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Logic

The document provides an overview of logic, covering its fundamentals, types (formal and informal), and key concepts such as validity, soundness, and inference rules. It details propositional and predicate logic, including logical operators, quantifiers, and argument forms, alongside discussions on modal logic, set theory, and logical fallacies. Additionally, it touches on inductive logic and symbolic logic systems, emphasizing their applications in various fields like philosophy, mathematics, and computer science.

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2 views

Logic

The document provides an overview of logic, covering its fundamentals, types (formal and informal), and key concepts such as validity, soundness, and inference rules. It details propositional and predicate logic, including logical operators, quantifiers, and argument forms, alongside discussions on modal logic, set theory, and logical fallacies. Additionally, it touches on inductive logic and symbolic logic systems, emphasizing their applications in various fields like philosophy, mathematics, and computer science.

Uploaded by

singomillionaire
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Logic

Fundamentals of Logic
 Definition: The systematic study of valid reasoning and inference
 Types of logic: Formal vs. informal logic
 History: Aristotelian logic, Boolean logic, mathematical logic
 Key concepts:
o Statements/propositions
o Arguments
o Validity vs. soundness
o Deduction vs. induction
o Premises and conclusions
o Inference rules
 Applications: Philosophy, mathematics, computer science, law, critical thinking

Propositional Logic
 Basic elements: Statements that are either true or false
 Atomic vs. molecular propositions
 Logical operators:
o Negation (¬, ~): "not p"
o Conjunction (∧, &): "p and q"
o Disjunction (∨): "p or q"
o Conditional/Material implication (→): "if p then q"
o Biconditional (↔): "p if and only if q"
 Truth tables: Evaluating compound statements
 Logical equivalence: Statements with identical truth tables
 Important logical equivalences:

o De Morgan's laws: ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q; ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q


o Double negation: ¬¬p ≡ p

Tautologies: Always true (p ∨ ¬p)


o Contraposition: (p → q) ≡ (¬q → ¬p)

Contradictions: Always false (p ∧ ¬p)




 Contingent statements: Sometimes true, sometimes false

Argument Forms and Validity


 Valid argument: If premises true, conclusion must be true
 Sound argument: Valid with true premises
 Common valid argument forms:
o Modus ponens: p→q, p, therefore q
o Modus tollens: p→q, ¬q, therefore ¬p
o Hypothetical syllogism: p→q, q→r, therefore p→r
o Disjunctive syllogism: p∨q, ¬p, therefore q
 Common fallacious forms:
o Affirming the consequent: p→q, q, therefore p
o Denying the antecedent: p→q, ¬p, therefore ¬q
 Methods for testing validity:
o Truth tables
o Indirect proof/reductio ad absurdum
o Natural deduction

Predicate Logic
 Extension of propositional logic to include subjects and predicates
 Quantifiers:
o Universal quantifier (∀): "For all x"
o Existential quantifier (∃): "There exists an x"
 Variables, constants, predicates, functions

o ¬∀x P(x) ≡ ∃x ¬P(x)


 Quantifier negation:

o ¬∃x P(x) ≡ ∀x ¬P(x)


 Domain of discourse
 Translation between English and formal logic
 Validity in predicate logic
 Multiple quantifiers and their order
 Identity and equality relations

Logical Inference Rules


 Introduction and elimination rules
 Rules for propositional logic:
o Conjunction introduction/elimination
o Disjunction introduction/elimination
o Conditional introduction/elimination
o Negation introduction/elimination
 Rules for predicate logic:
o Universal quantifier introduction/elimination
o Existential quantifier introduction/elimination
 Natural deduction system
 Formal proof construction
 Proof strategies and techniques

Modal Logic
 Necessity and possibility
 Modal operators:
o □ (necessarily)
o ◇ (possibly)
 Accessible worlds semantics
 Types of modal logics:
o Alethic logic: Necessity and possibility
o Deontic logic: Obligation and permission
o Epistemic logic: Knowledge and belief
o Temporal logic: Time relationships
 Axiom systems: K, T, S4, S5
 Applications in computer science and philosophy

Set Theory and Logic


 Sets, members, subsets
 Set operations: Union, intersection, complement
 Set identities and their logical counterparts
 Venn diagrams and logical relationships
 Properties of set relations:
o Reflexivity
o Symmetry
o Transitivity
 Logical foundations of set theory
 Russell's paradox and limitations of naive set theory

Logical Fallacies
 Formal fallacies: Invalid logical structure
 Informal fallacies:
o Ad hominem: Attacking the person
o Appeal to authority
o Appeal to popularity
o Begging the question
o Straw man argument
o False dichotomy
o Slippery slope
o Hasty generalization
o Post hoc ergo propter hoc
 Cognitive biases related to logical reasoning
 Identifying fallacies in everyday arguments
 Fallacy avoidance in critical thinking

Inductive Logic
 Reasoning from specific to general
 Types of inductive arguments:
o Generalization
o Statistical syllogism
o Analogical argument
o Causal reasoning
 Strength vs. validity
 Probability in inductive reasoning
 Problem of induction (Hume)
 Inductive criteria:
o Sample size
o Representativeness
o Background knowledge
o Simplicity/Occam's razor

Symbolic Logic Systems


 Boolean algebra
 Tru

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