Computer Fundamentals - I

Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

What is Computer?

 A computer is a programmable machine that receives input, stores and

manipulates data, and provides output in a useful format.

 Computer is a machine for performing calculations automatically

 Computer is an electronic machine capable of performing calculations and other

manipulations of various types of data, under the control of a stored set of
instructions. The machine itself is the hardware; the instructions are the program
or software.

What is Computer Hardware?

Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices.
Internal hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External
hardware devices include monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners. The
internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, while
external hardware devices are usually called peripherals. Together, they all fall under
the category of computer hardware.

What is Software?

A computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed to do a desired job.

Hence, it is necessary to specify a sequence of instruction, which a computer must
perform to solve a problem. Such a sequence of instructions, written in a language,
which can be understood by a computer, is called a computer program.

The term software refers to the set of computer programs, procedures, and
associated, documents (flowcharts, manuals, etc.) which describe the programs, and
how they are to be used.

A software package is a group of programs, which solve a specific problem or

perform a specific type of job. For example, a word-processing package may contain
programs for text editing, text formatting, drawing graphics, spelling checking etc.

Relationship between Hardware and Software:

In order for a computer to produce useful output, its hardware and software must
work together. Nothing useful be done with the computer hardware on its own, and
software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware. Both hardware and
software are necessary for a computer to do useful job. Both are complementary to
each other.

Types of Software:

Although the range of software available today is vast and varied, most software can
be divided into two major categories:

1. System software, and

2. Application software

1
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

System Software:

System software is a set of one or more programs, designed to control the operation
and extend the processing capability of a computer system. In general, a computer’s
system software performs one or more of the following functions:

1. Supports the development of other application software

2. Supports the execution of other application software
3. Monitors the effective use of various hardware resources
4. Communicates with and controls the operations of peripherals devices

Some of the most commonly known types of System Software are: Operating
Systems, Programming Language Translators, etc.

Application Software:

Application software is a set of one more programs, designed to solve a specific

problem, or do a specific task. The programs included in an application software
package are called application programs, and the programmers who prepare
application software are referred to as application programmers.

For example, Word-processing software, Spreadsheet software, Database software,

Graphic software, Personal assistance software, Education software, Entertainment
software etc.

Logical System Architecture

HARDWARE
(Physical devices/components of the
computer system)

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Software that constitute the operating and
programming environment of the computer system)

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
(Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem)

USERS
(Normally interact with the system via the user interface provided
by the application software.

(Relationship among the hardware, system software,

Application software and user of computer system)

2
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

Software Development Steps:

Developing software and putting it to use is a complex process, which involves the
following steps:

 Analyzing the problem at hand, and planning the program(s) to solve the
problem.
 Coding the program(s)
 Testing, debugging and documenting the program(s)
 Implementing the program(s)
 Evaluating and maintaining the program(s)

Difference of Hardware and Software:

Hardware Software

Hardware refers to the physical Software refers to things that are used
components of the computer that run by the hardware, such as programs that
the software. you install on your computer including
games, word processing programs,
spreadsheet programs, graphic design
programs and the like.

Hardware includes the physical Software includes the programs that run
components, such as the motherboard, on the hardware.
chips, memory, and hard drives,

Hardware starts functioning once To deliver its set of instructions,

software is loaded. Software is installed on hardware.
Hardware is a physical device Software is code and instructions that
something that you're able to touch and tell a computer and/or hardware how to
see. For example, the computer monitor operate. This code can be viewed and
you're viewing this text on or the mouse executed using a computer or other
you're using to navigate is considered hardware device.
computer hardware.

Hardware includes every computer- Software includes every computer-

related object that you can physically related program that you cannot feel
touch and handle like disks, screens, with the physical senses for example,
keyboards, printers, chips, wires, central operating system, an anti-virus
processing unit, floppies, USB ports, program, the web browser etc.
pen drives etc.

Basic Computer Organization:

All computer systems perform the following five basic operations, for converting raw
input data into information, which is useful to their users:

 Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system.

3
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

 Storing: Saving data instructions to make them readily available for initial or
additional processing, as and when required.

 Processing: Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, divide, etc.), or

logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than, grater than, etc.) on data,
to convert them into useful information.

 Outputting: The process of producing useful information or results for the user,
such as a printed report or visual display.

 Controlling: Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above
operations are performed.

Block diagram of a Simple Computer:

Block diagram of the basic computer organization is as shown below figure. In this
figure, the solid lines indicate the flow of instruction and data, and the dotted lines
represent the control exercised by the control unit.

Central Processing Unit

The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit of a computer system are jointly known
as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of the computer system.
In a human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of
the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in a computer system, all major
calculation and comparisons are made inside the CPU, and the CPU is responsible
for activating and controlling the operation of other units of the computer system.

The processor also known as CPU is a piece of hardware. It contains millions of

transistors. It is a single chip that is capable of processing data. In fact, the
performance, capability, and pricing of a computer system are largely determined by
the processor to present in it. It controls all the components in a PC. The primary
functions of a processor are as follows:
 Fetch
Every instruction has its own address and is stored in the main memory. The
CPU fetches the address of the instruction which is to be executed from the
program counter in the memory and performs the instruction.

 Decode
The instruction that is to be executed is converted into binary code so that the
computer can easily understand it and perform the required function. The process
of conversion is known as decoding.

 Execute
The process of performing the required task specified in the instruction is known
as execution The execution of the instruction takes place in the CPU.

 Write back After performing the instruction the CPU store the result in the
memory that process is known as a store or Write back.

4
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

Secondary
Storage

Primary
Input Unit Storage Output Unit

Control Unit

Arithmetic
Logic Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Basic Organization of a Computer System

The processor plays a significant role in the following important aspects of a

computer system.
 Performance
The processor is probably the most single determinant of system performance in the
PC. While other components such as memory, hard disks, display adapters, etc. play
key roles in determining performance, the processor’s capabilities have the greatest
impact on the performance of a system. The core and clock speed of a processor
determines the speed of a PC. They tell us how much information can be processed
in how much time. In fact, the other devices present in the system play their roles to
allow the processor to reach its full potential.

 Software support
Newer, the faster processor enables the use of the latest software, which provides
support for running heavy software on our PC and saves our time by working
efficiently and with faster processing.

 Reliability and Stability

The quality of the processor is one factor that determines how reliably the system will
run. while most processors are dependable some processors or not. This also
depends to some extent on the age of the processor, energy consumption of the
processor, motherboard, power supply voltages, cooling, etc.

 Energy consumption and cooling

Originally processors consumed relatively little power compared to other system
devices. But some processors consume a great deal of power. Power consumption
has an impact on everything from cooling device selection to overall system

5
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

reliability.

 Motherboard Support
The processor is the system is a major determining factor in the selection of chipset
and the type of motherboard. The motherboard in turns dictates many facets of the
system’s capabilities and performance.

STORAGE UNIT:

The data and instructions, which are entered into the computer system through input
units, have to be stored inside the computer, before the actual processing starts.
Similarly, the results produced by the computer after processing, must also be kept
somewhere inside the computer system, before being passed on to the output units.

The specific function of the storage unit is to hold (store):

1. The data and instructions required for processing (received from input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing, before these results are released to an output device.

The storage unit of all computers is comprised of the following two types of storage:

1. Primary storage:

The primary storage, also known as main memory, is used to hold pieces of program
instructions and data, processing, of the job(s), which the computer system is
currently working on. These pieces of information are represented electronically in
the main memory chip’s circuitry, and while it remains in the main memory, the
central processing unit can access it directly at a very fast speed. However, the
primary storage can hold information only while the computer system is on. As soon
as the computer system is switched off or reset, the information held in the primary
storage disappears. Moreover, the primary storage normally has limited storage
capacity, because it is very expensive. The primary storage of modern computer
system is made up of semiconductor devices.

RAM:

Random access memory or RAM most commonly refers to computer chips that
temporarily store dynamic data to enhance computer performance. By storing
frequently used or active files in random access memory, the computer can access
the data faster than if it to retrieve it from the far-larger hard drive. Random access
memory is also used in printers and other devices.

Masked ROM:

In this type of ROM bits are stored permanently by marking and metallization
process. This is done by manufacturers. This type of ROM can be programmed only
one-by the manufacture.

6
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

PROM:

Data are written into a ROM at the time of manufacture. However, a programmable
ROM (PROM) allows the data to be loaded by the user, by connecting a fuse
between the emitter and the bit-line. PROMs provide flexible and economical storage
for fixed programs and data, where high production volumes are involved.

EPROM:

The Erasable PROM chip allows the stored data to erase and new data can be
reprogrammed. It provides more flexibility during the development phase of digital
system. The contents of EPROM cells can be erased by increasing the discharge
rate of the storage capacitors.

EEPROM:

In an electricity erasable PROM, the contents of cells can be erased by the

application of a high voltage. Advantages with EEPROMs are: it need not be
physically removed for reprogramming and the process can be made selective since
electrical erasure is used.

Cache Memory:

A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce
the average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which
stores copies of the data from the most frequently used main memory locations.

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor

can access more quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor
processes data, it looks first in the cache memory and if it finds the data there (from
a previous reading of data), it does not have to do the more time-consuming reading
of data from larger memory.

Primary storage of a computer system has the following limitations:

Limited capacity:

It is often necessary to store many millions, sometime billions, and even trillions, of
bytes of data in a computer. Unfortunately, the storage capacity of the primary
storage of today’s computer is not sufficient to store the large volume of data, which
needs to be handled by most data processing centers.

Volatile:

The primary storage is volatile, and the data stored in it is lost, when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted. However, computer systems need to store data on
a permanent basis for several months, or even several years.

As a result, additional memory, called auxiliary or secondary storage, is used with

most computers. This section of computer’s memory is non-volatile, and has lower
cost per bit store, but it generally operating speed far slower than of the primary
storage. This section of the memory is used to store volume of data on a permanent
7
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

basis, which can be partially transferred to primary storage, as and when for
processing.

2. Secondary storage:

The secondary storage, also known as auxiliary storage, is used to take care of the
limitations of the primary storage. That is, it is used to supplement the limited storage
capacity and the volatile characteristic of primary storage. This is because secondary
storage is much cheaper than primary storage, and it can retain information even
when the computer system is switched off or reset. The secondary storage is
normally used to hold the program instructions, data, and information of those jobs,
on which the computer system is not working on currently, but needs to hold them for
processing later. The most commonly used secondary storage medium is the
magnetic disk.

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT:

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place, where the actual
execution of the instructions takes place, during the processing operation. To be
more precise, calculations are performed, and all comparisons (decisions) are made

in the ALU. The data and instructions, stored in the primary storage before
processing, are transferred as and when needed to the ALU, where processing takes
place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit. Intermediate results
generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage, until
needed later. Hence, data may move from primary storage to ALU, and back again
to storage, many times, before the processing is over.

The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations, which a computer can
perform, is determined by the engineering design of the ALU. Almost all ALUs are
designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply and
divide), and logic operations or comparisons, such as less than, equal to, and
greater than.

Instruction Set: Every CPU has built in ability to execute a set of machine
instructions, called its instruction set. The machine language designed for a
processor (CPU), is based on the list of instructions supported by the CPU in its
instruction set.

Registers: As the instructions are interpreted and executed by the CPU, there is a
movement of information between the various units of the computer system. In order
to handle this process satisfactorily, and to speed up the rate of information transfer,
the computer uses a number of special memory units, called registers.

1. Memory Address Register (MAR): It holds the address of the active memory
location. It is loaded from the program control register, when an instruction is
read from memory.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): It holds the contents of the memory word
read from, or written in, memory. An instruction word placed in this register is
transferred to the instruction register.
3. Program Control Register (PC): It holds the address of the next instruction to
be executed.
8
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

4. Accumulator Register (A): It holds the data to be operated upon, the

intermediate results, and the results of processing. It is used during the
execution of most instructions.
5. Instruction Register (IR): It holds the current instruction, which is being
executed.
6. Input/Output Register (I/O): It is used to communicate with the input/output
devices.

CONTROL UNIT

How does the input device know that it is time for to feed data into the storage unit?
How does the ALU know, what should be done with the data once they are rec-
eived? Moreover, how is it that only the final results are sent to the output device,
and not the intermediate result? All this is possible due to the control unit acts as a
central nervous system, for the other components of the computer system.

Input Unit:

Data and instructions must enter into the computer system, before any computation
can be performed on the supplied data. This task is performed by the input unit,
which links the external environment with the computer system. Data and
instructions enter into input units in forms, which depend upon the particular device
used. Input interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical
characteristics of input devices, to the requirements of the computer system.

The following functions are performed by an input unit:

 It accepts (or reads) the instructions and data from the outside world.
 It converts these instruction and data in computer acceptable form.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.

Some examples of input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Point and Draw devices
a) Mouse
b) Trackball
c) Joystick
d) Electronic pen
e) Touch Screen
3. Data scanning devices
a) Image Scanner
Flatbed Scanner
Hand held scanner
b) Optical character Recognition (OCR)
c) Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
d) Bar Code Reader
e) Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)
4. Digitizer
5. Electronic cards based devices
6. Voice recognition devices
7. Vision based devices
9
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

Output Unit:

The job an output unit is just the reverse of that of an input unit. It supplies the
information obtained from data processing, to the outside world. Hence it links the
computer with the external environment. As computer work with binary code, the
results produced are also in the binary form. Hence before supplying results to the
outside world, they must be converted to human acceptable form. This task is
accomplished by units called output interfaces. Output interfaces are designed to
match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of output devices to the
requirements of the external environment.

The following function is performed by an output unit:

 It accepts the results produced by the computer, which are in coded from, and
hence, cannot be easily understood by us.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
 It supplies the converted results to the outside world.

Some examples of output devices are:

1. Monitors
2. Printers
a) Dot-Matrix printers
b) Inkjet printers
c) Drum printers
d) Chain/Band printers
e) Laser printers
3. Plotters
b) Drum plotter
c) Flatbed plotter
4. Screen image projector
5. Voice response systems

Applications of Computer Technology

A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which has made it an integrated part in all business organizations.

Computer is used in Business Organizations for

 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employee database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.

10
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

Banking

Today, banking is almost totally dependent on computers.

Banks provide the following facilities:

 Online accounting facility, which includes checking current balance, making

deposits and overdrafts, checking interest charges, shares, and trustee
records.

 ATM machines which are completely automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers.
Insurance companies, finance houses, and stock broking firms are widely using
computers for their concerns.

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information

showing –

 Procedure to continue with policies

 Starting date of the policies
 Next due installment of a policy
 Maturity date
 Interests due
 Survival benefits
 Bonus

Education

The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system.

 The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE

(Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer
students.
 There are a number of methods in which educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis
is carried out on this basis.

Marketing

In marketing, uses of the computer are following:

 Advertising − With computers, advertising professionals create art and

graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of
selling more products.

11
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

 Home Shopping − Home shopping has been made possible through the use
of computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

Healthcare

Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They
are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also
used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds and CT
scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.

Following are some major fields of health care in which computers are used.

 Diagnostic System − Computers are used to collect data and identify the
cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be done and the reports are prepared
by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System − These are used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG, etc.
 Pharma Information System − Computer is used to check drug labels,
expiry dates, harmful side effects, etc.
 Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Engineering Design

Computers are widely used for Engineering purpose. One of the major areas is CAD
(Computer Aided Design) that provides creation and modification of images. Some of
the fields are:

 Structural Engineering − Requires stress and strain analysis for design of

ships, buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.

 Industrial Engineering − Computers deal with design, implementation, and

improvement of integrated systems of people, materials, and equipment.

 Architectural Engineering − Computers help in planning towns, designing

buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.

Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a
computer has been used are:

 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons

Communication

12
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is

received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant.
Some main areas in this category are −

 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing

Government

Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this
category are −
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Computation of male/female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting

Question Bank
MCQ
1. A _________ is a group of programs, which solve a specific problem.
(a) Software (b) Hardware (c) Printer (d) Software Package

2. _________are set of programs, which help user in system maintenance tasks.

(a) Utility Programs (b) Communication S/W
(c) Operating System (d) Programming Language Translators

3. _______ is designed to control the operation and extends processing capability of a

Computer system.
(a) System S/W (b) Database S/W (c) Application S/W (d) Spreadsheet S/W

4. ________ refers to the physical components of the computer system.

(a) Software (b) Hardware (c) Printer (d) Software Package

5. MICR stands________________
(a) Mark Ink Character Reader (b) Magnetic Ink Character Reader
(c) Magnetic Ink Character Reloader (d) Magnetic Information Chatting Reader

6. RAM is a_________
(a) Volatile Memory (b) Non-volatile Memory
(c) Virtual Memory (d) Fast Memory

7. ROM is a_________
(a) Volatile Memory (b) Non-volatile Memory (c) Virtual Memory (d) Fast Memory

13
 Computer Fundamentals - I
Semester – I
Unit – 1: Basics of Computer Organization

8. The ________ is also known as auxiliary storage.

(a) Primary Storage (b) Secondary Storage (c) Virtual Storage (d) Fast Storage

9. CPU Stands________
(a) Centre Processing Unit (b) Central Performing Unit
(c) Central Processing Unit (d) Central Product Unit

10. ______ provides the interface between Hardware and Software.

(a) Operating System (b) Software (c) Monitors (d) Printers

Short Questions

1. What is Computer?
2. Define the terms: ‘Hardware’ and ‘Software’.
3. What is computer program?
4. Define the terms: ‘System Software’ & ‘Application Software’.
5. What is ALU?
6. What is the function of Control unit?
7. What is cache memory?
8. Write the full form of RAM, ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
9. List the functions of Input unit & Output unit.
10. List out minimum three popular operating systems.

Long Questions

1. What is System Software? Also explain the functions of it.

2. What are the software development steps?
3. Differentiate between Hardware and Software.
4. Explain the five basic operations performed by any computer system?
5. Draw a block diagram of basic organization of a computer system? Also list out the
main functions of each of these components.
6. Discuss in detail the importance of processor.
7. What are the limitations of primary storage?
8. What are the registers? Name some of the commonly used registers, and briefly
describe the functions of each.
9. Write short note on: (i) Input unit (ii) Output unit
10. Write a short note: Applications of Computer Technology

14