A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
o The digit
o The position of the digit in the number
o The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total
number of digits available in the number system).

Number System & Description:

1. Binary Number System Base 2.

Digits used: 0, 1

2. Octal Number System Base 8.

Digits used: 0 to 7

3. HexaDecimal Number System Base 16.

Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F
Decimal Number System
 We use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
 Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9.
 In this system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.
  Each position represents a specific power of the base (10).
 For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units
position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the
thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1×1000) + (2×100) + (3×10) + (4×1)
(1×10³) + (2×10²) + (3×10¹) + (4×10⁰)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 1
1234
Binary Number System
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
 Also called base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2).
Example: 2⁰
 Last position in a binary number represents an n power of the base (2).
Example: 2ⁿ where n represents the last position - 1.
 Example:
Binary Number: 101012
101012 is normally written as 10101.
Octal Number System
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
 Also called base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8).
Example: 8⁰
 Last position in an octal number represents an n power of the base (8).
Example: 8ⁿ where n represents the last position - 1.
  Example:
Octal Number − 125708
125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

 Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

 Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13,
E = 14, F = 15.
 Also called base 16 number system.
 Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base
(16). Example 16⁰.
 Last position in a hexadecimal number represents an x power of the base
(16). Example: 16ⁿ, n represents the last position - 1.
 Example :
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
 Unit-4

Mail Merge

Mail Merge is a useful tool that allows you to produce multiple letters, labels,
envelopes, name tags, and more using information stored in a list, database, or
spreadsheet.

When performing a Mail Merge, you will need a Word document (you can start
with an existing one or create a new one) and a recipient list, which is typically an
Excel workbook.

 To use Mail Merge:

1. Open an existing Word document or create a new one.
2. From the Mailings tab, click the Start Mail Merge command and select Step-
by-Step Mail Merge Wizard from the drop-down menu.
The Mail Merge pane will appear and guide you through the six main steps
to complete a merge.
The following example demonstrates how to create a form letter and
merge the letter with a recipient list.

Step 1:
From the Mail Merge task pane on the right side of the Word window,
choose the type of document you want to create. In our example, we'll
select Letters. Then click Next: Starting document to move to Step 2.
Step 2:
Select Use the current document, then click Next: Select recipients to move
to Step 3.

Step 3:
Now you'll need an address list so Word can automatically place each
address into the document. The list can be in an existing file, such as an
Excel workbook, or you can type a new address list from within the Mail
Merge Wizard.
1. Select Use an existing list, then click Browse to select the file.

2. Locate your file, then click Open.

3. If the address list is in an Excel workbook, select the worksheet that
contains the list, then click OK.

4. In the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box, you can check or uncheck
each box to control which recipients are included in the merge. By
default, all recipients should be selected. When you're done, click OK.
 5. Click Next: Write your letter to move to Step 4.

Note: If you don't have an existing address list, you can click the Type a new list
button and click Create, then type your address list manually.

Step 4:

Now you're ready to write your letter. When it's printed, each copy of the letter
will basically be the same; only the recipient data (such as the name and address)
will be different. You'll need to add placeholders for the recipient data so Mail
Merge knows exactly where to add the data.

To insert recipient data:

1. Place the insertion point in the document where you want the
information to appear.

2. Choose one of the placeholder options. In our example, we'll select

Address block.
3. Depending on your selection, a dialog box may appear with various
customization options. Select the desired options, then click OK.

4. A placeholder will appear in your document (for example,

«AddressBlock»).
5. Add any other placeholders you want. In our example, we'll add a
Greeting line placeholder just above the body of the letter.

6. When you're done, click Next: Preview your letters to move to Step-
5.
Note: For some letters, you'll only need to add an Address block and Greeting
line. But you can also add more placeholders (such as recipients' names or
addresses) in the body of the letter to personalize it even further.

Step 5:

1. Preview the letters to make sure the information from the recipient
list appears correctly in the letter. You can use the left and right scroll
arrows to view each version of the document.

2. If everything looks correct, click Next: Complete the merge to move

to Step 6.
Step 6:

1. Click Print to print the letters.

2. A dialog box will appear. Decide if you want to print All of the letters,
the current document (record), or only a select group, then click OK.
In our example, we'll print all of the letters.

3. The Print dialog box will appear. Adjust the print settings if needed,
then click OK. The letters will be printed.
 Challenge!
1. Open our practice document and practice recipient list.
2. Use the Mail Merge Wizard to merge the letter with the recipient list.
3. Insert an address block at the top of the document. Choose the
second format: Joshua Randall Jr.
4. Above the body of the letter, insert a Greeting Line. Format the
greeting line so it says Mr. Randall,
5. Check your letters to make sure they are formatted correctly. Your
third letter should look something like this:

6. Complete the merge.