LEARNING PRINCIPLES & FORMULAS

The chapter "Learning Principles and Formulas" covers various principles that guide effective learning,
along with formulas and models that help in understanding how learning takes place.

1. Important Laws of Learning:-

a. Law of Purpose
b. Law of maturation
c. Law of Recency
d. Law of Distribution of Practice
e. Law of multiple learning

2. Thorndike’s Theory of Learning :-

Edward L. Thorndike, an American psychologist, developed the Connectionism Theory of Learning,
which is considered one of the earliest behaviorist theories. His work laid the foundation for modern
educational psychology.

Key Aspects of Thorndike’s Theory.

A. Trial and Error Learning
Learning occurs through repeated attempts until success is achieved.
Example: A cat placed in a puzzle box learns to press a lever to escape after multiple unsuccessful
attempts.

B. Laws of Learning.
Thorndike proposed three main laws of learning:

i. Law of Readiness
Learning is effective when the learner is mentally prepared.
Example: A student eager to learn math will understand it faster than a reluctant student.

ii. Law of Exercise. Repeated practice strengthens learning, while lack of use
leads to forgetting.
Example: A student who regularly writes essays improves writing skills.

iii. Law of Effect. Actions followed by positive outcomes are likely to be

repeated, while those with negative consequences are avoided.
Example: A student praised for answering correctly is motivated to participate more.

3. Pavlov’s Conditioned Response Theory:-

The Conditioned Response Theory, also known as Classical Conditioning, was developed by Ivan
Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. This theory explains how learning occurs through associations between
stimuli and responses.

A. Pavlov’s Experiment on Classical Conditioning

Pavlov conducted experiments on dogs to study digestion but discovered the concept of conditioned
responses.
Steps of Pavlov’s Experiment:
i. Before Conditioning:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Food → Unconditioned Response (UCR): Salivation
A dog naturally salivates when food is presented.

ii. During Conditioning: Pavlov rang a Neutral Stimulus (NS) (a bell) before giving
food.
After several repetitions, the dog associated the bell with food.

iii. After Conditioning:

The bell alone (now a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)) caused the dog to salivate.
The salivation in response to the bell became a Conditioned Response (CR).

4. Operant Conditioning Theory by B.F. Skinner :-

Operant Conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, is a learning theory based on rewards and
punishments. Unlike Pavlov's Classical Conditioning, which focuses on involuntary responses, Operant
Conditioning deals with voluntary behavior that is shaped by consequences.

1. Key Concepts of Operant Conditioning

A. Reinforcement (Encourages Behavior)

1. Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

• Example: A teacher gives praise for good homework.

2. Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

• Example: Removing homework for students who perform well in a test.

B. Punishment (Discourages Behavior)

1. Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Example: A teacher scolds a student for talking in class.

2. Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

• Example: Taking away a child's phone for misbehaving.

C. Skinner's Experiment.
• Skinner placed a rat in a Skinner Box with a lever.
• The rat accidentally pressed the lever and received food (Positive Reinforcement).
• Eventually, the rat learned to press the lever to get food.

2. Schedules of Reinforcement :-

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Every correct behavior is rewarded.

2. Intermittent Reinforcement: Rewards are given at intervals.

• Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses (e.g., bonus after 5 sales).
• Variable Ratio: Reward after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).
• Fixed Interval: Reward after a fixed time (e.g., salary at the end of the month).
• Variable Interval: Reward at unpredictable times (e.g., pop quizzes).
 3. Applications of Operant Conditioning :-

A. In Education
• Rewards for Good Performance (Gold stars, certificates).
• Punishments for Rule Breaking (Detention, warnings).

5. Theory of Insight Learning - By Wolfgang Köhler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka :-
The Insight Learning Theory is a cognitive learning theory developed by the Gestalt psychologists
Wolfgang Köhler, Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka. It suggests that learning occurs suddenly through
understanding relationships between different parts of a problem rather than through trial and error.

1. Key Concepts of Insight Learning

A. Sudden Understanding (Insight).

• Learning occurs when an individual suddenly realizes the solution to a problem.
• Unlike trial-and-error learning, insight learning happens spontaneously.

B. Gestalt Principles.
i. Learning is Holistic: The mind perceives the problem as a whole rather than separate parts.
ii. Perception and Organization Matter: The way a problem is presented influences learning.
iii. Restructuring of Knowledge: Insight learning requires reorganizing previous knowledge to form new
connections.

2. Köhler's Experiment on Chimpanzees

Wolfgang Köhler conducted experiments on chimpanzees to study insight learning.

Chimpanzee Experiment (Sultan the Chimp)

• A banana was placed outside Sultan's reach. • A stick was also placed inside the cage. •
Sultan suddenly realized that he could use the stick to pull the banana. • This
showed that learning occurred through insight rather than repeated trial-and-error.

Other Observations:
• When multiple sticks were provided, Sultan figured out how to connect them to extend reach.
• Another chimp used stacked boxes to reach a hanging banana.

These experiments proved that animals (and humans) can solve problems using mental restructuring
instead of simple conditioning.

3. Contributions of Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka :-

• Max Wertheimer: Introduced the concept of Gestalt Psychology, emphasizing that the mind
understands patterns and structures.

• Kurt Koffka: Studied learning and perception, stating that past experiences influence insight learning.

4. Stages of Insight Learning :-

i. Preparation: Understanding the problem. ii. Incubation: Thinking and analyzing possibilities.
iii. Insight (Aha! Moment): Sudden realization of the solution. iv.
Verification: Applying the solution to confirm its correctness.

5. Applications of Insight Learning :-

A. In Education
• Encourages problem-solving rather than rote memorization. •
Helps students develop critical thinking.
• Example: A student understanding a math concept rather than blindly memorizing formulas.

6. Reinforcement Theory by Clark L. Hull:

Clark L. Hull was an American psychologist who developed the Reinforcement Theory of Learning, also
known as the Drive Reduction Theory. His theory explains how learning and behavior are motivated by
the need to reduce drives (internal tensions caused by biological needs).

1. Key Concepts of Hull's Reinforcement Theory

A. Drive Reduction (Motivation for Learning)

• Drives are internal states of tension (e.g., hunger, thirst, pain).
• Learning occurs when behavior reduces a drive and brings satisfaction.
• Example: A hungry person eats food, which reduces the hunger drive.

B. Habit Strength
• Repeated reinforcement strengthens behavior, forming habits.
• The more often a behavior is rewarded, the stronger the habit.
• Example: A student who is praised for studying develops a habit of regular study.

C. Stimulus-Response (S-R) Learning

• Learning follows a Stimulus -Response- Reinforcement pattern.
• If a response leads to reinforcement, it is likely to be repeated.
• Example: A child cries (response) gets attention (reinforcement) repeats crying behavior.

2. Hull's Experiment on Reinforcement

Hull conducted experiments on rats in mazes to study reinforcement.
• Step 1: Rats were placed in a maze with food at the end.
• Step 2: Over multiple trials, rats learned to reach the food faster.
• Step 3: Once the food (reinforcement) was removed, learning declined.

This showed that reinforcement strengthens learning but is necessary to maintain it.

3. Applications of Hull's Theory

A. In Education
• Motivating students using rewards (certificates, praise).
• Reinforcing positive behaviors (habit formation through repetition).
5. Criticism of Hull's Theory

• Not all learning is drive-based (e.g., curiosity-driven learning).

• Does not fully explain complex human behavior (e.g., creativity, problem-solving).
• Overemphasis on habits and ignoring cognitive processes.

Despite this, Hull's Reinforcement Theory remains important in understanding motivation and learning
behaviors.

7. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences :-

Howard Gardner, a developmental psychologist, proposed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) in
1983. This theory challenges the traditional view that intelligence is a single ability measured by IQ
tests. Instead, Gardner identified eight (later nine) different types of intelligence, emphasizing that
people learn and excel in different ways.

1. The Nine Types of Intelligence

A. Linguistic Intelligence ("Word Smart")

•Example: William Shakespeare, J.K. Rowling.

B. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence ("Number Smart")

• Example: Albert Einstein, Isaac Newton.

C. Spatial Intelligence ("Picture Smart")

• Example: Leonardo da Vinci, Pablo Picasso.

D. Musical Intelligence ("Music Smart")

• Example: Beethoven, Mozart, A.R. Rahman.

E. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("Body Smart")

• Example: Michael Jordan, Usain Bolt.

F. Interpersonal Intelligence ("People Smart")

• Example: Mahatma Gandhi, Oprah Winfrey.

G. Intrapersonal Intelligence ("Self Smart")

• Example: Buddha, Socrates.

H. Naturalistic Intelligence ("Nature Smart")

• Sensitivity to nature, ecosystems, and the environment.
• Example: Charles Darwin, Jane Goodall.

I. Existential Intelligence ("Big Picture Smart") (Proposed Later)

• Ability to ponder deep questions about life, existence, and the universe.
• Example: Dalai Lama, Albert Einstein.

2. Educational Implications of Gardner's Theory

• Personalized Learning: Teaching methods should cater to different intelligences.

• Multiple Teaching Strategies: Using art, music, movement, and logic in lessons.
• Encouraging Strengths: Students should explore areas where they excel naturally.
4. Criticism of Gardner's Theory

• Some argue that these are talents, not intelligences.

• Difficult to measure scientifically compared to IQ tests.
• Lack of empirical evidence for separate brain regions dedicated to each intelligence.

Despite criticism, Gardner's Theory has revolutionized education by promoting diverse learning
approaches.