ASL751

Dispersion of Air Pollutants

Ravi Kumar Kunchala

Centre for Atmospheric Sciences
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) comes primarily from the burning of sulfur-containing fossil fuels (such as coal and
oil).

Primary source includes

Power plants, heating devices, petroleum refineries, and paper mills.

However, it can enter the atmosphere naturally during volcanic eruptions and as sulfate particles from ocean
spray.

Sulfur dioxide readily oxidizes to form the secondary pollutants sulfur trioxide (SO3) and, in moist air,
highly corrosive sulfuric acid (H2SO4).

Winds can carry these particles great distances before they reach the earth as undesirable
contaminants.

When inhaled into the lungs, high concentrations of sulfur dioxide aggravate respiratory problems, such as
asthma and bronchitis.

Sulfur dioxide in large quantities can cause injury to certain plants, sometimes producing bleached marks on
their leaves and reducing their yield.
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a gas from combustion of the sulfur contained in the coal and oil. (e.g., energy
generation, steel mills, refineries, smelters).
Why forecast sulfur dioxide (SO2) concentrations
● Aggravates existing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases

● Converts to sulfuric acid which, with SO2, burn sensitive tissues in the nose

and lungs
● Large component of acid rain

● Contributes to formation of particulate matter (PM)

High amounts of SO2 in the atmosphere can degrade air quality and cause acid rain (Tecer
and Tagil 2013).

Harmful chemical compounds like sulphurous acid (H2SO3), sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and
sulphate aerosol (SO42−) are formed by the oxidation of SO2 in the gaseous-phase reactions
with the hydroxyl (OH) radical and aqueous-phase reactions with hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) or O3.

Sulphate aerosols are also responsible for producing particulate matter (PM) of
aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 µm (PM2.5).

These aerosols can impact regional climate by modifying the radiative forcing (Seinfeld and
Pandis 2006), and affect cloud reflectivity and precipitation. Apart from these, sulphate
aerosols reduce visibility and contribute to acid rain that damages the terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems.

It is a precursor for tropospheric ozone, and nitrate and sulphate aerosols (Seinfeld and
Pandis 2006).
SO2 has an adverse effect on the human respiratory system and even short-term exposure to high levels
might result in death.

As per the WHO air quality guidelines (World Health Organization 2021), the recommended 24 h average
SO2 concentration should not be more than 40 µg/m3 for protecting human health.

The National Ambient Air Quality Standard (National Ambient Air Quality Status and Trends 2019) in
India limits 24 h average SO2 concentrations of 50 µg/m3.

Additionally, a higher level of SO2 promotes stomatal opening, which makes excessive loss of water from
plants and thus, reduces the quality and quantity of plant yield (Varshney et al. 1979).

It reacts with surfaces in the gaseous phase and causes discoloration, as in the case of Taj Mahal
Global Sulfur Dioxide Emissions and the Driving Forces

Ref: Zhong et al., 2020

Figure 2. Temporal trends of annual SO2 emissions by sector (a), fuel type (b), and
region (c). The light and shaded areas indicate emissions from developed and
developing countries, respectively. Emissions from international shipping, which
mainly originated from oil combustion, are illustrated separately in Figure 2b.

Ref: Zhong et al., 2020

Ensemble modeled and observed trends of sulfate in aerosols over the period 1990–2015 compared to the trend in
emissions over the same period. ( Ref: Aas et al., 2019)
Air Pollution Modeling
Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system
Ref: Yang et al., 2023
The methodology of dispersion modeling including three categories of input parameters from meteorology, topology, Ref: Aliabar et al., 2022
Ref: Emery et al., 2024
Ref: CERC
Need for Air Quality Modeling
The only prognostic tool available to policy making
community
Test the adequacy of control strategies
Monitoring data is not always available, is cumbersome and
often not practically feasible
Assess air quality impact of new or modified sources
Determine source contribution
Setting of new industries and relocation of existing one.
Provides base data to emission legislation bodies to formulate
future emission standards.
Produce answers “quickly”
Traffic regulation etc.
 What are Air Quality Models?

• Air quality models use mathematical and numerical techniques

to simulate the physical and chemical processes that affect air
pollutants as they disperse and react in the atmosphere.
• Computer programs that contain equations to represent the
chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere in relation
to air pollutants
• In general…….
• Models are driven by meteorology and emissions inputs
• Models treat the chemical formation and transformation and
the dispersion, transport and removal of pollutants
• Models output pollutant concentrations and deposition at
hourly time steps within grid cells within a user-specified
modeling domain (i.e. the area modeled)
Components of Air Quality Modeling
Inputs:
–Emissions
•Temporally and spatially defined
–Meteorology
•Temperature, winds, humidity, turbulence
–Topography
•Landuse, surface roughness, altitude

Outputs:
–Concentrations

Modeling process:
–Develop inputs, apply model, evaluate
–Confidence developed from (extensive) evaluation
How Good Are They?
Is determined by model evaluations
Identify and quantify errors
And uncertainties

To achieve this common approaches are:

Operational Evaluations
compares simulated and observed concentrations
Uncertainty Analysis
Asses model uncertainty through an internal propagation of
error analysis
Model Evaluation
Determines which of several models is performing best (for the
data available) the physics within the model:
This will be defined as the “best performer”

Determine whether the differences seen in the performance of

the other models is statistically significant (in light of stochastic
variations present in the data comparisons).
This will identify other models that may be performing as well
(a set of ‘best’ performers)
 Air Quality Model Applications
To estimate patterns of pollutant concentration that result from
specified emission patterns
e.g. to estimate exposure to specific populations

To evaluate changes in concentration pattern for specified

changes in emissions of a particular compound or class of
compound or a specific emission sector
e.g. to optimize emission control strategies

To understand relative roles of distant v/s local emissions in

producing enhanced pollutant concentrations
e.g. to asses the relative efficacy of local versus regional
emission control strategies
Limitations of AQMS
Inherent Limitation: AQMS represents average or mean
realization of the conditions of interest

Significant uncertainties are accompanied with emission

estimates
In adequate knowledge of chemical reaction rates,
intermediate formation, and product split

Limited capability of simulating cloud process and their

influences

Existence of considerable uncertainties in understanding

of interactions b/w gas and particle phases
Inferences
Air quality models provides a critical tool in analysis
and management

Their ability to synthesize and assemble multiple,

interactive elements of the air pollution system makes
it attractive and a very useful feature.

They play central role in development of pollutants

mitigation strategies by policy community

Thus special emphasis is need to their assessment and

to overcome its limitations
Models of different complexity

A variety of different models are available on the market today. Their

complexity depends strongly on the type of problems, which are to be solved.

Some of the parameters, which may decide how complex a dispersion model
needs to be, are:

•Compound (primary, secondary)

•Source configuration
•Meteorology and climatology
•Time scale
•Spatial scale
•Topographical features
Different types of models available are taken from the air
pollution. They range from simple quasi-stationary Gaussian
type single source models based upon analytical solutions of the
mass balance equations, to advanced numerical models, which
require large computer capacity.

The different models may roughly be divided into the following

categories:

•Gaussian plume models

•Numerical models
•Trajectory models
•Box models
•Statistical models
•Types of dispersion models
• include Gaussian plume, puff and Lagrangian
• Most widely used models for predicting the impact of relatively
non-reactive gases, like SO2, released from stacks, are based on
Gaussian diffusion. Spread of a plume in vertical and horizontal is
assumed to occur by simple diffusion along the direction of the
mean wind. They have been widely used because they don’t need to
be run on a supercomputer.
• PLUME (Gaussian regulatory model)
• DISPMOD (regulatory model, Gaussian plume and shoreline
fumigation)
• PUFF (Gaussian puff model)
• LADM (Lagrangian model)
• TAPM (Lagrangian and Eulerian)- The Air Pollution Model (TAPM)
predicts three-dimensional meteorology and air pollution
concentrations.
•Scales of modelling and applications
• urban area versus local point source study (assess the effect of a
power station plume on a nearby town)
• dispersion models - modelling a local source or sources with the
prime interest in the region close to the source (near source ground
level concentrations)
• statistical output rather than specific time and place
•Assumptions: simple meteorology, no complex terrain, no chemical
transformations
• common assumptions include simple met, simple representation of
the effects of terrain (no complex terrain) and no chemical
transformations
• often their underlying assumptions are not valid at larger scales; sea-
breezes, valley flows, recirculation of air (polluted/clean)
•Gaussian plume dispersion model
• based on the premise that cross-sections through elevated
plumes from point sources have Gaussian distribution of
concentration
• Dispersion coefficients. Most are functions of stability and
distance downwind from the source
•predicts ground-level concentrations (GLCs) from one or more
sources - stacks, area, volume
•generally used area of up to few 100s of square kms around
sources, user chooses where to calculate ground level
concentrations (receptor points) - doesn’t have to be a grid.
•simplifying assumptions
• simple meteorology (no horizontal variation) to
transport and diffuse pollutants. Winds same at
every receptor point for a particular hour with the
pollutant transported in ‘straight lines’ from source
to receptor. Winds and diffusion are independent
from one hour to next. No modelling of recirculation
due to sea-breeze etc.
• flat, near flat terrain
• valid where terrain is flat or near flat and where
there is little horizontal variation in the winds (eg.
Not mountainous regions, coastal regions, etc.) often
used in these sits
• Doesn’t allow for chemical transformations
 Dispersion
The process of atmospheric
dispersion is governed by three
dominant mechanisms:

• The mean air flow that

transports the pollutants
downwind,

• The turbulent velocity

fluctuations that disperse the
pollutants in all directions,

• ass diffusion due to

concentration gradients.

The figure shows a photograph of emissions from the Inco Superstack (in Sudbury,
Ontario, Canada) that illustrates the three main contributions to atmospheric contaminant
transport: advection from the wind; diffusion from turbulent eddy motion; and deposition
owing to gravitational settling
 ADVECTION

In meteorology and physical

oceanography, advection often
refers to the horizontal transport of
some property of the atmosphere or
ocean, such as heat, humidity or
salinity,
The advection operator is

where u = (ux, uy, uz) is the velocity

field, and ∇ is the del operator
 DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or atoms from a region of
high concentration to a region of low concentration. This is also referred to as
the movement of a substance down a concentration gradient.

A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity (e.g., concentration,

pressure, temperature) with the change in another variable (usually distance).

For example, a change in concentration over a distance is called a concentration

gradient, a change in pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient and a
change in temperature over a distance is a called a temperature gradient.
Class Test

All the answers should be restricted to only page and should be in bullet points with clear discussions. Don’t copy
and paste as it is in the article.

1. How the stagnant conditions plays a key in the alteration of the surface PM2.5 and how it is changes in
historical and future scenarios in the context of the PM2.5 pollution levels?

2. What are the possible conditions that can control the fog changes and how it is modulated due to changes in the
aerosol loading and radiation?

3. In the recent times, severe air pollution in India and it shows impacts on air quality and public health. In such
scenario how the poor visibility is linked to the changes in the lower tropospheric stability and relative humidity
conditions?

4. Crop residue burning contributes to the air pollution significantly, how the different mitigation policies will
effectively reduces the effects of crop residue burning on the air quality ?
Factors Affecting Dispersion of Pollutants In The Atmosphere

Source Characteristics
Ø Emission rate of pollutant
Ø Stack height
Ø Exit velocity of the gas
Ø Exit temperature of the gas
Ø Stack diameter

Meteorological Conditions
Ø Atmospheric stability
Ø Wind velocity
Ø Wind direction
Ø Ambient temperature
qMeteorological conditions (especially wind speed, wind direction
and atmospheric stability),

qThe emission height (e.g. ground level sources such as road

traffic or high level sources such as tall chimneys),

qLocal and regional geographical features,

qThe source (e.g. fixed point, such as a chimney, or a diffuse

number of sources such as cars and solvents).
During dispersion pollutants undergo a wide array of changes and transfers.
Dilution occurs owing to mixing into the air.

Separation or accumulation of pollutants occurs on the basis of physical

characteristics of the pollutant.

Chemical reactions occur, breaking down the original pollutant or converting it

into new compounds.

Some pollutants can also be removed from the transporting medium through
deposition, for example, by settling out under the effects of gravity, by rain/wash
out or by interception (scavenging) by plants and other obstructions.

Many pollutants therefore show extremely complex dispersion patterns,

especially in environments such as cities and towns where there are a large
number of emission sources and major variations in environmental conditions.

This complexity means that it is often very difficult to model or measure

pollutant patterns and trends, and thus to predict levels of human exposure.
Plume types are important because they help us understand under what
conditions there will be higher concentrations of contaminants at ground
level.

General Characteristics of Stack Plumes

ØDispersion of pollutants
ØWind – carries pollution downstream from source
ØAtmospheric turbulence -- causes pollutants to fluctuate from mainstream
in vertical and crosswind directions
ØMechanical & atmospheric heating both present at same time but in
varying ratios
ØAffect plume dispersion differently
Schematic figure of a Gaussian plume. The effective stack height H and the
crosswind and vertical deviation of the profile are the key parameters of the
model.
 Plume structure and behaviour
The typical shape of a plume of pollution emitted from an industrial stack is
cone-shaped.

Generally, the plume rises a certain distance above the top of the stack because it
is either emitted with force or it has a higher temperature than the surrounding
air. This distance is known as the plume rise.

The plume rise plus the physical stack height gives the effective stack height.

Typical cone-shaped plume from an industrial stack

The pollutants spread horizontally and vertically and the concentrations of
pollutants decrease away from the centerline of the plume.

The cone-shaped plume shown in Figure is typical of neutral stability

conditions, which may not commonly exist in particular regions.

Sometimes plumes may take on very different shapes as shown in Figures

in the later discussions .

These are generally the result of varying atmospheric conditions.

The single source Gaussian type models

The simplest models can be used on personal computers for impact assessment.
These models can estimate 1 h average concentration distributions downwind
from ground level, diffusive and elevated single sources. (Sivertsen 1980, Bøhler
1987)

Gaussian type models are based on Gaussian (normal) probability distribution

of the concentration (particle density) in both the vertical and horizontal
direction perpendicular to the plume centreline. These models represent simple
analytical solutions to the continuity equation, which require homogenous and
steady state conditions.

Gaussian type dispersion models are the most commonly applied models in
practical use to day. The equation for calculating the concentration (C) at
ground level, assuming total reflection of the plume at the surface, can be
written:
The concept of the Gaussian plume model.

Q = release rate (µg/s)

H = effective plume height
σ = dispersion parameters (m)
The co-ordinate y refers to horizontal direction perpendicular to the plume axis,
and z is the height above the ground. The ground is assumed to be flat and
uniform.

The parameters σy and σz are the standard deviations of the concentration

distribution in y and z directions, respectively.

The parameters are usually referred to as the diffusion parameters.

The values σy and σz are functions of the turbulent state of the atmosphere, which
again is a function of the mechanical induced turbulence (wind shear, wind
profile) and the convective turbulence (temperature profile).
Factors – Air pollution Parameter
Ø Atmospheric Stability
ØWind speed
ØWind Direction
Øsunlight
Ø temperature
Ø precipitation and humidity
ØTopography
Ø Energy from the sun and earth’s rotation drives atmospheric circulation
 Atmospheric Stability
• The stability depends on the ratio of
suppression to generation of
turbulence

• The stability at any given time will

depend upon static stability (related
to change in temperature with
height), thermal turbulence (caused
by solar heating), and mechanical
turbulence (a function of wind
speed and surface roughness).
Atmospheric Stability
• Atmospheric stability can be determined using
adiabatic lapse rate.
Γ > Γd Unstable

Γ = Γd Neutral

Γ < Γd Stable

¢ Γ is environmental lapse rate

¢ Γd is dry adiabatic lapse rate (10c/100m) and dT/dZ = -10c /100 m
Pasquill-gifford Stability Categories
Daytime Insolation

Surface Wind
Speed (m/s)
Strong Moderate Slight

<2 A A-B B

2-3 A-B B C

3-5 B B-C C

5-6 C C-D D

>6 C D D

Source: Met Monitoring Guide – Table 6.3

 Smokestack Plumes and their characteristics

In this stable environment, there is little up and down motion, so

the smoke spreads horizontally rather than vertically. When
viewed from above, the smoke plume resembles the shape of a
fan. For this reason, it is referred to as a fanning smoke plume.
Ref: Meteorology Today
The air above the chimney is still stable, as indicated by the
presence of the inversion. Consequently, vertical motions are
confined to the region near the surface. Hence, the smoke mixes
downwind, increasing the concentration of pollution at the surface
— sometimes to dangerously high levels. This effect is called
fumigation.
Ref: Meteorology Today
Light-to-moderate winds combine with rising and sinking air to
cause the smoke to move up and down in a wavy pattern,
producing a looping smoke plume.

Ref: Meteorology Today

In this neutral atmosphere, vertical and horizontal motions are
about equal, and the smoke from the stack tends to take on the
shape of a cone, forming a coning smoke plume.

Ref: Meteorology Today

Because the stable air in the inversion prevents the smoke from
mixing downward, the smoke is carried upward, producing a
lofting smoke plume.

Ref: Meteorology Today

Vertical dispersion under various conditions for low and high elevations of the source (T:
Temperature, θ: Adiabatic lapse). (Adapted from Liptak, 1974.)
Inferences
Thus, smoke plumes provide a clue to the stability of the
atmosphere, and knowing the stability yields important
information about the dispersion of pollutants.

Other factors influence the dispersion of pollutants from a

chimney, including the pollutants’ temperature and exit velocity,
wind speed and direction, and, as we saw in an earlier section,
the chimney’s height.

Overall, taller chimneys, greater wind speeds, and higher exit

velocities result in a lower concentration of pollutants.
DISPERSION FACTORS

The stream of polluted air downwind of a smoke stack is called a smoke plume.

If the plume is buoyant, or if there is a large effluent velocity out of the top of the smoke stack, the center of the plume can
rise above the initial emission height. This is called plume rise.

The word “plume” in air pollution work means a long, nearly-horizontal region of polluted air.

However, the word “plume” in atmospheric boundary-layer (ABL) studies refers to the relatively wide, nearly vertical
updraft portion of buoyant air that is convectively overturning.

Because smoke plumes emitted into the boundary layer can be dispersed by convective plumes, one must take great care to
not confuse the two usages of the word “plume”.

Dispersion is the name given to the spread and movement of pollutants.

Pollution dispersion depends on
• wind speed and direction,
• plume rise, and
• atmospheric turbulence.

Pollutants disperse with time by mixing with the surrounding cleaner air, resulting in an increasingly dilute mixture within
a spreading smoke plume.
Wind and turbulence are characteristics of the ambient atmosphere.

While emissions out of the top of the stack often have strong internal turbulence, this quickly decays, leaving the
ambient atmosphere to do the majority of the dispersing.

The direction that the plume travels is controlled by the local and regional-scale winds. Pollutant destinations from
known emission sources can be found using a forward trajectory along the mean wind, while source locations of
polluted air that reach receptors can be found from a backward trajectory.

The goal of calculating dispersion is to predict or diagnose the pollutant concentration at some point distant from the
source. Concentration c is often measured as a mass per unit volume, such as µg m–3.

It can also be measured as volume ratio of pollutant gas to clean air, such as parts per million (ppm).

A source - receptor framework is used to relate emission factors to predicted downwind concentration values. We can
examine pollutants emitted at a known rate from a point source such as a smoke stack.

We then follow the pollutants as they are blown downwind and mix with the surrounding air.

Eventually, the mixture reaches a receptor such as a sensor, person, plant, animal or structure, where we can
determine the expected concentration.
Dispersion Model Structure
INPUT DATA

METEROLOGY EMISSIONS RECEPTORS

Model does calculations

Model Output: Estimates of

Concentrations at Receptors
Model Input Considerations
• Source type
• Point, area, volume, flare
• Stack or source emission data
• Pollutant emission data
• Stack- or source-specific data
• Temperature in stack
• Velocity out of stack
• Receptor data