VARIATIONS

IN

PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
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 Individual differences
Individuals vary in terms of physical characteristics (such as height, weight, strength, hair colour etc)
as well as psychological dimensions (intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, creative or not so
creative, outgoing or withdrawn, etc).

Individual differences refer to Situationalism: Behaviours are

distinctiveness and variations also influenced by situational
among people’s characteristics factors. This view is known as
and behaviour patterns. Individual situationism, which states that
differences can be noticed in situations and circumstances in
every walk of life. which one is placed influence
one’s behaviour.
assessment Assessment is the first step in understanding a psychological
attribute.
For example, when we say, “Harish is dominant”, we are
referring to the degree of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This
statement is based on our own assessment of ‘dominance’ in
him.
Our assessment may be informal or formal. Formal
assessment is objective, standardised, and organised. On the
other hand, informal assessment varies from case to case and
from one assessor to another and, therefore, is open to
subjective interpretations. Psychologists are trained in
making formal assessment of psychological attributes
Psychological attributes are not linear or
unidimensional.

They are complex and expressed in terms

of dimensions.
 Intelligence

It is the global capacity to understand the world,

think rationally, and use available resources
effectively when faced with challenges.
Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a
person’s general cognitive competence including
the ability to profit from schooling.
Generally, students having low intelligence are
not likely to do so well in school-related
examinations, but their success in life is not
associated only with their intelligence test
scores.
 aptitude

It is the global capacity to understand the world,

Aptitude
think refers to anand
rationally, individual’s underlying
use available resources
potential for acquiring
effectively skills.
when faced with challenges.
Aptitude tests are
Intelligence used
tests to predict
provide whatmeasure
a global an of a
individual
person’s willgeneral
be ablecognitive
to do if given proper including
competence
environment
the abilityand training.
to profit from schooling.
A person with high
Generally, mechanical
students having aptitude can profit
low intelligence are
fromnot
appropriate
likely to do training
so welland can do well as an
in school-related
engineer.
examinations, but their success in life is not
Similarly, a person
associated onlyhaving highintelligence
with their language aptitude
test
can scores.
be trained to be a good writer
 Interest

It is the global capacity to understand the world,

Interest is an individual’s preference for
think rationally, and use available resources
engaging in one or more specific activities
effectively when faced with challenges.
relative to others.
Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a
Assessment of interests of students may help to
person’s general cognitive competence including
decide what subjects or courses they can pursue
the ability to profit from schooling.
comfortably and with pleasure.
Generally, students having low intelligence are
Knowledge of interests helps us in making
not likely to do so well in school-related
choices that promote life satisfaction and
examinations, but their success in life is not
performance on jobs.
associated only with their intelligence test
scores.
 Personality

Personality refers to relatively

enduring characteristics of a person
that make her or him distinct from
others.
Personality tests try to assess an
individual’s unique characteristics,
e.g. whether one is dominant or
submissive, outgoing or withdrawn,
moody or emotionally stable, etc.
Personality assessment helps us to
explain an individual’s behaviour and
predict how she/he will behave in
future.
 values

Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal

mode of behaviour.
A person having a value sets a standard
for guiding her/his actions in life and also
for judging others.
In value assessment, we try to determine
the dominant values of a person (e.g.,
political, religious, social or economic
 assessment methods
Psychological Test is an objective and Interview involves seeking information
standardised measure of an individual’s from a person on a one-to-one basis.
mental and/or behavioural characteristics. When a counsellor interacts with a client,
Objective tests have been developed to a salesperson makes a door-to-door
measure all the dimensions of psychological survey regarding the usefulness of a
attributes (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.). particular product etc.
These tests are widely.

Self report is a method in which a person

provides factual information about
herself/himself and/or opinions. beliefs, etc.
that s/he holds. Such information may be
obtained by using an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, a psychological test, or a
personal diary.
 assessment methods
Case study: It is an in-depth study of the Observation: It involves employing
individual in terms of her/his psychological systematic, organised, and objective
attributes, psychological history in the context procedures to record behavioural
of her/his psychosocial and physical phenomena occurring naturally in real
environment. These are widely used by clinical time. Certain phenomena such as mother-
psychologists. Case analyses of the lives of child interactions can be easily studied
great people can also be highly illuminating for through observation. The major problems
those willing to learn from their life with observational methods are that the
experiences. Case studies are based on data observer has little control over the
generated by different methods, e.g. interview, situation and the reports may suffer from
observation, questionnaire, psychological subjective interpretations of the observer.
tests, etc.
 Theories
of

intelligence
 Intelligence and its definitions
The Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as the
power of perceiving, learning, understanding, and
knowing.

Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who Gardner and Sternberg have
worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as the suggested that an intelligent
ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well. individual not only adapts to the
environment, but also actively
modifies or shapes it.
Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most widely used,
understood intelligence in terms of its functionality, i.e.
its value for adaptation to environment. He defined it as
the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to
think rationally, act purposefully, and to deal effectively
with her/his environment.
 Theories of Intelligence

Psychometric Approach Informational processing approach

The psychometric approach It describes the processes people

considers intelligence as an use in intellectual reasoning and
aggregate of abilities. It describes problem solving.
the processes people use in The major focus of this approach
intellectual reasoning and problem is on how an intelligent person
solving. acts.
The major focus of this approach is Information processing
the structure of intelligence. approaches emphasise studying
It expresses the individual’s cognitive functions underlying
performance in terms of a single intelligent behaviour.
index of cognitive abilities.
 Uni or one factor theory
Alfred Binet was the first psychologist who tried to formalise the concept
of intelligence in terms of mental operations.
Prior to him, we find the notion of intelligence described in general ways
in various philosophical treatises available in different cultural traditions.
Binet’s theory of intelligence was rather simple as it arose from his
interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals.
He conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities
which can be used for solving any or every problem in an individual’s
environment.
His theory of intelligence is called Uni or one factor theory of
intelligence.
This theory came to be disputed when psychologists started analysing
data of individuals, which was collected using Binet’s test
 Two factor
In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a two-factor theory of
intelligence employing a statistical method called factor
theory
analysis.
He showed that intelligence consisted of a general factor (g-
factor) and some specific factors (s-factors).
The g-factor includes mental operations which are primary
and common to all performances.
In addition to the g-factor, he said that there are also many
specific abilities. These are contained in what he called the
s-factor.
 theory of primary mental abilities
Verbal Comprehension (grasping meaning of
words, concepts, and ideas).
Numerical Abilities (speed and accuracy in
Spearman’s theory was followed
numerical and computational skills)
by Louis Thurstone’s theory.
Spatial Relations (visualising patterns and
He proposed the theory of
forms)
primary mental abilities which
Perceptual Speed (speed in perceiving
states that intelligence consists
details)
of seven primary abilities, each
Word Fluency (using words fluently and
of which is relatively
flexibly)
independent of the others.
Memory (accuracy in recalling information),
and
Inductive Reasoning (deriving general rules
from presented facts)
heirarchical theory of
intelligence
Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical
model of intelligence consisting of abilities
operating at two levels, called Level I and Level 2: Higher
Level II. order skills
Level I is the associative learning in which
output is more or less similar to the input
(e.g., rote learning and memory).
Level 1: Input = Output
Level II, called cognitive competence,
involves higher-order skills as they
transform the input to produce an
effective output
 Structure of intellect model
J.P. Guilford proposed the model which classifies intellectual traits among three dimensions:
operations, contents, and products. Since this classification (Guilford, 1988) includes 6´5´6 categories,
therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell is expected to have at least one factor or ability; some cells
may have more than one factor. Each factor is described in terms of all three dimensions.

Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent.

Products are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and
implications

Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording,
memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation.

Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual

operations are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters,
numbers), semantic (e.g., words) and behavioural (e.g., information about people’s
behaviour, attitudes, needs, etc.).
 Theory of multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple
intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single
entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist.
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other.
This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence,
it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other
types of intelligences.
Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences
interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown
exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described
eight types of intelligence.
 Logical-Mathematical: skills in scientific
8 types of intelligence thinking and problem solving, think logically
and critically engage in abstract reasoning. Eg:
Musical: sensitivity to musical rhythms and Scientists and Nobel Prize winners
patterns, capacity to produce, create and
manipulate musical patterns, sensitive to Intrapersonal : awareness of one's own feelings,
sounds and vibrations. eg: Musicians, Sound motives and desires, knowledge of one's internal
Engineers, Singers, Instrumentalists. strengths and limitations, using that knowledge to
effectively relate to others. Eg: Philosophers, Spiritual
leaders.

Linguistic: skills involved in the production

and use of language, use language fluently and
flexibly to express one's thinking and
understand others. ‘Word-smart' people who
are sensitive to different shades of word
meanings, articulate, and can create linguistic
images in their mind. Eg: poets and writers.
 Spatial: skills in forming visual images and
Interpersonal: sensitivity to subtle aspects of
patterns -abilities involved in forming, using,
others' behaviours, skill of understanding the
and transforming mental images. Can easily
motives, feelings and behaviours of other people.
represent the spatial world in the mind. Eg :
Eg: counsellors, psychologists, politicians, social
Pilots, Sailors, Sculptors, Painters, Architects,
workers, religious leaders
Interior decorators, Surgeons.
Naturalistic: sensitivity to the features of natural
world -complete awareness of our relationship
with the natural world, recognising the beauty of
different species of flora and fauna. Eg: Hunters,
farmers, tourists, botanists, zoologists, bird
watchers.

Bodily-Kinaesthetic: using whole or portions of

the body flexibly and creatively for display or
construction of products and problem solving.
Eg: Athletes, dancers, actors, surgeons, gymnasts,
sportspersons .
Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the triarchic
Howard
theory Gardner proposed the theory of multiple
of intelligence.
Triarchic
intelligences.
viewsAccording toas
him, intelligence
ability to is not a single
Sternberg
entity;
adapt, to rather
shape and
intelligence
distinct types
select
“the
of intelligences
environment to exist.
theory of
Each of these
accomplish
This
and
one’sintelligences are independent
goals and those of each other.
of one’s society
means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence,
culture”.
intelligence
it does not
According necessarily
to this indicate
theory, there arebeing
threehigh or low on other
basic
types
types of of intelligences.
intelligence: Componential, Experiential,
Gardner
and also put forth that different types of intelligences
Contextual.
interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown
exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described
eight types of intelligence.
 Experiential Intelligence (creative)
It is involved in using past experiences
creatively to solve novel problems.
3 components It is reflected in creative performance.
Persons high on this aspect integrate different
experiences in an original way to make new
discoveries and inventions.
Componential Intelligence (analytical) They quickly find out which information is
It is the analysis of information to solve problems. crucial in a given situation.
Persons high on this ability think analytically and
critically and succeed in schools.
This intelligence has three components, each Contextual Intelligence ( practical)
serving a different function.First is the knowledge involves the ability to deal with environmental
acquisition component, which is responsible for demands encountered on a daily basis. It may
learning and acquisition of the ways of doing be called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’.
things. The second is the meta or a higher order Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to
component, which involves planning concerning their present environment or select a more
what to do and how to do. The third is the favourable environment than the existing one,
performance component, which involves actually or modify the environment to fit their needs.
doing things.
 Pass model of intelligence
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple
intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single
entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist.
The model has been developed by J.P. Das, Jack
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other.
Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). According to this model,
This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence,
intellectual activity involves the interdependent
it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other
functioning of three neurological systems, called
types of intelligences.
the functional units of brain. These units are
Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences
responsible for arousal/attention, coding or
interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
processing, and planning respectively.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown
exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described
eight types of intelligence.
 diving within the Pass Model
State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it helps us in attending to stimuli. Arousal and
Howard Gardner
attention proposed
enable a personthe
totheory
processof information.
multiple An optimal level of arousal focuses our
intelligences.
attention to According
the relevant toaspects
him, intelligence
of a problem.is notTooa single
much or too little arousal would interfere
entity; rather distinct types of intelligences withexist.
attention.
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other.
This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence,
it doesYou
notcan integrateindicate
necessarily the information into
being high oryour
low onknowledge
other system either simultaneously or
typessuccessively. Simultaneous processing takes place when you perceive the relations among
of intelligences.
various
Gardner concepts
also put forth and integrate
that differentthem
types into
of aintelligences
meaningful pattern for comprehension. It helps
you inand
interact grasping the meaning
work together anda relationship
to find solution to abetween
problem.the given abstract figures. Successive
processing
Gardner studied takes place when
extremely youpersons,
talented remember who allhad
the shown
information serially so that the recall of
one leads
exceptional abilities in their respective to the
areas, andrecall of another.
described
eight types of intelligence.
After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated. It allows us to think of
the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and evaluate their
effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or
situation.
 Cognitive Assessment system
The PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by reading,
writing, and experimenting) or informally from the environment.
These processes are interactive and dynamic in nature; yet each has its own distinctive
functions.
Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS). It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure
basic cognitive functions presumed to be independent of schooling.
The battery of tests is meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age. The results of
assessment can be used to remedy cognitive deficits of children with learning problems.
 Interplay of nature
Role of Nature and nurture
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple
The evidence
intelligences. Accordingfor to hereditary influences
him, intelligence is notona intelligence
single comes
mainly
entity; rather from types
distinct studies ofon twins and adopted
intelligences exist. children.
The intelligence
Each of these intelligencesofare identical twins reared
independent of eachtogether
other. correlate
This meansalmost
that, 0.90.
if a person exhibits one type of intelligence,
Twins
it does not separated
necessarily early being
indicate in childhood
high or also show
low on considerable
other
similarity in their intellectual, personality and behavioural
types of intelligences.
characteristics.
Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences
Thework
interact and intelligence
togetherofto identical twins reared
find a solution in different
to a problem.
environments
Gardner studied extremely correlate
talented0.72, those of
persons, fraternal
who twins reared
had shown
together
exceptional abilities correlate almost 0.60,
in their respective and and
areas, those of brothers and sisters
described
reared
eight types together correlate about 0.50, while siblings reared apart
of intelligence.
correlate about 0.25.
Another line of evidence comes from the studies of adopted
children, which show that children’s intelligence is more similar
to their biological rather than adoptive parents.
 Interplay of nature
Role of Nurture and nurture
Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple
With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported
intelligences. According to him, intelligence is not a single
that as children grow in age, their intelligence level tends to
entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist.
move closer to that of their adoptive parents.
Each of these intelligences are independent of each other.
Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with
This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence,
higher socio-economic status exhibit a large increase in their
it does not necessarily indicate being high or low on other
intelligence scores.
types of intelligences.
There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers
Gardner also put forth that different types of intelligences
intelligence while rich nutrition, good family background, and
interact and work together to find a solution to a problem.
quality schooling increases intelligence.
Gardner studied extremely talented persons, who had shown
There is a general consensus among psychologists that
exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described
intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity
eight types of intelligence.
(nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be viewed
as something that sets a range within which an individual’s
development is actually shaped by the support and
opportunities of the environment
assessment of
intelligence
 In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore In 1912, William Stern, a German
Simon made the first successful attempy psychologist, devised the concept of
Howard toGardner
formallyproposed
measure theintelligence.
theory of multiple Intelligence Quotient (IQ). IQ refers to
In 1908,
intelligences. when theto
According scale
him,was revised they
intelligence mental age divided by chronological age,
is not a single
entity; gave
rather the concept
distinct of Mental
types Age (MA) exist.
of intelligences and multiplied by 100.
Each ofwhich
theseisintelligences
a measure ofare a person’s
independent of each other. IQ= MA/CA*100
intellectual development relative to the
This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, The number 100 is used as a multiplier to
it doespeople of his/herindicate
not necessarily age group.
being high or low on other avoid the decimal point. When the MA
types ofChronological
intelligences.age (CA) is the biological equals the CA, the IQ equals 100. If MA is
Gardner age from
also putbirth.
forth that different types of intelligences more than the CA, IQ is more than 100. IQ
interactA and
bright child’s
work MA isto
together more
findthan his/her
a solution becomes less than 100 when the MA is less
to a problem.
Gardner CA. Retardation
studied was talented
extremely defined by Binet who had shown
persons, than the CA. The frequency distribution for
and Simon
exceptional as in
abilities two mental
their age years
respective the IQ scores tends to approximate a
areas, and described
belowofthe
eight types chronological age
intelligence. bellshaped curve, called the normal curve
Variations of
intelligence
 intellectual deficiency
There are children who face enormous difficulty in learning even very simple skills.
Those children who show intellectual deficiency are termed as ‘intellectually
disabled’.
The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views intellectual disability
as “significantly sub-average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently
with deficits in adaptive behaviour and manifested during the developmental
period”.
This definition points to three basic features.
First, in order to be judged as intellectually disabled, a person must show
significantly sub-average intellectual functioning. Persons having IQs below 70 are
judged to have sub-average intelligence.
The second relates to deficits in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a
person’s capacity to be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment.
The third feature is that the deficits must be observed during the developmental
period, that is between 0 and 18 years of age.
 levels of intellectual deficiency
Mild (IQs 55 to The development of people with mild
approximately 70) disability is typically slower than that of
their peers, they can function quite
independently, hold jobs and families. As
profound (IQs below
the level of disability increases, the
20–25).
difficulties are strongly marked.
moderate (IQs 35–40 to
approximately 50– They can be trained in self-care skills, and
55), simple social and communication skills.
They need to have moderate degree of
supervision in everyday tasks. Individuals
severe (IQs 20–25 to
with profound and severe disability are
approximately
incapable of managing life and need
35–40)
constant care for their entire lives.
 intellectual giftedness
Such individuals show higher performance because of their outstanding potentialities.
The study of gifted individuals began in 1925, when Lewis Terman followed the lives of about 1500
children with IQs of 130 and above to examine how intelligence was related to occupational success
and life adjustment.

GIFTEDNESS Giftedness is exceptional general

ability shown in superior performance
in a wide variety of areas.

Talent is a narrower term and refers to

TALENT remarkable ability in a specific field (e.g.,
spiritual, social, aesthetic, etc.). The highly
talented are sometimes called ‘prodigies’.
 characteristics of gifted children
Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem
solving behaviour.

High speed in processing information.

Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.

Advanced level of original and creative thinking.

High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.

Independent and non-conformist thinking.

Preference for solitary academic activities for long

periods.
 types of intelligence tests
1. On the basis of administration

Individual Group tests

Administered to one person at a time Can be administered to several

Require test administrator to persons at a time
establish rapport with the subject Do not allow an opportunity to be
and be sensitive to his/her feelings, familiar with subject’s feelings.
moods and expressions during Generally seek written answers
testing session. usually in a multiple-choice format.
Allow people to answer orally or in a
written form or multiple objects as
per tester’s instruction.
types of intelligence tests
types of intelligence tests
Poor Performance on test may attach
Misuses of
stigma to children and so, effect their
performance.
intelligence test
The tests may bring discriminatory
practices from parents, teachers and
elders. If a test is biased in favour of middle
class and higher population, then these
tests may underestimate the IQ of children
coming from disadvantaged section of
society.
Intelligence tests do not capture the
creative potentials and practical side
ofintelligence. They also do not relate
much to success in life. Intelligence can be
potential factor for achievement in various
spheres of life.
 Culture is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes
and achievements in art and literature. The cultural
environment provides a context for intelligence to develop.
Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist, has argued that culture
provides a social context in which people live, grow and
understand the world around them.

culture and Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like individuals, have a
life of their own; they frow and change, and in the process

intelligence specify what will be the end-product of successful intellectual

development.
According to him, while elementary mental functions (e,z,
crying, attending to mother's voice, sensitivity to smells,
walking, and running) are universal, the manner in which higher
mental functions such as problem solving and thinking operate
are larzely culture-produced.
Sternberg s notion of contextual or practical intelligence
implies that intelligence is a product of culture.
 technological intelligence
In technologically advanced societies，personal achievement founded on abilities of reasoning
and judgement is considered to represent intelligence. Focus on individualistic orientation.
Technologically advanced societies adapt child rearing practices that foster skills of:
1. Generalisation and abstraction
2. Speed
3. Minimal moves
4. Mental manipulation, among children.
•
In these societies, people are well-versed in skills of:
1. Attention
2. Observation
3. Analysis
4. Performance
5. 5peed
6. Achievement orientation
Intelligence tests developed in western cultures look grecisely for these skills in an individual.
 Gives emphasis on connectivity with the social and
world environment. integral
From a holistic perspective, equal attention is paid to
cognitive and non cognitive processes as well as their intelligence
integration as a part of intelligence.
Focus on collectivistic orientation, value self-reflection.
Less technologically developed societies value social
and emotional skills in relating to people.
Buddhi, according to J.P. Das includes such skills as:
1. Mental effort
2. Determined action
3. Feelings
4. Opinions, along with cognitive competence such as:
Knowledge and Discrimination.
Understanding Buddhi is the knowledge of one's own
self based on conscience, will and desire. Buddhi has
affective and motivational components besides a strong
cognitive component.
 emotional intelligence
Considers that intelligence includes emotions.Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie
accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of emotions.It is the feeling side of intelligence.
Salovey and Mayer defined emotional intelligence as " the ability to monitor one's own and other's emotions,
to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions."
Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence in the same way as IQ is used to express
intelligence.
Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to process emotional information accurately and efficiently.

Applications of Emotional Intelligence:

Emotional intelligence is receiving increasing attention of educators for dealing with students who are affected
by stresses and challenges of the outside world.Programmes aimed at improving students' emotional
intelligence have beneficial effects on their academic achievement.They encourage cooperative behaviour and
reduce their antisocial activities.
These programmes are very useful in preparing students to face the challenges of life outside the classroom
 aptitude and interest

People with similar intelligence differed widely in

acquiring certain knowledge or skills.
Therefore, individuals with similar level of
intelligence may have different aptitudes.
For example, two students who have more or less
the same level of intelligence, one may have a high
verbal reasoning aptitude whereas the other
student may have high numerical reasoning
aptitude and low verbal reasoning aptitude.
 aptitude and intelligence
A person may be interested in a particular job or activity, but may not have the
aptitude for it. Similarly, a person may have the potentiality for performing a job, but
may not be interested in doing that. In both cases, the outcome will not be
satisfactory.
For example, a student with high mechanical aptitude and strong interest in
engineering is more likely to be a successful mechanical engineer. Therefore, in
order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and
interest.
Aptitude tests are available in two forms:
Independent (specialised) Aptitude Tests. Eg: Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical
Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing Aptitude.
Multiple (generalised) Aptitude Tests: exist in the form of test batteries, which
measure aptitude in several separate but homogeneous areas. Eg: Differential
Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), and the Armed
Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known aptitude test
Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were
not necessarily creative. At the same time, creative ideas
could come from persons who did not have a very high IQ.
Creativity and
.Researchers have also found that both high and low level
of creativity can be found in highly intelligent children
intelligence
and also children of average intelligence. The same person,
thus, can be creative as well as intelligent but it is not
necessary that intelligent ones, in the conventional sense,
must be creative. Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not
ensure creativity
Researchers have found that the relationship
between creativity and intelligence is positive. All
creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire
knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain, and
retrieve.
A certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but
beyond that intelligence does not correlate well with
creativity. It can be concluded that creativity can take
many forms and blends.
 Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions

that are novel, appropriate and useful. Creativity is not just limited to a
selected few, the artist, the scientist, the poet or the inventor. An ordinary
individual who is engaged in simple occupations like pottery, carpentry,
cooking, etc. can also be creative.Individuals vary in terms of the level and the
areas in which they exhibit creativity and that all may not be operating at the
same level.
Another level of creativity is working on what has already been established
earlier by way of modifications, by putting things in new perspectives or to new
use. Creativity is determined by both heredity and environment. Limits of the
creative potential are set by heredity, and environmental factors (such as
motivation, commitment, family support, peer influences, training
opportunities, etc.) stimulate the development of creativity.
 Creativity tests
Creativity tests came into existence to assess variations in terms
of the potential for creativity in contrast to intelligence. A general
feature of most of the creativity tests is that they are open-ended.
They permit the person to think of different answers to the questions
or problems in terms of her/his experiences, whatever these may have
been. Creativity tests involve divergent thinking and assess such
abilities as ability to produce a variety of ideas.
This is contrary to the tests of intelligence which mostly involve
convergent thinking. In tests of intelligence, the person has to think of
the right solution to the problem and the focus is on assessing abilities
such as memory, logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual ability, and
clear thinking. There is little scope for the expression of spontaneity,
originality, and imagination.
Some of the famous psychologists who have developed creativity
tests are Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach and Kogan, Paramesh,
Baqer Mehdi, and Passi.