Advanced Level Computer Science/ICT

I. THE RANGE AND SCOPE OF COMPUTERS

Introduction
Calculations have always been part of man's life. Simpler calculations take less time
but complex calculations take much longer time. With the idea of developing a machine
which could perform complex calculations faster and with full accuracy, man invented the
‘computer’. Computer is derived from the word “compute” which means “calculate” meaning
that a computer is simply a calculating machine.

Definition: A computer is an electronic device that can accept, store, and process data to
produce information. It can also be defined as a machine that can take instructions and perform
computations based on those instructions.

Computers range from very small to very large machines with some capable of doing
millions of calculations in a single second, while others may take long periods of time to do even
the most simple calculations.

1. Classification of Computers
Computers can be classified into five categories, on the basis of their size and capabilities.
The size of the computer may refer to multiple factors like, size of the memory, number of
terminals that can be connected to the computer, storage capacity of the hard disk and the type
of processor used in the computer. These categories are supercomputers, mainframe computers,
minicomputers and microcomputers.

1.1. Microcomputers
Microcomputers are the smallest category of computers that range in size from
servers to handheld devices. They are the type of computers meant for public use. They are
designed to be used by one person at a time. Microcomputers, also called personal computers
(PC), can be further classified into desktop computers, laptop computers. Tablet PCs and
personal digital assistants (PDAs).

1.2. Minicomputers
Minicomputers are larger and faster than microcomputers and are designed to
support more than one user at a time. They are generally used for processing large volumes
of data in an organization. Minicomputers are also used as servers in a local area network.
Another name for minicomputers is “mid-range computers.” Two classic examples of
minicomputers were the Digital Equipment Corporation VAX and the IBM AS/400.

1.3. Mainframe Computers

Mainframes are powerful multi-user computers capable of supporting up to hundreds
of users simultaneously. They operate at very high speed and have very large storage

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capacities. They are used by large organizations like meteorological surveys and statistical
institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations.

1.4. Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and most expensive type of computers. They can
perform hundreds of millions of computations per second and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. Weather
forecasting, scientific simulations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of
geological data all require supercomputers. Examples of supercomputers are Fujitsu K
computer, IBM Blue Gene, Cray Jaguar and NEC Earth Simulator.

2. Generations of Computers
Computers of specific electronic era are often referred to as a generation. Each generation
is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way
computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient
and reliable devices.

Definition: A computer generation is an era or period in the history of computers in which

the computer was characterized by a major technological development that
fundamentally changed the way computers operate.

2.1. First Generation (1945-1955)

First generation computers were made using vacuum tubes. A vacuum tube was a fragile
glass device that could control and amplify electronic signals. These computers were very large
taking up entire rooms, very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming
language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem
at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
Some examples of first generation computers are ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Calculator), EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator) and UNIVAC I (Universal
Automatic Computer I).

2.2. Second Generation (1955-1965)

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The
transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though
the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a
vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched
cards for input and printouts for output.

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Second generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL
and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory,
which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

2.3. Third Generation (1956-1980)

Third generation computers were designed with the use of integrated circuits (ICs).
Integrated circuits made it possible to embed a large number of transistors into very small surface
area of silicon known as chip. Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because
they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

2.4. Fourth Generation

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit
in the palm of the hand. As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked
together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

2.5. Fifth Generation (1980 - present)

Till fourth generation computers, the main stress was on hardware technology. Fourth generation
computers are faster, more accurate, reliable, smaller in size and very cheap, still they lack thinking
power. Fifth generation computing devices are based on artificial intelligence. Artificial intelligence
will give computers thinking power and capability to make decisions like human beings. They are
still in development though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being
used today.

3. Applications of Computers
Computers are fast becoming our way of life and one cannot imagine life without computers in
today’s world. Their importance can be attributed to the fact that almost every sphere of our life is
affected. We find their applications particularly in fields where computations are required to be
done at a very fast speed and where data is so complicated that the human brain finds it difficult to
cope up with.

3.1. Commercial and General Data Processing Systems

3.1.1. ATM Systems
ATM stands for Automatic/Automated Teller Machine. Itis a machine that is connected to a
bank’s computer system that provides the bank’s customers with access to financial transactions in

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a public space without the need for a cashier, human clerk or bank teller. The ATM can be used by
the customers to make cash withdrawals, credit card advances or check their account balances.
On most modern ATM systems, a customer is identified by inserting a plastic ATM card with
a magnetic stripe or a plastic smart card with a chip, which contains a unique card number and
some security information. Authentication is provided by the customer entering a personal
identification number (PIN). Upon successful entry of the PIN, the customer may perform a
transaction.
ATMs are known by various other names including automatic/automated banking machine
(ABM), automated transaction machine and cashpoint.

3.1.2. Stock Control Systems

The collection of items that a business manufactures or sells is called stock. In a shop for example,
the stock includes all of the items on the shelves and out the back in the storeroom.
It is important that a business does not keep too much stock or too little stock. This is because:
 Too much stock costs money as you have to store it all somewhere
 Too much perishable stock (e.g. food) means that it may go bad before it is sold
 Too little stock means that you might run out of stock before the next delivery arrives

Definition: A stock control system is basically a database that keeps track of stock and informs users of
when to re-order along with helpful sales reports.

When items are sold or delivered, their codesare input to the system either manually or using a
point-of-sale terminal (barcode scanner or similar technology). The database matches the codes
with the items’ names and prices, prints an itemized bill and uses the data to update stock levels. It
also updatesa sales file which can be used there and then to calculate all sorts of statistics.
Stock control systems make it very easy for stock levels to be monitored, and for stock to be
reordered when it is running low.

3.1.3. EFTPOS Systems

EFTPOS stands for Electronic Fund Transfer at the Point Of Sale. It is a system that combines a
business’ stock control system (EPOS) with an electronic fund transfer system, thereby enabling the
business to conduct financial transactions electronically. It allows individuals to pay for goods using
credit or debit cards.
To pay for goods, a customer inserts their debit or credit card into a terminal device and type in a
PIN number to verify that it is their card.The system electronically contacts their bank to check that
the card is valid and hasn't been stolen and also that there is enough fund in their account to pay for
the goods. Once payment has been authorized by the bank, money is removed from the customer’s
account and electronically paid into the shop's account.

3.1.4. Reservation Systems

A computer reservation system or central reservation system is a computerized system used to
store and retrieve information and conduct transactions related to air travel, hotels, car rental, or

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activities. They allow users to book hotel rooms, buy airline tickets, rent cars, etc. They also provide
access to railway reservations and bus reservations in some markets, although these are not always
integrated with the main system.

3.2. Industrial, Scientific and Technical Uses

3.2.1. Modeling and Simulation
Many things can be described by a set of mathematical formulas. When these formulas are included
in a computer program, the result is a computer model.

Definition: A computer model is a computer program that represents the construction and working of
a real-life situation or system.

Models are usually produced in order to study the systems they represent.

Definition: Simulation is the manipulation or operation of a model of a system in order to study the
behavior of the real system.

Modeling and simulation are useful for studying systems which would be impossible, too expensive
to build, impractical or dangerous to work with. Examples of situations that can be simulated are:
 The training of pilots
 The design of a bridge
 The design of a building

3.2.2. Computer-Aided Design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer technology in the design process. A CAD
software package allows a designer to create technical drawings and schematics which can be 2-
dimensional or 3-dimensional.
The benefit of CAD software packages is their ability to provide a digital prototype of the product at
early stages of the design process, which can be used for testing and evaluation. Examples of CAD
applicationsareAutoCADused for technical drawings and ARESused for designing printed circuit
boards.

3.2.3. Computer-Aided Manufacturing

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer technology to assist in the
manufacturing process. In CAM, the computer is used to program, direct, and control production
equipment in order to manufacture products. Its primary purpose is to create a faster production
process and components and tooling with more detailed dimensions and material consistency,
which in some cases, uses only the required amount of raw material (thus minimizing waste), while
simultaneously reducing energy consumption. For example, on the production line of a car plant,
computers will control the robots that spot-weld the car body together or the robots that spray-
paint the car.

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3.2.4. Computer Integrated Manufacturing

Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using computers to
control the entire production process. It is the total integration of computer-aided design and
computer-aided manufacturing. The computers that design the products are linked directly to the
computers that aid the manufacturing process.

3.3. Control Systems, Embedded Systems and Robotics

3.3.1. Control and Monitoring Systems
Control is the process of monitoring activities to ensure that they are being accomplished as
planned and of correcting any significant deviations. A computer control system is a computerized
system designed to control a process. Examples are traffic light control systems, greenhouse control
systems, and patient monitoring systems.

a. Traffic Light System

In a traffic light system a computer controls the sequences of lights displayed at a cross-roads to
ensure that cars do not crash. Additionally the computer operates a pedestrian crossing to let
pedestrians cross the road when a button is pressed.

b. Greenhouse Control System

In a greenhouse system, a computer controls the temperature in a greenhouse to maintain the
conditions required for the plants in it to grow. The greenhouse has temperature and humidity
sensors linked to a computer, and the computer has a control program storing details of the correct
temperature and humidity settings. The greenhouse is fitted with a heater, sprinkler and window
motor, also linked to the computer. If the humidity falls below the values stored in the program, the
computer activates the sprinklers and closes the windows. If the temperature falls outside the
values stored in the program, the heater is activated by the computer.
The system monitors the conditions night and day with immediate response to any changes. To alter
the growing conditions the values in the computer program can of course be changed.

c. Patient Monitoring System

In a patient monitoring system, a computer controls the monitoring system used to measure the
health condition of patients. If a patient’s condition gets critical, the system alerts the nurses or a
doctor.

3.3.2. Embedded Systems

An embedded system is a small computing device (microcontroller) that is built into a larger
equipment often as a single chip and dedicated to a given task. Embedded systems control many
devices in use today such as digital watches, mobile phones, microwave ovens, washing machines,
vehicles, photocopiers, and very large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers
or the systems controlling nuclear power plants.

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3.3.3. Robotics
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation and
application of robots. A robot is a machine that is designed to repeatedly do what humans can do
with speed and precision. An important application of this technology has been to create robots to
perform certain functions that are dangerous for human beings, or to do tasks that can be more
effectively performed by machines than by people. Although it may not have the physical
appearance of a human being, a robot may be thought of as a machine acting as a person while being
controlled by a computer.

3.4. Application of Computers in Arts and Media

3.4.1. Computers in Music

a. Notation Software
Notation or composition software is used to speed up the writing of music and allow easy
duplication of scores. Many types of notation software include the ability to connect to instruments.
An instrument can be connected to the computer through MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital
Interface) and by simply playing a part, the software notates it and can even play it back in some
cases. Finale is one of the most popular examples of notation software.

b. Recording Software
Recording software make it possible to record sound using a computer. With recording software,
users can record their own music without going to Record Label Companies. Recording software
makes it easy to fix poor recording. Also, one program can perform the same number of actions that
will be performed with a number of equipment. Protools, Adobe Audition, Cool Edit Pro and Cubase
are common examples.

c. Art Design Software

Art design is vital to the music industry as having good cover art is crucial to success. Art and
graphical design software allow an artist to come up with their own look and feel to cover art. This
lets the album take on a unique feel to it.

d. Advertising
Artists use the Internet to advertise new CD releases, tour dates, merchandise, and bonus tracks.
Samples of new songs are released to entice the listener to buy the album.

3.4.2. Computers in Film-making

a. Animation
Animation is the rapid display of a series of images in order to create an illusion of movement. Stop
motion animation (or frame-by-frame) is an animation technique where the artist maneuvers real-
world objects and photographs them one at a time. A computer is then used to combine the photos
in a series, thereby creating an illusion of movement. Cartoons are produced through animation.

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Assignment: What is claymation?

Answer: A form of stop-motion animation in which each object is sculpted in clay or a similarly pliable
material such as plasticine.

b. Motion Capture
Motion capture (mocap) is the process of recording a live motion event and translating it into
actionable data that allows for a 3D recreation of the performance. In film making, motion capture is
used to film an actor’s movements which are turned into 3D movements, and then mapped to an
avatar.

II. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, ETHICAL AND LEGAL

IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS

Introduction
Computers have had many effects on individuals in society. They have impacted on the way
individuals work, socialize and run their lives. As a result of computers, an individual's values are
now in constant flux. The moral and ethical framework that guides an individual is constantly
changing as is the economic and legal framework within which lives are led.

1. Social and Economic Effects of Computers

The widespread use of computers has affected people and organizations in many ways. Some of the
effects of computers include:
 The introduction of computers have made some jobs outdated leading to unemployment
 New jobs have been created like engineering to build machines, software programming to
write programs for the computers, etc
 There is reduction in working hours as a result of automation of some tasks which can lead to
reduction of salaries.
 The introduction of computers has led to retraining or reskilling as many employees have to be
trained on how to use a computer.
 Automation of tasks can lead to difficult jobs becoming easy so anyone can do them. As a result,
a skilled employee suddenly is the proud possessor of skills that no-one needs any more.
 Automation of tasks has led to an increase in productivity thereby improving the profit of the
organization.
 Computers have led to new types of crimes like phishing, identity theft, piracy etc
 The post office has become more of a bill paying center than a communication center as it is
now faster and cheaper to communicate online through emails and chats.
 More information can be stored on very little space
 Privacy has become a concern as confidential data stored in computers or distributed on
networks can be intercepted by hackers and crackers.

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2. Computer Crimes
A computer crime is any illegal act that involves the computer either as the target of the crime or as
a tool used in committing the crime. When the computer is the target of the criminal act, the crime is
said to be a computer-related crime. When it is a tool used to commit the crime, the crime is
referred to as a computer-assisted crime.

2.1. Types of Computer Crimes

2.1.1. Phishing
Phishing is the criminally fraudulent process of acquiring or attempting to acquire sensitive
information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a
trustworthy entity in an electronic communication. The phisher sends out an e-mail that pretends to
come from a bank or corporation with which the victim has an account.
The e-mail message tells the victim to click on a link in order to handle some kind of urgent business.
In reality, both the message and the link are counterfeit, and the victim ends up giving their
password or credit card information to the phisher, or at the very least, visiting a web site that
disseminates malware.

2.1.2. Software Piracy

Software piracy or copyright infringement is the illegal (unauthorized) reproduction of copyrighted
or patented software for personal use, for sale or free distribution. It is the most widely practiced
type of computer crime. Software piracy occurs more easily with the ability to post files for
downloading all over the world. However, another more costly copyright infringement occurs when
trademarks and logos of corporations are posted on non-authorized web sites. Some criminals
utilize the trademarks and logos to appear to be a legitimate site to perpetrate fraud. Many
corporations have employees or consulting contractors who constantly crawl the web to sniff out
illegal usage of trademarks and logos.

2.1.3. Malware Attacks

Malware (malicious software) is any software that could harm a computer system, interfere with a
user's data, or make the computer to perform actions without the owner's knowledge or permission.
Examples are virus, worms, Trojan horse, spyware and logic bombs.

 Virus
A virus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer where it destroys files and
disrupts the operation of the computer. A virus can spread from one computer to another (in some
form of executable code) when its host is taken to the target computer.

 Worm
A worm is a self-replicating malicious program which uses a computer network to send copies of
itself to other computers (nodes) on the network and it may do so without any user intervention.

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Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Worms cause harm to the
network by consuming bandwidth whereas viruses corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.

 Trojan horse
A Trojan horse is malware that appears to perform a desirable function for the user prior to run or
install but instead facilitates unauthorized access of the user's computer system. Once a Trojan
horse has been installed on a target computer system, a hacker may have access to the computer
remotely and perform various operations, limited by user privileges on the target computer system
and the design of the Trojan horse.

 Spyware
Spyware is software that monitors a computer user’s activity without their knowledge and reports
it to a central location. The purpose of spyware ranges from purportedly benign (enforcing
copyrights, displaying targeted advertisements) to very malicious (stealing passwords and credit
card numbers).The most common way to get spyware on your computer is to install it yourself
when you are tricked into installing free software.

 Logic bomb
A logic bomb also known as slag code, is a piece of computer code that executes a malicious task
such as clearing a hard drive or deleting specific files, when it is triggered by a specific event. It is
secretly inserted into the code of a computer's existing software, where it lies dormant until that
event occurs. This event may be a specific date and time or failure to input a command at a certain
time.

 Software Key loggers

Software key loggers are software that record keystrokes entered by a user, usually to secretly
monitor and/or maliciously use this information. They can record instant messages, email,
passwords and any other information you type at any time using your keyboard. Software key
loggers may also be embedded in spyware, allowing your information to be transmitted to an
unknown third party over the Internet.

2.1.4. Denial of Service

A denial or degradation of service (DoS) is an attack to a computer system that puts it out of action
by overloading it with data in a way that the system was never prepared to handle. A DoS attack
makes the system unavailable to its intended users. A distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack is
one in which a multitude of compromised systems attack a single target, thereby causing denial of
service for users of the targeted system.

2.1.5. Hacking and Cracking

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2.1.6. Social Engineering

Social engineering refers to a non-technical kind of intrusion that relies heavily on human
interaction and often involves tricking other people to break normal security procedures. A person
using social engineering to break into a computer network might try to gain the confidence of an
authorized user and get them to reveal information that compromises the network's security. Social
engineers often rely on the natural helpfulness of people as well as on their weaknesses.

2.1.7. Cyber Stalking

Cyber stalking is a crime in which the attacker harasses a victim using electronic communication,
such as e-mail or instant messaging (IM), or messages posted to a web site or a discussion group.
Cyber stalking messages differ from ordinary spam in that a cyber-stalker targets a specific victim
with often threatening messages, while the spammer targets a multitude of recipients with simply
annoying messages.

2.1.8. Cyber Terrorism

Cyber terrorism can be defined as an act of terrorism committed through the use of cyberspace or
computer resources. As such, a simple propaganda in the Internet, that there will be bomb attacks
during the holidays can be considered cyber terrorism.

Other types of crimes are: scamming, theft of computer equipment, pharming, spoofing, and
phreaking.

2.2. Measures to Combat Computer Crimes

The following measures can be used to combat computer crimes:
 Install strong doors and locks to computer rooms to prevent computer equipment theft.
 Use access control mechanisms that will ensure confidentiality, integrity and availability.
 Encrypt confidential data stored in computers or transmitted over communication networks.
 Install antivirus software and update it regularly
 Install intrusion detection systems to help detect any unauthorized access to the system.
 Install firewalls to prevent unauthorized access to local networks.

3. Computer Systems Security

Computer system security is the process of preventing and detecting the unauthorized use of
computer systems. Prevention helps stop unauthorized users from accessing any part of the
computer system by controlling access to the system, while detection helps determine whether or
not someone attempted to break into the system, if they were successful, and what they may have
done.
Computer security has three main goals, confidentiality, integrity and availability, which can be
conveniently summarized by the acronym "CIA":
 Confidentiality ensures that information is not accessed by unauthorized persons. In other
words, it ensures that information is kept secret or private.

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 Integrity ensures that information is not altered by unauthorized persons in a way that is not
detectable by authorized users. That means that there is an external consistency in the system
- everything is as it is expected to be.
 Availability ensures that the system is accessible and useable upon appropriate demand by
authorized users. In other words, this means preventing denial-of-service.

Different mechanisms used to ensure the security of computer systems are authentication,
encryption, firewalls, digital signatures, etc.

3.1. Authentication
Authentication is the process of determining if someone is who they declare to be. In simple terms,
it is proving someone’s identity. Authentication can be obtained by the user providing something
they know (password), something they have (smart card) or something they are (biometrics).

3.1.1. Passwords
A password is a secret sequence of characters that is required to login to a system, thus preventing
unauthorized persons from gaining access to the system. When authentication is done through the
use of a password, knowledge of the password is assumed to guarantee that the user is authentic.
Passwords can be guessed or cracked and so if anyone is using a password to protect their system,
the following guidelines will help make it more secure:
 Don’t choose an obvious password (like your name, date of birth or name of relative)
 Keep your password secret. Don’t share it!
 Change your password regularly but not too often.
 Make your password at least eight characters long.
 Do not use common or proper words of phrases - these can be found using a dictionary cracker.
 Use a mixture of upper and lower case letters and numbers.

3.1.2. Smart Card

A smart card is a small card that holds user authentication information. When the card is inserted
into a card reader, electrical fingers wipe against the card. The information in the card is read and
used to authenticate the person. Cards can be stolen and so are not as reliable as biometrics.

3.1.3. Biometrics
Biometrics is the science and technology of measuring and analyzing biological data. In computer
security, it refers to the use of measurable biological characteristics such as fingerprints, eye retinas,
iris patterns, facial patterns, voice patterns, hand measurements and DNA, to identify a person. It is
the safest authentication technique.

Assignment: What do you understand by access control?

Answer: The limitation and control of access to a system through identification and authentication.
Or

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The process of limiting access to a system only to authorized users. This can be achieved through
identification and authentication.

3.2. Encryption
Encryption is the process of transforming a message using an algorithm into a form unreadable by
anyone except the intended recipient. The original message is known as plaintext, the algorithm is
cipher and the encrypted text is ciphertext. To read an encrypted message, one must have access to
a key that will enable them to decrypt it.
Encryption ciphers can be grouped into two: substitution and transposition ciphers.

Sender Recipient
Hello Encrypted text Hello
%fd$h

Encryption Decryption

Key Key

Encryption

3.2.1. Substitution Ciphers

A substitution cipher is one in which the letters of the original message are replaced by other letters
according to a key. Many substitution ciphers use only one alphabet, and are called monoalphabetic
ciphers. This means that we substitute one and only one letter for a particular letter in the message.
For example, every T in the message is replaced by the same substitute letter or symbol. Such a
cipher scheme is easy to remember, but is also vulnerable to "cracking" using frequency analysis
(letter counting).
In order to make substitution ciphers more secure, more than one alphabet can be used. Such
ciphers are called polyalphabetic ciphers, meaning that the same letter of a message can be
represented by different letters when encoded. Such a one-to-many correspondence makes the use
of frequency analysis much more difficult in order to crack the code. Examples of substitution
ciphers are Caesar cipher and Vigenere cipher.

a. The Caesar Cipher

The Caesar or shift cipher, named after Roman emperor Julius Caesar, is a monoalphabetic
substitution cipher in which each letter is translated into the letter a fixed number of positions after
it in the alphabet table. A key number k is agreed upon by the sender and the receiver, then the
standard alphabet is shifted k positions so that the k-th letter in the alphabet is substituted for letter
A, the k+1st for B, etc.The alphabet is wrapped to maintain a one-to-one correspondence.
Example:

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Suppose k = 3
Plain text letter: ABCD… WXYZ
Cipher text letter: DEFG…ZABC

Hence, the message: COMPUTING GIVES INSIGHT

Is translated into: FRPSXWLQJJLYHV LQVLJKW

b. The Vigenere Cipher

The Vigenere cipher is a polyalphabetic cipher based on using successively shifted alphabets, a
different shifted alphabet for each of the 26 English letters. The procedure is based on the table
below and the use of a keyword. The letters of the keyword determine the shifted alphabets used in
the encoding process.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZA
CDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZAB
DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC
EFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCD
FGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDE
GHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEF
HIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFG
IJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGH
JKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHI
KLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJ
LMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJK
MNOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKL
NOPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLM
OPQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMN
PQRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
QRSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
RSTUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQ
STUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR
TUVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRS
UVWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRST
VWXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
WXYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV
XYZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
YZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX
ZABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXY

The Vigenere tableau

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Example:
For the message COMPUTING GIVES INSIGHT and keyword TRUE, we proceed by repeating the
keyword as many times as needed above the message, as follows.

T R U E T R U E T R U E T R U E T R U E T
C O M P U T I N G G I V E S I N S I G H T

The Vigenere tableau above can be used directly to encode the message. For each letter of the
message use the letter of the keyword to determine a row and go across the row to the column
headed by the corresponding letter of the message. The letter at the intersection is used to replace
the letter of the message.

The above message is translated into: VFGTNACRZ XCZXJ CRLZALM

3.2.2. Transposition Ciphers

A transposition cipher is one in which the letters of the original message are rearranged without
otherwise changing them.

a. Columnar Transposition
A columnar transposition cipher enters the plaintext into a rectangle of a predetermined width and
extracts cipher text by columns from left to right.

Example 1:
Plaintext: ENJOY THE BEAUTY OF SCIENCE

E N J O Y
T H E B E
A U T Y O
F S C I E
N C E

Ciphertext: ETAFN NHUSC JETCE OBYI YEOE

Example 2:
Key: ORANGE
Plaintext: THE FUTURE IS BRIGHT

O R A N G E
T H E F U T
U R E I S B

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R I G H T

Ciphertext: TUR HRI EEG FIN UST TB

b. Rail Fence Cipher

Rail fence writes the plaintext in a zig-zag pattern in two or more rows and forms the ciphertext by
reading off the letters row by row from the first.

Example 1:
Plaintext: WE ARE HAVING FUN R N
A E I G
E H V F N
Cipher text: RN AEIG EHVFN W A U WAU

Example 2: S L
Cipher text: SL IIIFE HSAEC TRN I I I F E
H S A E C
Plaintext: THIS IS RAIL FENCE T R N

3.3. Firewall
A firewall is a system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.
Firewalls are implemented in either hardware or software form, or a combination of both. They
prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet. All
messages entering or leaving the network must pass through the firewall which examines each
message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria. Some Operating Systems
like Windows XP, 7 and Mac OS X, have built-in firewalls.

3.4. Intrusion Detection

Intrusion detection is the art and science of sensing when a system or network is being used
inappropriately or without authorization. An intrusion-detection system (IDS) monitors system and
network resources and activities and, using information gathered from these sources, notifies the
authorities when it identifies a possible intrusion.

3.5. Digital Signatures

A digital signature is a computed digest of a message that is encrypted and sent with the message.
The recipient decrypts the signature and compares it with the received text. If they match, the
message is authenticated and proved intact from the sender.
Digital signatures also ensure non-repudiation. Non-repudiation is the prevention of either the
sender or the receiver denying a transmitted message. A system must be able to prove that certain
messages were sent and received.

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3.6. Fault Tolerance

4. Computer Ethics
Ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong that individuals, acting as free moral agents, use to
make choices that guide their own behavior. Ethical principles place a value on human acts
according to whether they are good or bad.
Computer ethics refers to standards of good conduct applied within the use of computers. It defines
principles for judging computing acts whether they are good or bad.

4.1. Fundamental Principlesof ComputerEthics

The fundamental principles of computer ethics formulated by the Computer Ethics Institute (CEI) as
the“ten commandments” of computer ethics are:
1. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people.
2. Thou shall not interfere with other people’s computer work.
3. Thou shall not snoop around in other people’s files.
4. Thou shall not use a computer to steal.
5. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness.
6. Thou shall not copy or use proprietary software for which you have not paid.
7. Thou shall not use other people’s computer resources without authorization or proper
compensation.
8. Thou shall not appropriate other people’s intellectual output.
9. Thou shall think about the social consequences of the program you write or the system you
design.
10. Thou shall use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect for your fellow
humans.

4.2. Codes of Ethics and Professional Conduct

A code of ethics and professional conduct sets the standards for what is expected of a professional.
They are promises by professions to regulate themselves in the general interest of the society. Code
of ethics for information technology professionals encourage them to behave ethically and
responsibly with the tools and information they have in their control. Examples are the British
Computing Society (BCS) code of ethics, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) code of
ethics, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineer (IEEE) code of ethics.

4.2.1. ACM Code of Ethics

1. General Moral Imperatives
As an ACM member I will…

1.1.Contribute to society and human well-being.

1.2.Avoid harm to others.
1.3.Be honest and trustworthy.
1.4.Be fair and take action not to discriminate.

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1.5.Honour copyrights and patents.

1.6.Give proper credit for intellectual property.
1.7.Respect rights to limit access to computing and communication systems.
1.8.Respect the privacy of others.
1.9. Honour confidentiality.

2. More Specific Professional Responsibilities.

As an ACM Computing Professional I will . . .

2.1. Strive to achieve the highest quality, effectiveness and dignity in both the process and products
of professional work.
2.2. Acquire and maintain professional competence.
2.3. Know and respect existing laws pertaining to professional work.
2.4. Accept and provide appropriate professional review.
2.5. Give comprehensive and thorough evaluations of computer systems and their impacts,
including analysis of possible risks.
2.6. Honor contracts, agreements, and assigned responsibilities.
2.7. Improve public understanding of computing and its consequences.
2.8. Access computing and communications resources only when authorized to do so.

4.2.2. IEEE Code of Ethics

We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies in affecting the
quality of life throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its
members and the communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and
professional conduct and agree:

1. To accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the
public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
2. To avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected
parties when they do exist;
3. To be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;
4. To reject bribery in all its forms;
5. To improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential
consequences;
6. To maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for
others only if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
7. To seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors,
and to credit properly the contributions of others;
8. To treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or
national origin;
9. To avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action;

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4.3. Netiquette
Netiquette is short for network etiquette. It is a set of rules about acceptable behavior when
communicating over the Internet. Some basic rules of netiquette are:
 Avoid flaming i.e. using obscene or inappropriate language in your emails or posts
 Avoid using capital letters in your emails/comments, it is considered like YOU ARE
SHOUTING and it is harder to read.
 Avoid sloppiness i.e. avoid spelling and grammatical errors. Re-read and edit your
emails/comments before you send/post
 Do not send huge file attachments unless they are requested
 Always fill the subject field of an email before you send
 Do not format your emails with colored text or background color. They may cause them hard
to read.

5. Legislation
Legislation is the act of making and passing laws.Some laws that govern the use of computers area
the Data Protection Act, the Computer Misuse Act, the Copyright, Design and Patent Act, and the
Health and Safety Act.

5.1. The Data Protection Act

It is aimed at protecting the rights of individuals to privacy. Some Data Protection Act rules are:
1. If an organization holds data on individuals, it must be registered under the act.
2. Personal data should be processed fairly and lawfully
3. Personal data should not be disclosed in anyway other than lawfully and within the
registered purpose.
4. Personal data should be adequate and relevant and not excessive for the required purpose.
5. Personal data should be kept accurate and kept up to date
6. Data must be processed in accordance with the right of the data subject
7. Appropriate security measures must be taken against unauthorized access

5.2. The ComputerMisuse Act

This act makes it an offence to access any computer to which you do not have an authorized right to
use. It introduces three criminal offences:
1. Unauthorized access to computer material.
2. Unauthorized access with intent to commit or facilitate commission of further offences.
3. Unauthorized modification of computer material.

5.3. Copyright, Design and Patent Act

This Act is designed to protect all types of intellectual property and ensure that authors or creators
of a piece of work receive both credit and compensation.

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 Copyrightis a statutory grant that protects original work. Something that is copyrighted is not
to be reproduced, published or copied without permission from the copyright holder. Ideas are
not protected by copyright; only the specific presentation of the idea is copyrightable.

 Designis the appearance or construction of something. A design is not immediately

protected.Itmust be registered with the appropriate institution,

 A Patentis a grant to inventors that give them exclusive monopoly over their invention. It gives
them the right to stop others from producing, selling or using their invention. Unlike
copyrights, patents protect the ideas or design of the invention rather than any tangible form
of the invention.

5.4. Health and Safety Act

The original Act and its many added regulations cover the range of hazards an employee may face
like handling hazardous material. Some of the regulations that apply to the computing industry are:

 Display Screen Equipment Regulations

They cover the precautions that must be taken when an employee uses a visual display unit. The
regulation covers items such as the chair which must be adjustable, the desk which must be at the
appropriate height, the monitor which must be adjustable and the lighting which must be
appropriate.

 Moving and Handling Regulations

These regulations lay down the rules for safe moving of heavy objects. All employees involved in
such activities must receive proper training on avoiding injury when moving heavy objects.

 Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)

These regulations cover the safe storage and use of hazardous materials. This includes items such as
laser printer toners and anyone involved in replacing such items must be made aware of the
potentially toxic nature of toners.

Assignment: State what you understand by the following terms.

i) Digital inclusion
ii) Digital divide.

Answer:
i) Digital inclusion
Digital inclusion is commonly defined asthe incorporation of information technologies into the
community in order to promote education and improve the quality of life.
In other words, it is the ability of individuals and groups to access and use information and
communication technologies.

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Digital inclusion is necessary as we move towards a technology based society to ensure that all
individuals can participate fully in the economic, educational, civic and social activities of their
community.

ii) Digital divide

The Digital divide refers to the gap between those who have and those who lack access to computers
and the Internet.

6. Computers in the Workplace

It is important to note that in as much as the computer is a very vital tool for everyone’s daily use, it
can also be a very harmful tool if poorly used. Using the computer for prolonged periods of time can
lead to physical health risks. For this reason, users must ensure that they follow health measures
and apply safety precautions as they use the computers to avoid computer related disorders.

6.1. Computer Related Disorders

CRDs are health problems associated with prolonged computer usage. They include repetitive strain
injury, carpal tunnel syndrome, eyestrain and headache.

6.1.1. Repetitive Strain Injury

Medically defined as cumulative trauma disorder (CTD), it is a debilitating health condition resulting
from overusing the hands to perform a repetitive task such as typing, clicking a mouse or writing.
RSI results in damage to muscles, tendons and nerves of the neck, shoulder, forearm and hand
which can cause pain, weakness, numbness or impairment of the motor control.
Symptoms are tightness, discomfort, stiffness, burning sensation in the hands, wrists, fingers,
forearms and elbows. Tingling, coldness and numbness of the hand with loss of strength and
coordination occur. There is pain in the upper back, shoulders and neck and need for massage.

6.1.2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome

6.1.3. Computer Vision Syndrome

6.2. Ergonomics
Ergonomics refers to the application of scientific knowledge to the workplace in an effort to
improve the well-being and efficiency of workers. Simply put, it is the study of human factors
related to things people use. These factors include workstation layout, sitting posture, lighting,
viewing distance etc.

6.2.1. Workstation Layout

Workstation layout has to do with the arrangement of the computer and related products, in the
workplace. Appropriate placement of workstation components and accessories allows one to work
in neutral body position which will enable them perform more efficiently, work more comfortably
and safe. The layout for a comfortable and productive workstation involves the following:

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a. Desk or Work Surface Areas

Limited space on the work surface may cause users to place components and devices in undesirable
positions. This may lead to awkward postures as you reach for a mouse/keyboard or look at a
monitor that is to the side. Working with your neck turned to the side prolonged periods load neck
muscles unevenly and increase fatigue and pain.

b. Areas under the Work surface

Inadequate clearance or space under the work surface due to poor design may result in discomfort
and performance inefficiencies.

c. Placement of components
Placing components e.g. mouse, telephone, far away from you can cause you to repeatedly reach out
for them resulting in strain on the shoulder, arm and neck.

6.2.2. Sitting Posture

Working with the body in a neutral position is important. It reduces stress and strain on the muscles,
tendons and skeletal system thereby reducing your risk of developing musculoskeletal disorders.
For a good sitting posture the following points are vital:
 The monitor should be set so that your neck will be straight
 Your elbows should stay close to the body and be bent at about 90o, with your upper arms
hanging naturally from the side.
 Keep your hands in line with the fore arms so your wrists are straight. You may use a wrist rest
or arm rest to help keep your wrists straight and your arm muscles from being overworked.
Performing task without a wrist rest may increase the angle to which user’s wrists are bent.
Increasing the angle of bend increases contact stress and irritation on tendons and tendon
sheaths.
 Your feet should be fully supported by the floor or a footrest should be used if the heights of
your table and chair are not adjustable.
 Your back should be fully supported with a lumbar support when sitting vertical or leaning
back slightly.
 Your thighs should be parallel to the floor

Regardless of how good your working posture is, working in the same posture or sitting still for
prolonged periods is not healthy. You should change your working position frequently by
 Making small adjustments to your chair or backrest
 Stretching your fingers, arms and torso
 Walking around a few minutes periodically

6.2.3. Lighting
When a computer work environment is planned both overall lighting and positioning of lights and
windows must be considered. Overhead lights and windows are sources of glare that may mask

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whatever is shown on the screen resulting in visual fatigue and discomfort. There are three types of
glare: direct, indirect and masking.
 Direct glare occurs when there are bright light sources directly in the operator’s field of view.
Windows are often a source of direct glare.
 Indirect glare occurs when light from windows or overhead lights is reflected off shiny surfaces
in the field of view.
 Light from sources directly overhead causes masking glare on the screen.

The use of light absorbing blinds and curtains will help reduce both direct and indirect glare. Placing
the monitor in an appropriate position can help reduce overhead or masking glare. Glare can also be
prevented using an anti-glare screen filter.

III. COMPUTER ORGANISATION AND ARCHITECTURE

Introduction
Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system that have a direct impact on thelogical
execution of a program like the instruction set, the number of bits used to represent various data
types, I/O mechanisms and techniques for addressing memory.
On the other hand, computer organization refers to the operational units of the system and their
interconnections that realizethe architectural specifications like control signals, interfaces between
computer and peripherals and the memory technology used.
So, for example, the fact that a multiply instruction is available is a computer architectureissue. How
that multiply is implemented is a computer organization issue.

1. The Von Neumann Architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is a stored-programcomputer model that was designed by the
Hungarian born Mathematician, John Von Neumann. It is based on three concepts:
o Both data and instructions (programs) are stored in a single storage structure called memory
o The contents of this memory are addressable by location, without regard tothe type of data
contained there.
o It has a single processing unit which. As such, execution occurs in a sequential fashion from
oneinstruction to the next.

Programs being stored in memory ensures that by altering the stored program, the computer can
perform a different task – reason why a computer is called a general purpose machine.
Neumann divided the computer into four functional units: input, processing, storage and output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit
Input Unit Output
Arithmetic
Logic Unit

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Assignment: What is the difference between a computer with a Von Neumann’s architecture and one
with a Harvard architecture?

1.1. Input Devices

Input devices are hardware components that are used to enter data and instructions into the
computer. Examples are keyboard, mouse, scanner, joystick, light pen, touchpad, trackball and
microphone.

1.1.1. Keyboard
The keyboard is the standard input device attached to computers. It has keys (buttons) that are
pressed to enter data and commands into the computer. These keys represent letters, numbers,
symbols and control characters. The keyboard has a total of 101-104 keys divided into different
groups or keypads.
 Function keys, labeled F1-F12, perform specific functions based on the software used. F1 for
example is used in most software to display help.
 Alphabetical keys
 Numerical keys
 Navigation keys also called direction keys are used to navigate through documents and
websites. Examples of navigation keys are the up, down, left and right arrows.
 Action keys

There are different keyboard layouts but the best known are QWERTY mainly used by English
speakers and AZERTY used by French speakers. Another keyboard layout modified greatly from a
standard layout is DVORAK, devised to increase typing speed by placing frequently used keys more
naturally.
A keyboard connects to the computer through cable PS/2 cable, USB cable or wireless (cordless).

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1.1.2. Mouse
A mouse is a handheld device which is moved across a flat surface to control the movement of a
pointer on a computer screen. The mouse has two buttons, the right and the left buttons, which are
clicked (pressed)to enter commands into the computer.
Different actions that can be performed with a mouse are:
 Click: Pressing the left mouse button.
 Right-click: pressing the right mouse button
 Double-click: pressing the left button two times in quick succession
 Drag: pressing the left button and while holding, moving the mouse
 Drop: Releasing the left button after dragging

Drag and drop can be used to move files or documents from one place to another.
A mouse connects to a computer through PS/2 cable (PS/2 mouse), USB cable (USB mouse), or
wireless (optical mouse).

1.1.3. Scanner
A scanner is an optical device that converts hardcopy image or text into digital form so that it can be
fed into the computer. The common optical scanner devices are the flatbed scanner, optical mark
reader, optical character reader and barcode reader.
 Flatbed Scanner: a scanner in which the object to be scanned is held flat against a piece of glass.
 Optical Mark Reader
 Optical Character Reader
 Barcode Reader

Other types of input devices are joystick, light-pen, trackball and touch pad.

1.2. Output Devices

Output devices are hardware components that are used to retrieve information from the computer.
They provide the results of computations to the person using the computer, in a way they can
understand. Examples are monitor, printer, speaker and projector.

1.2.1. Monitor
Also referred to as VDU (Visual Display Unit), the monitor is the most popular output device. It
displays information generated by a computer on a screen. Such output is known as softcopy output.
Monitors are characterized by the technology they use and their resolution.
 By the technology used, monitors are of two main types: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors and
Flat Panel Display.
o CRT monitors are similar to a television set.
o Flat panel display monitors are of different types: Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
Electroluminescent Display (ELD), Gas Plasma (GP) and Thin Film Transistor (TFT) monitors.

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 Monitor resolution refers to the number of dots (pixels) on the screen. It is expressed as a pair
of numbers that give the number of dots on a line (horizontal) and the number of lines
(vertical). The size of a pixel is known dot pitch. The smaller the dot pitch, the clearer and
sharper the picture appears on the monitor. Most monitors come with a .28 dot pitch.

Assignment: State the advantages of flat panel monitors over CRT.

1.2.2. Printer
A printer is a device that produces computer-generated information on paper. Such output is
referred to as printout or hardcopy. Based on the technology used, printers can be classified into
impact and non-impact printers.
 Impact printers have mechanical contact between paper and printing head (e.g. daisy wheel,
dot matrix and line printers).
 Non-impact printers have no mechanical contact between paper and printing head (e.g. ink-jet,
desk- jet, laser printers).

Assignment: State the advantages and disadvantages of impact and non-impact printers?

1.3. The Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) also called processor, is the brain or heart of the computer. It is
the part of the computer that interprets and executes program instructions. It also controls the
other components of the system. The CPU is made up of three main components: the arithmetic-
logic unit (ALU), the control unit (CU) and registers. Examples of CPUs are Intel Pentium II, III, IV,
Pentium Celeron, and AMD Athlon.

1.3.1. Control Unit

The control unit acts like supervisor seeing that things are done as they ought to. It locates and
retrieves program instructions from memory, interprets them and ensures that they are executed in
proper sequence. It also ensures that data is selected from memory as necessary and information is
stored correctly as well.

1.3.2. Arithmetic-Logic Unit

The arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic operations. It contains arithmetic
circuits that perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division,
and logic circuits that perform comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, greater than or
equal to and less than or equal to.

1.3.3. Registers
Registers are special storage locations within the CPU that offer an advantage of speed. They work
under the direction of the control unit to accept and hold data that is being processed. Since the CPU
uses registers for the processing of data, the number of registers in a CPU and the size of each
register affect the power and speed of the CPU.

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Registers are grouped into two: special purpose registers and general purpose registers.

 Special purpose registers are dedicated to specific tasks like:

o the accumulatorwhich collects the result of computations,
o the memory address register (MAR) which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece
of data is stored in memory
o the memory data register (MDR)which holds data values.
o the program counter (PC) which holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.
o Thecurrent instruction register (CIR) which holds the instruction being executed.

 General purpose registers on the other hand have no specific function; they are used according
to the need of the program being executed.

Question: How would you define processing?

Answer: Processing is performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide etc) or logical
operations (comparisons like less than, greater than, equal to etc) on data to convert it to useful
information.

1.3.4. The Instruction Cycle

The instruction cycle describes how program instructions are repeatedly fetched, decoded and
executed, one instruction at a time, until an instruction to HALT is encountered. Before an
instruction can be fetched, it must be placed into memory as well as related data, from an input or
secondary storage device. Once the necessary data and instructions are in memory, the central
processing unit performs the following four steps for each instruction:
1. The control unit fetches (gets) data and instructions from memory.
2. The control unit decodes the instructions i.e. determines what they mean, and directs that the
necessary data be moved to the arithmetic-logic unit.
3. The arithmetic-logic unit then executes the instruction on the data. That is, the ALU is given
control and performs the actual operation on the data.
4. The arithmetic-logic unit stores the result of this operation in memory or in a register.

The Instruction Cycle

Steps 1 and 2 together are called instruction time or I-time and steps 3 and 4 together are called
execution time or E-time. The combination of I-time and E-time is called the machine or instruction

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cycle or the fetch-decode-execute cycle. The length of time taken to fetch, decode and execute an
instruction is measured in clock cycles.

1.3.5. System Clock

The CPU has a small quartz crystal circuit called the system clock that controls the timing of all
computer operations. The system clock generates regular electronic pulses, or ticks, that set the
operating pace of components of the system unit. Each tick is known as clock cycle and the pace of
the system clock is called clock speed. Clock speed is measured in megahertz (Mhz) or gigahertz
(Ghz) and refers to the number of clock cycles per second that the CPU runs at. Mega and giga stand
for million and billion respectively while hertz means cycles per second. Thus,1Ghz means one
billion cycles per second. A computer that operates at 3 Ghz has 3 billion (giga) clock cycles in one
second (hertz).
The faster the clock speed, the more instructions the processor can execute per second. The speed
of the system clock has no effect on devices such as a printer or disk drive. The speed of the system
clock is just one factor that influences a computer’s performance. Other factors, such as the type of
processor chip, amount of cache, memory access time, bus width, and bus clock speed.

1.4. Storage Devices

Storage devices are computer components that hold programs and data for use in the computer.
Programs and data can be made available for initial or additional processing when required.A
storage device is made of two parts: the storage medium and the device.
 The medium is the surface or substrate that holds actual data
 The device reads information from or stores information onto the medium

Computer storage can be classified basically into two: primary storage and secondary storage.

1.4.1. Primary Storage

Primary storageis directly accessible to the CPU. It holds programs and data that the CPU is
currently working with. Primary storage is also called internal memory, immediate access memory
or primary memory. Primary memory consists of random access memory, read only memory and
cache memory.

a. Random Access Memory

Random access memory (RAM) also called “main memory” is the temporary storage space into
which a computer loads programs and user data when it is running. It is the computer’s working
space. It is read/write meaning that data can be read from and written onto it. RAM is also volatile
meaning that everything held in it is lost when power is switched off. Two types of RAM exist: Static
RAM and dynamic RAM.

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) consists of capacitors that slowly leak their charge over time. Thus, they
must be refreshed every few milliseconds to prevent data loss. DRAM is cheap memory owing
to its simple design.

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 Static RAM (SRAM) consists of circuits that retain their charge over time. SRAM is faster and
more expensive than dynamic RAM, and does not need to be refreshed as DRAM does. Due to its
cost it is not used as main memory but rather to build cache memory.

b. Read Only Memory

Read only memory (ROM) is a kind of memory whose contents can only be read by the computer.
Data found in ROM is written by the manufacturer and cannot be modified by the user. ROM is
useful for holding data that never changes like the “boot” or start-up program which is run when the
computer is switched on.ROM is non-volatile meaning that its content is preserved even without
power. There are four types of ROM:

 Masked ROM isROM programmed with its data when the chip is fabricated.
 Programmable ROM(PROM) isROM that can be programmed once but not reprogrammed.
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) is ROM that can be erased by strong ultraviolet light
and new data burnt into it. To do this the chip has to be removed from the machine and put
back after the changes have been made.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM) isROM whose content can be erased
electrically. In this case, the chip need not be removed from the machine. The programming is
done using special software.

c. Cache Memory
Cache memory is a smaller and faster memory between the CPU and main memory, which stores
copies of data from the most frequently accessed memory locations. The purpose of cache memory
is to speed up accesses by storing recently used data closer to the CPU, instead of storing it in main
memory. Cache is static RAM and is usually organized in levels:
 Level 1 (L1) cache, Level 2 and Level 3 cache.
 Level 1 cache is closest to the CPU or within it.
 L2 and L3 caches are outside it.

When the CPU needs to access memory, cache memory is examined first. If the data is found in cache,
it is read from it. Otherwise, main memory is accessed. When the CPU refers to memory and finds
the data in cache, it is said to be a HIT. Otherwise, it is a MISS.

1.4.2. Secondary Storage

Secondary storage isnot directly accessible to the CPU. It is used to store programs and data for
backup purposes (future use). It could be placed within the computer or connected externally.
Programs and data from secondary storage must be transferred to main memory for processing.
Secondary storage is also called secondary memory, mass storage, backing storage or external
storage. It can be divided into magnetic storage, optical storage and solid state storage.

a. Magnetic Storage

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Magnetic storage devices store data as electromagnetic charges on the magnetic surfaces of the
storage units. Examples are floppy disks, hard disks and magnetic tape.

 Floppy Disk
A floppy disk consists of a round flexible plastic disk coated with a magnetic substance and
protected by a plastic cover lined with a soft material that wipes the disk clean as it spins. The disk
is made of two recordable surfaces which are divided into a number of circular paths called tracks.
The number of tracks per surface varies with the particular type of disk. Each track is in turn
divided into a number of smaller units called sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage on the disk
and has a capacity of 512 bytes.

Floppy disk

 Hard Disk
A hard disk consists of several metallic platters which store data. Each platter has two sides and is
divided into a number of rings called tracks. Tracks on a platter are numbered 0 from the outside
and usually go up to 1023. Each track is divided into sectors. A sector is the basic unit of storage on
the disk and has a capacity of 512 bytes. Sectors are grouped together to form clusters. A cluster is
the smallest logical amount of disk space that can be allocated to hold a file. A cylinder is a sum set
of all the tracks on all the platters that have the same track value.
Factors that determine the performance of hard disks are, seek time and drive rotational speed.
o Seek time is the time taken to move the read/write head over the right track and sector.
o Drive rotational speed is the total number of revolutions the disk platters make per minute.
Higher rotational speed leads to higher transfer rate.

Hard disk

 Magnetic Tape
A magnetic tape consists of a magnetically coated stripe on which data is stored. Data is stored on
the magnetic tape in chronological order or sequentially. This means that any piece of data is always
stored in the next available space on the tape. To access data, the tape drive has to move through all

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the preceding data before it can access the desired data. This mode of access is known as sequential
access. Less susceptible to environment, they are suitable for long-term storage and backup.

b. Optical Storage
Optical storage devices store data as microscopic light and dark spots on the disk surface. Examples
are Compact discs, digital versatile discs and Blu-ray discs. They are less susceptible to
environmental damage.

 Compact Disc (CD)

A CD is a round disk coated with a metallic surface on which data can be stored and accessed via
laser technology. To store or access data on a CD, the CD drive focuses a laser beam on the disc
surface. Different variations of CD exist: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW. A CD can store 650MB to
700MB of data.
o CD-ROM stands for compact disc read only memory. CD-ROMs can only be read but not
recorded on, by the user’s computer. Their content is set during manufacture.
o CD-R stands for compact disc recordable. It is a type of CD that can be recorded by the user.
Once the user records on the CD, the content is set and cannot be changed. CD-R can be read
by CD-ROM drives but to write on them, you need a CD-R drive.
o CD-RW stands for compact disc rewritable. It is a type of CD that can be recorded, erased and
reused by the user. CD-RW cannot be read by a CD-ROM and CD-R drives. CD-RW drives are
required to read and write on them.

Compact disc

 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

A DVD is similar to a CD in size and thickness but has a Types Characteristics Capacity
higher storage capacity than the CD. DVDs use a laser DVD-5 Single-sided, 4.7GB
beam of wavelength shorter than used by CDs. This Single-layer
allows for smaller indentations and increased storage DVD-9 Single-side, Dual- 8.5GB
capacity. Just like the CD, different ions of the DVD exist: layer
DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW. A DVD can store up to DVD- Double-side, 9.4GB
17GB of data. Common DVD storage capacities are: 10 Single-layer
DVD- Double-side, Dual- 17.1GB
18 layer
 Blu-Ray Disc
A Blu-ray disc is an optical disc similar to a DVD and of same size, but read and written with a blue
or violet laser, whose shorter wavelength makes a higher data density possible. Blu-ray discs can
hold 25 GB for single layer or 50 GB for double layer.

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c. Solid State Storage

The term solid-state essentially means no moving parts. Solid-state storage devices are based on
electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels, no spinning disks). They store data using a special
type of memory called flash memory. Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that can only be erased in
blocks; it cannot be erased one byte at a time. In this regard it resembles a disk that is divided into
sectors. Flash memory is usually used for storing larger amounts of data while EEPROM is used for
small amounts of data, such as machine configuration. Examples of solid state devices are USB
memory sticks, memory cards and secure digital cards.

 USB Flash Drive

A flash drive is a small, keychain-sized flash memory device with a USB interface, treated by the
computer as if it were a disk drive. A flash drive is also called thumb drive, jump drive or memory
stick.USB flash drives have practically replaced diskettes as a handy way to transport data. They can
be carried in one’s pocket and plugged into any computer for immediate access.

 Secure Digital Cards

A secure digital (SD) card is a type of flash-memory card that incorporates a cryptographic security
system to prevent copyright violations, often used in digital music players and digital cameras.

1.4.3. Characteristics of Storage Devices

Four important characteristics of storage devices are:
 capacity
 access time
 access method
 volatility

a. Capacity
The capacity of a storage device is the maximum amount of data that can be stored on the device’s
medium.It is expressed in terms of the number of data bytes the device can hold. This simply means
the unit of measurement of storage capacity is byte. Units of storage are summarized as follows:

1 bit = 0 or 1
4 bits = 1 nibble
8 bits = 1 byte 1 character
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte (KB) approx. 1/2 page
1024 KB = 1 megabyte (MB) approx. 500,000 pages
1024 MB = 1 gigabyte (GB) approx. 5 million pages
1024 GB = 1 terabyte (TB) approx. 5 billion pages

b. Access time

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Access time is the average time taken for a storage device to search and read required data on its
medium. In other words, it is how fast data can be read from or written to a memory device’s
medium. It is measured in seconds. Units of time are summarized as follows:
Millisecond (ms) =
Microsecond (µs) =
Nanosecond (ns) =
Picoseconds (ps) =
Femtoseconds (fs) =

c. Access Method
An access method is the technique used to retrieve information from or store information to a
medium. Storage media can be accessed in two ways: sequentially or randomly.

 Sequential Access
The medium is accessed by proceeding from the beginning of the medium until the designated area
is reached. Any new data is stored in the next available space on the medium. To read any data
stored on the medium, the device has to start from the beginning going through each data until the
required data is found. An example of sequential access medium is magnetic tape.

 Random Access
Data is accessed in any order, regardless of its location on the medium. To read any data stored on
the medium, the device does not need to go through all preceding data. It is also called direct access.
Examples of direct access devices are RAM, ROM, CDs, DVDs and magnetic disks.

d. Volatility
Volatility refers to the behavior of the device without power. A device can be volatile or non-
volatile.Volatile means that the device loses its content when power is switched off. Examples of
volatile devices are Cache and RAM.
Non-volatile means that the device preserves its content even without power. Examples of non-
volatile devices are ROM, magnetic disks, optical discs and solid state devices.

1.4.4. Memory Hierarchy

Modern computers manage memory by organizing memory into a hierarchy in which large and
slower memories feed data into smaller but faster memories for faster processing of data. This
organization of computer memory is known as memory hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy are
the CPU registers followed by cache memory. The next level in the hierarchy is made up of main
memory, which is followed by magnetic disk.

Registers

Cache Memory

Faster and Main Memory

Slower and
smaller in size
Magnetic Disk
33 larger in size

Optical Disc/Solid State Devices

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1.5. The Motherboard

The motherboard is the main printed circuit board in the computer which holds the chipset and
other electronic components that give function to the computer. The motherboard is indispensable
to the computer and provides the main computing capability.

The Motherboard

1.5.1. Motherboard Form Factor

Motherboard types are better described by what we call the motherboard form factor. The form
factor of a motherboard determines the specifications for its general shape and size. It also specifies
what type of case and power supply will be supported, the placement of mounting holes, and the
physical layout and organization of the board. The most common form factors found in modern PCs
are:
 Advanced Technology (AT)
 Advanced Technology Extended (ATX)
 Low Profile Extension (LPX)
 New Low profile Extended (NLPX)

1.5.2. The System Bus

A computer bus is a set of parallel lines that interconnects various components inside the computer,
allowing the exchange of data between them. It is the pathway between these components, enabling
data to be transferred from one component to another. The width or size of a bus is determined by
the number of lines it has. The system bus is made up of three different busses: the data bus, the
address bus and the control bus.

a. The Data Bus

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The data bus carries data between the CPU and main memory or peripherals. During a write
operation, data is carried from the CPU and during a read operation, data is carried into the CPU.
This means that the data bus is bidirectional. The size of the data us determines how much data can
be transferred in a single operation.

b. The Address Bus

The address bus carries address information from the CPU to main memory or peripherals. It is
unidirectional. The CPU uses the address bus to send the address of the memory location to be
written to or read from. Also, when the CPU reads data from or writes to a port, it sends the port
address out on the address bus. The size of the addressbus determines the maximum amount of
main memory (RAM) that can be addressed. A computer with a 32 bit bus size can address a
maximum RAM of 232 bits = 4GB.

c. The Control Bus

The control bus is used by the CPU to send out signals to enable the outputs of addressed memory
devices or port devices. Typical control bus signals are memory read, memory write, I/O read and
I/O write.

When the CPU wants to read data from a memory location, it sends out the memory address of the
desired data on the address bus and then sends out a Memory Read signal on the control bus. The
memory read signal enables the addressed memory device to output the data onto the data bus. The
data from the memory travels along the data bus to the CPU.

1.5.3. Input/Output Interfaces

The CPU communicates with I/O devices through bus interfaces connected to the system bus. These
bus interfaces also called expansion busesare then connected to ports which allow the exchange of
data and information between the computer and external (peripheral) devices.

a. I/O Ports
A port isa pathway for data and information to go into and out of the computer from external
devices such as keyboards, monitors and printers.
There are many standard ports as well as custom electronic ports designed for special purposes.
Examples of ports are:
o PS/2 ports for connecting the keyboard and mouse
o VGA (Video Graphics Adapter) port for connecting the monitor
o RJ45 port for connection to an Ethernet network
o RJ14 for connection to the Internet via phone line
o USB port for connecting USB devices like Flash drives, printers, keyboards and mice
o Serial ports for connecting serial devices like PDAs
o Parallel port connecting parallel devices like printers

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o Firewire is high performance serial bus, for connecting devices to your personal computer.
FireWire provides a single plug-and-socket connection on which up to 63 devices can be
attached with data transfer speeds up to 400 mbps.

b. I/O Bus Standards

Ports follow standards that define their use. Examples of such standards are:
o SCSI(Small Computer System Interface) is a set of ANSI standard electronic interfaces that
allow personal computers to communicate with peripheral hardware such as disk drives,
tape drives, CD-ROM drives, printers, and scanners faster and more flexibly than previous
interfaces. Developed at Apple Computer and still used in the Macintosh, the present set of
SCSIs are parallel interfaces. SCSI ports continue to be built into many personal computers
today and are supported by all major operating systems.
o USB: Universal Serial Bus
o RS-232:
o IDE: Integrated Device Equipment
o PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect
o ISA: Industry Standard Architecture
o EISA: Extended ISA
o VESA: Video Electronics Standard Architecture
o SIMM: Single Inline Memory Module
o DIMM: Dual Inline Memory Module
o PCMCIA: Personal Computer Memory Card International Association

2. Flynn’s Taxonomy of Computer Architecture

Michael Flynn classified computer architecture into four distinct categories based on the notion of
stream or flow of information into the CPU. He identified two types of information streams:
 The instruction stream which is the flow of instructions into the processing unit
 The data stream which is the flow of the data on which the instructions are performed.

2.1. Single Instruction, Single Data Stream

A SISD machine is a uniprocessor machine which receives a single stream of instructions that
operate on a single stream of data. At any given moment, a single instruction is being executed on a
given data set. In SISD machines, instructions are executed sequentially. That is, instructions are
executed one after the other, one at a time. Hence these machines are also called sequential or serial
processor machines. They are typical examples of Von Neumann’s computer model.

Control Unit rocessor

IS
Instruction Data
stream stream
Memory

SISD Architecture

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2.2. Single Instruction, Multiple Data Stream

SIMD machines are multiprocessor machines which are capable of executing the same instruction
on all the processors at the same time. They have nidentical processors which operate under the
control of a single instruction stream issued by a central control unit on different data sets. At any
given moment, the control unit broadcasts the same instruction to all processors which operate on
different data sets from distinct data streams. SIMD machines are also called array processor
machines. An example is the CRAY’s vector processing machine.

PE 1 DS 1

Control Unit PE 2 DS 2
IS
DS = Data Stream
DSn IS =Instruction Stream
PE n PE = Processor Element
Instruction
stream
Memory

SIMD Architecture

2.3. Multiple Data, Single Instruction Stream

MISD machines are multiprocessor machines capable of executing different instructions on different
processors, but all of them operating on the same data set. They have n processors, each with its
own control unit, that share a common memory. Each processor receives a distinct instruction
stream but all operate on the same data stream. Such machines no longer exist.
�� 1
Control Unit 1 PE 1

�� 2
Control Unit 2 PE 2

�� �
Control Unit n PE�

Data IS = Instruction Stream

Memory
Stream PE = Processor Element

MISD Architecture

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2.4. Multiple Data, Multiple Instruction Stream

MIMD machines are multiprocessor machines capable of executing multiple instructions on multiple
data sets. They have n processors, n streams of instructions and n streams of data.Each processor
element in this model has a separate instruction stream and data stream hence such machines are
well suited for any kind of application. Examples of MIMD machines include multi-core computers
like the Blue Gene, Fujitsu K computer and CRAY Jaguar.
IS 1 DS1
Control Unit 1 PE 1

IS 2 DS 2
Control Unit 2 PE 2 DS = Data Stream
IS = Instruction Stream
IS � DS n
ControlUnit� PE n

Memory

MIMD Architecture

Assignment: SIMD, MISD and MIMD machines are known as parallel processing machines.
What do you understand by parallel processing?

Answer: Parallel processing is the use of multiple (independent) processors simultaneously to execute
a single program or task.
Parallel processing divides a single problem into portions so that multiple processors work on their
assigned portion of the problem at the same time. Parallel processing requires special software that
recognizes how to divide the problem and then bring the results back together again.
Some personal computers implement parallel processing with dual-core processors or multi-core
processors. Others have two or more separate processors. Others have two or more separate processor
chips, respectively called dual processor chips, respectively called dual processor or multiprocessor
computers.

3. Processor Architecture
A processor’s architecture refers to the way in which its memory and control are organized.

3.1. Instruction Set Architecture

Every CPU on the market today has a predefined instruction set which defines the primitive
operations that can be performed by thatCPU.

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Definition: An instruction set is the collection of bit patterns or binary codes for the machine
operations that a processor has been designed to perform.

An instruction set architecture (ISA) is the interface between the computer's software and
hardware and also can be viewed as the programmer's view of the machine. Besides instructions, it
defines items in the computer that are available to a program - e.g. data types, registers, addressing
modes, and memory.
There are two types of fundamental CPU architectures based on the notion of instruction set:
complex instruction set computers and reduced instruction set computers.

3.1.1. Complex Instruction Set Computer(CISC)

CISC (pronounced sisk) is a CPU design with a large amount of different and complex instructions. In
CISC processors, the control unit contains a number of micro-electronic circuitry to generate a set of
control signals and each micro-circuitry is activated by a microcode. Complex instructions are first
decoded and the corresponding microcode routine dispatched to the execution unit.
The standard features of CISC processors are:
 a large number of different and complex instructions.
 the use of complex addressing modes.
 execution of different machine programs on a CISC machine.
 the use micro-program control unit.
 limited number of registers.
 variable length instruction encoding
 direct memory access

Examples of CISC processors are: Intel 386, 486, Pentium, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III,
Motorola’s 68000, 68020, 68040, etc.

3.1.2. Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RSIC)

RISC(pronounced risk) is a CPU design with a small number of basic and simple machine language
instructions, from which more complex instructions can be composed. RISC instructions are
hardwired. That is, they are built into the chip with hardware rather than programming. Hardware
implementation of instructions is much faster and uses less silicon than a microcode
implementation.
The standard features of RISC processors are:
 a small and limited number of instructions.
 the use of hardwired control unit.
 consumption of less power and high performance
 instructions are very simple and consistent
 the use of simple addressing modes
 fixed length instructions (easier to decode)
 pipelining possible because fixed length instructions

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Examples of RISC processors are: IBM RS6000, MC88100

DEC’s Alpha 21064, 21164 and 21264 processors, Motorola/IBM PowerPC

Assignment: What is pipelining (pipeline processing)?

3.2. Addressing Modes

A machine instruction specifies to the CPU what to do, where the data is located, and where the
output data (if any) will be put. Every instruction is made up of two parts: Op-code and operand.
 The Op-code (operation code) denotes the basic machine operatione.g. ADD, STORE, SHIFT,
XOR.
 The operand (one or more) provides the data which the instruction manipulates.

For example, ADD A, #0E – ADD is the op-code; A and #0E are operands
MOV AX, 0 – MOV is the op-code; AX and 0 are operands

Operands can be specified in different ways in an instruction. The way an operand is specified in an
instruction is known as an addressing mode.

Definition: An addressing mode refers to the way in which the processor locates the data (operand)
associated with an instruction.

There are dozens of possible addressing modes, but they all generally fall into one of the following
categories: direct addressing, indirect addressing and indexed addressing.

a. Direct Addressing
b. Indirect Addressing
c. Indexed Addressing

4. Software

4.1. System Software

4.1.1. Operating Systems

4.1.2. Basic Input Output System

Basic input output system (BIOS) is software that contains hundreds of programs that allow for
communication between the CPU and devices. It is stored on ROM, which is a permanent chip on the
motherboard.
There are three kinds of BIOS for hardware devices:
 Permanent never changing BIOS for never changing hardware like the keyboard

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 BIOS for hardware that changes occasionally. It requires extra volatile information so it is
stored on a separate chip called CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor).

4.1.3. Utility Software

Utility software is used to enhance the operating system, or in some other way improve the
usefulness of the system. They help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer. Rather
than providing user-oriented or output-oriented functionality, utility software focuses on how the
computer infrastructure operates. Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed
utilities. Examples of utility software include: disk defragmenters, backup utilities, disk compression
utilities, disk cleaners, file managers, disk formatters and virus checkers.
 Disk defragmenters detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations
on adisk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
 Disk cleaners find and delete files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up
considerable amounts of space. They help users decide what to delete when their hard disk is
full.
 Backup utilities make copies of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire
disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
 Disk compression utilities reduce the space that a file takes up on disk, increasing the capacity
of the disk.
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks,
such as deleting, renaming, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying files.
 Disk partition utilities divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own
file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
 Disk formatters
 Virus checkers prevent, detect, and remove malware.

4.1.4. Device Driver

A device driver is software that allows interaction between the operating system and a hardware
device. It is an interface for communicating with the device through the specific computer bus that
the hardware is connected to. Without an appropriate device driver the system cannot
communicate with a device, rendering the device useless. Installation of device drivers usually
happens automatically when hardware is connected (plug n play), or from a CD provided with the
device. Sometimes a device driver needs to be updated to stay functional.

4.1.5. Language Translators

A language translator is a computer program that translates program instructions from one
programming language to another. There are three types of language translators: compilers,
interpreters and assemblers.
 Compilers translate instructions written in a high-level language into machine language
instructions.
 Interpreters translate instructions written in a high-level language into machine language
instructions and execute them, one line at a time.

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 Assemblers translate instructions written in assembly language to machine language

instructions.

4.2. Application Software

Application software is computer software that causes a computer to perform useful tasks beyond
the running of the computer itself. They provide user-oriented functionality. Application software
are used to carry out productive work like typing a letter, designing and invitation card, surfing the
Internet, listening to music or watching a movie. Application software includes a variety of
programs that can be subdivided into general purpose software, special purpose software and
custom-written software.

4.2.1. General Purpose Software

General purpose software is designed for a variety of tasks. It is not limited to one particular
function. They are also called generic software and can be found off-the-shelf. That is, they can be
bought from the market.Different types of general-purpose application software exist.

a. Word Processing Software

Examples are MS Word, WordPerfect, WordPad, NotePad

b. Spreadsheet software
Examples are MS Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro, Apple Numbers

c. Database Software
Examples are MS-Access, Oracle, Dbase, FileMaker Pro

d. Presentation Software
Examples are MS PowerPoint, HyperStudio, Digital Chisel
e. Desktop Publishing Software
Examples are MS Publisher, Adobe PageMaker, Quark Express

An integrated software package is software that consists of multiple applications bundled together.
They usually have related functions, features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with
each other. Examples are Microsoft Office, OpenOffice, Lotus Smart suite and Microsoft works.

4.2.2. Special Purpose Software

Special purpose software is designed for a specific task. Examples are web browsers, game
applications, weather forecasting applications, media players and flight control software.

4.2.3. Custom-Written Software

Custom-written software is written to a particular user’s requirements or needs. It is generally not
available off-the-shelf and often has to be purchased directly from the software manufacturer. It is

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also called bespoke software or tailor made software as it is tailored to the exact requirements of
the user or organization.

4.3. Software Distribution Licenses

Software are distributed under different licenses. They include public domain, freeware, shareware,
open source and all rights reserved.

4.3.1. Public Domain

Public domain software has no owner and is not protected by copyright law. It was either created
with public funds or the ownership was forfeited by the creator. Public domain software can be
copied, sold and/or modified. It is often of poor quality.

4.3.2. Shareware
Shareware is copyrighted software that allows you to use it for a trial period but you must pay a
registration fee to the owner for permanent use. Purchasing the right to use the software may also
get you a version with more powerful features and published documentation.

4.3.3. Freeware
Freeware is copyrighted software that is licensed to be copied and distributed without charge.
Freeware is free but it is still under the owner’s control. Examples are Eudora and Netscape.

4.3.4. Commercial Software

All rights reserved software is software that must be used by the purchaser according to the exact
details spelt out in the license agreement.

4.3.5. Open Source Software

Open source software is software whose source code is published so that a variety of people can add
contribution. Examples are Linux OS, MySQL, Mozilla and OpenOffice.

IV. SOFTWARE

Introduction
A computer system is basically made up of hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical
components of the computer. They are the parts of the computer that can actually be seen and
touched like the keyboard, mouse, monitor and internal circuits.Software on the other hand, refers
to the collection of computer programs and data that run on a computer, and which make the
hardware useful. They are the intangible components of the computer system.
Computer software has two major categories namely system software and application software.

1. System Software
System software control and coordinate computer resources (hardware and operations) so that the
computer user and applications can smoothly interact. They help the computer carry out its basic

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operating tasks. System software are designed to perform computer related tasks. They include
operating systems, firmware, utility programs, device drivers, library programs and language
translators.

1.1. The Operating System

The operating system is the essential software that is required for a computer to become
operational. Itis the software layer that is on top of the hardware to provide functionality to
computer components, manage the hardware and serve as interface between the computer user and
the computer. The operating system is called a virtual machine as ithides the complexity of the
hardware and presents the user with an interface that is easier to understand and program.
The operating system is stored on disk, but it needs to be loaded into memory (RAM) once the
computer is switched on and before any other program can be run. The term bootstrapping refers to
the process of loading the operating system into a computer’s memory. This process is done by a
program called the bootstrap loader that is stored permanently in the computer’s electronic ROM
chip. Examples of operating systems are Windows (95, 98, 2000, XP, Vista, 7 and 8), Macintosh
Operating System (Mac OS), Linux and UNIX.

1.1.1. Operating System Structure

The operating system can be divided into two main components: kernel and command interpreter
(shell).

OS structure

a. OS Kernel
The kernel is the central part of an operating system that is running at all times on the computer. It
loads first and remains in memory as long as the computer is on. It consists of utilities (file manager,
memory manager, device drivers, process manager etc.) that perform basic required functions. In
many operating systems, only the kernel can access hardware directly.

b. Command Interpreter
The command interpreter (processor) is the part of the operating system that understands and
executes commands that are entered interactively by a human being or from a program.In some
operating systems the command interpreter is called shell.It provides an interface between users
and the operating system (kernel).When a user logs in, a shell is started up.

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c. SystemCalls
The interface between the OS and the user program is defined by a set of instructions called system
calls. User programs use system calls to talk with the operating system.

Definition: System call is the mechanism by which a program requests a service from the operating
system’s kernel.

When a running program needs a service from the operating system, it calls a system call.

1.1.2. Memory Management

For a program to be executed, it must be found in main memory (RAM). In a multiprogramming
environment in which several programs can reside in memory at the same time, every program and
its data must be protected from the actions of other programs. Memory management keeps track of
what programs are in memory and where in memory they reside.
Memory allocation determines where a program as well as its related data will be kept in memory
for execution. Memory needs to be allocated efficiently to pack as many jobs in memory as possible.
Memory can be subdivided into segments or frames (pages).

a. Segmentation
Segmentation is when memory is divided into variable sized units called segments. When segments
are used, memory allocation can be done in three different ways:
o First fit allocates the first free segment that is large enough for the new process.
o Best fit allocates the smallest block among those that are large enough for the new process.
o Worst fit allocates the largest block among those that are large enough for the new process.

b. Paging
Paging is when memory is divided into fixed-size units called frames. Jobs are broken up into blocks
of same size as frames called pages which are allocated a number of frames. The OS then uses a page
table to map program pages to memory frames. The pages for each job could be in logical order or
they may be scattered about wherever there is a free frame.

c. Virtual Memory
A program may require more memory than it is available. To solve this problem, virtual memory is
used. Virtual memory is part of the hard disk that is used as an extension of RAM. It is slower, but it
is considerably bigger. As execution goes on, data is being swapped between RAM and virtual
memory.
When a program is running, only the pages that contain the necessary data are kept in RAM while
those that are not needed are kept on disk. For example, a program that has been minimized for a
long time may be transferred to virtual memory so as not to fill up the main memory.
Disk thrashing occurs when the OS has to spend a considerable proportion of its time swapping data
between virtual and real memory.

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1.1.3. Process Management

A process is a program in execution. It consists of the program’s instructions and the resources
allocated to it for execution. A program is static while a process is active. The operating system
performs process management to carefully track the progress of a process and all of its intermediate
states.
A process changes state as it executes. The different states a process can have are shown in the
diagram below.

Process states

o New - The process is being created.

o Ready - Process has all needed resources - waiting for CPU only.
o Running - Instructions are being executed.
o Waiting - Process is waiting for some event to occur (human, hardware or another process)
o Terminated - Process has finished execution

Definition: The turnaround time for a process is the amount of time between the time the process
arrives the ready state and the time it exits the running state for the last time.
In other words, it is the length of time it takes to run a process from initialization to termination,
including all the waiting time.

Assignment: Define the terms scheduler and dispatcher.

Answer:
i) Scheduler: the part of the kernel in charge with the strategy for allocation/de-allocation of the
CPU to each competing process. It maintains a record of all processes(called process table) in
the OS, adds new processes to the process table and removes the ones that are completed.

ii) Dispatcher: the component of the kernel that oversees the execution of the scheduled processes.
It performs “process switch” – procedure to change from one process to another.

The operating system manages a large amount of data about a process like the program counter
(PC), CPU registers, memory management information, I/O status, scheduling data and process state.
This data is stored in a data structure called a process control block (PCB) also called process

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descriptor or state vector. Every process has its PCB and each time a process is moved to the
running state, its register values are loaded into the CPU while register values for the currently
running process are stored into its PCB. This exchange of information is called a context switch.

a. Process Synchronization
In a multi-tasking system, processes compete for resources. A resource is anything that is required
by a process to accomplish its task (processor, memory, I/O device, bus, file etc). Some resources
can only be used in a non-sharable or exclusive mode. That is, they cannot be used by more than one
process at a time. Such resources are known as critical resources. A critical section is a part of a
program where it has access to a non-sharable (critical) resource. To prevent two or more
processes from entering their critical sections over the same resource, processes must be
synchronized.

Definition: Process synchronization is about getting processes to coordinate together in order to avoid
two or more processes entering into critical section over the same resource.

If processes are not synchronized, it leads to deadlock and starvation.

b. Deadlock
Deadlock is a permanent blocking of a set of processes competing for resources. It is asituation in
which each of two processes is waiting for the other to do something; thus, neither one can proceed.
For a deadlock to occur, the following four conditions must hold.
 Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-sharable way.
 Hold and Wait: A process must be holding a resource and waiting for another.
 No Preemption: No resource can be forcibly removed from a process holding it.
 Circular Wait: A waits for B, B waits for C, C waits for A.

Deadlock can be prevented by ensuring that one of the above conditions does not hold. For example
using pre-emptive scheduling.

c. Starvation
Starvation is a situation where a task can never finish because it can never get a necessary resource
such as a large block of memory. The operating system should detect such tasks and do its best to
allocate the resources that they need.

1.1.4. Process/CPU Scheduling

CPU scheduling is the act of determining which process in the ready state should be moved to the
running state. It decides which process in memory is to be executed by the CPU at any given
moment. Scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state
2. Switches from running to ready state
3. Switches from waiting to ready

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4. Switches from running to terminated

Scheduling can be preemptive or non-preemptive.

 Preemptive scheduling is scheduling in which the currently executing process is forced to give
up the CPU. Scheduling under (2) and (3) is preemptive.

 Non preemptive scheduling is scheduling in which the currently executing process gives up the
CPU voluntarily. Scheduling under (1) and (4) is non-preemptive.

There exist different algorithms used for scheduling. Examples are first come, first served, shortest
job first and round robin algorithms.

a. First Come, First Served

First come first served algorithm moves processes to the CPU in the order in which they arrive in
the ready queue. It is non-preemptive. As such, when a process has the CPU it runs to completion
before giving up the CPU.
Consider that the following processes arrive in the order they are given below.

Process Service time

P1 140

P2 75

P3

P4 280

P5 125

Using FCFS algorithm to schedule the processes, we get

b. Shortest Job First

Shortest job first (SJF) algorithm looks at all the processes in the ready state and dispatches the one
with the smallest execution time. It is also generally implemented as a non-preemptive algorithm.
Using the SJF algorithm, we have

Disadvantage

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 Some jobs may never be executed as they have a high service time (starvation).

c. Round Robin
Round-robin algorithm distributes time equitably among all ready processes by establishing a
particular time slice (or time quantum), during which each process executes. At the end of the
quantum, the process is preempted. It returns to the ready state to allow another process its turn.
Using round-robin algorithm with time slice of 50, the above processes will be scheduled as follows:

1.1.5. Management of I/O Devices

a. Interrupts
An interrupt is a signal generated by hardware or software that causes the CPU to suspend what it is
doing to handle another task of higher priority. Any event that will cause an interrupt is called an
interrupt request (IR). For example, a key pressed on the keyboard. An interrupt handler or
interrupt service routine (ISR) is a program that services an interrupt request. It contains the
actions that will be executed for a given interrupt request.

b. Polling

c. Buffering
A buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data while it is being moved from one place
to another.

1.1.6. File Management

The file system is the portion of the operating system that manages how files are stored. Examples
of file systems are FAT used in MS DOS, NTFS used in Windows, ext2 used in Linux and HPFS used in
OS/2. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file
management:
o File creation and deletion.
o Directory creation and deletion.
o Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
o Mapping files onto secondary storage.
o File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.

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1.1.7. ProvidingUser Interface

Working on a computer, a user has to interact with the computer. A user interface is the means of
communication or interaction between the user and the computer. The operating system provides
this means that enables an individual to see and work when using a computer.
Different operating systems provide different types of user interfaces.

a. Command Line Interface (CLI)

A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing the commands in
a specified format. It provides a prompt through which the user types the commands. Here the user
mostly makes use of the keyboard.
In this type of interface, the user has to remember the name and format of the commands. Spelling
mistakes and deviations in format lead to errors and the task is not performed. Examples of
operating systems that provide a command line interface are MS DOS, early versions of UNIX and
Linux.

b. Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A graphical user interface allows the user to interact with the computer through graphical items
such as icons, menus, dialog boxes, etc. Here, the user mostly makes use of the mouse to point and
click on these graphical items. GUI is also known as WIMP system where WIMP stands for windows,
icons, menus and pointers.
This type of user interface requires a lot of memory space to store the graphics and can cause
machines with low processing power to be slow. Examples of operating systems with a graphical
user interface are Windows, Macintosh operating systems, some versions of Linux and UNIX.

c. Voice Recognition Interface

A speech recognition interface allows the user to give verbal commands to the computer. The user
communicates with the computer through natural language. They are also called natural language
interface

1.2. Providing Security

Security is the most desirable characteristic of any operating system. An operating system should
provide a means for safeguarding system resources from unauthorized users and protection of one
user's resources from other users of the system.
Popular operating systems offer security features through incorporation of the following:
o Login name.
o Login password.
o Read/write access file permissions.
o Encryption of data
o Virus protection software layers.

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2. Types of Operating Systems

2.1. Single User OS
A single user operating system is an operating system which allows only one user to work on the
system at a time. No two or multiple users can work on the system simultaneously.
Examples are Control Program for Microcomputers (CP/M) and Microsoft Disk Operating System
(MS DOS).

2.2. MultiUser OS
A multi-user operating system is an operating system which allows multiple users to work on the
system simultaneously. This type of operating system is larger and more complex than a single user
operating system.
Features of multi-user operating systems, which are not provided in single user operating systems,
are:
o Time sharing (CPU devotes time to all the users in round robin fashion).
o Tight security features.
o Resource sharing among users.
o System administrator privileges
Examples of multi-user operating systems are Linux, Unix and Virtual Machine System (VMS).

2.3. Single task OS

A single task operating system allows a user to execute one and only program at a time. The user
cannot run two or more programs at the same time. It is not possible to be preparing a worksheet
on the computer while printing a report or listening to music. Once a user invokes a program, the
computer gets dedicated to that task only.
CP/M and MS-DOS are examples of single user single task operating systems.

2.4. MultiprogrammingOS
A multi-programming operating system is an operating system that allows multiple programs to be
held in main memory at the same time. The concept of multi-programming is that the operating
system keeps several jobs in memory simultaneously and decides which can be executed at a given
moment.

2.5. MultitaskingOS
A multitasking operating system allows a user to execute more than one program at a time. It allows
a user to be preparing a worksheet on the computer while printing a report or listening to music.
Multitasking is an extension of multiprogramming as two programs cannot be executed
simultaneously if they are not found in memory at the same time.
Windows Me, Windows-XP, Macintosh operating system, OS/2 are examples of single user,
multitasking operating systems.

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2.6. Embedded OS
An embedded operating system is an operating system that is used in an embedded system. An
embedded system is a small computing device that is built into a larger equipment often as a single
chip and dedicated to a given task. Embedded systems control many devices in use today such as
digital watches, mobile phones, microwave ovens, washing machines, vehicles, photocopiers,
cameras and process controllers.
Embedded OS are ROM based. That is, they cannot be modified as ROM is read only.

2.7. Network OS
A network operating system is an operating system which includes networking features. It contains
special functions, protocols and device drivers that enable the computer to be connected to a
network.
Examples of network operating systems are Windows-NT, Windows-2000 server, Windows server
3000, Novell Netware and Artisoft LANstatic.
Some multi-purpose operating systems like Windows XP, Windows 7 and Mac OS 10, come with
capabilities that enable them to be described as network operating systems.

V. FILE FORMAT AND ORGANISATION

Introduction
Computers process and store all forms of data in binary format.

1. Data Hierarchy
Data items processed by computers form a data hierarchy in which they become larger and more
complex in structure as we progress from bits, to characters, to fields and to larger data elements.
Data elements can be organized in a hierarchical form as follows:

Bit  Byte (character) Field Record  File  Database

 Bit
The smallest data item manipulated by computers is the bit (short for binary digit). Each bit can
assume either the value 0 or the value 1.

 Byte
A single bit is of little or no use as it can represent only two states. To make them important, they
are usually used in groups. A group of eight bits is known as a byte. A byte is the smallest
addressable unit of the computer and it is used to represent a character. Each character, be it a
letter, a digit or a symbol is represented as an eight bits pattern. The word “data” has 4 characters,
meaning that it will take up 4 bytes which is 32 bits.

 Field

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As characters are composed of bits, fields are composed of characters. A field is a group of
characters that conveys some meaning. For example, a person’s name, a word, the name of a place
or thing.

 Record
A record is a collection of related fields. A record consists of fields, with each field describing an
attribute of an entity.

 File
A file is a collection of related records. Files are frequently classified by the application for which
they are primarily used. A primary key in a file is a field whose value identifies a record among
others in the file.

 Databases
A database is a collection of files.

2. File Formats
Records in a file must be stored in a way that a program that uses the file will be able to recognize
and possibly access it. This is known as file format.

Definition: File format is a particular way that data is encoded for storage in a computer file.

A particular file format is often indicated as part of a file's name by a file name extension.
Conventionally, the extension is separated from the file name by a dot and contains three or four
letters that indicate the format. A file name is a unique name that is given to a file within its file
directory. For example, lectures.docx is a file with filename “lectures” and extension “.docx”
indicating that the file is an MS Word 2007 document.
There are as many different file formats as there are different programs to process the files. A few of
the more common file format types are:

2.1. Graphics File Formats

Computers store graphic images as either bitmap images or vector graphics.

2.1.1. Bitmap Images

A bitmap image is stored as a collection of tiny dots (pixels) of individual colors that make up the
image. Pixel is short for picture element.A data file for a bitmap image contains information about
every single pixelin the image. As a result, the file size of a bitmap graphic is often quite large.
Bitmap images are resolution dependent. Resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image and
is usually stated as dpi (dots per inch) or ppi (pixels per inch).The more the number of pixels in an
image, the more detailed the image will be.
Because bitmaps are resolution dependent, it's difficult to increase or decrease their size without
sacrificing a degree of image quality.

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Some common bitmap graphic programs are:

 Photoshop
 Paint Shop Pro
 GIMP
 Photo-Paint
 Graphic Converter

Examples of bitmap formats include:

o JPEG or JPG - Joint Photographic Experts Group
o GIF - Graphics Interchange Format
o TIFF or TIF- Tagged Image File Format
o BMP - Bitmap graphics file
o PNG – Portable Network Graphic

2.1.2. Vector Graphics

Vector images are stored as a collection of shapes (lines, circles, curves) called objects, together with
information defining how the objects will be produced and where they will be located. The data file
for a vector image contains the points where the shapes start and end, how much the shapes curve,
and the colors that either border or fill the shapes. Because vector graphics are not made of pixels,
the images can be scaled to be very large without losing quality.Programs used with vector graphics
are drawing programs. Some of these programs include:
 Corel Draw
 Adobe Illustrator
 Adobe Photoshop

Examples of vector formats are:

o SVG - Scalable Vector Graphic
o CDR- CorelDraw graphic
o CMX - Corel Meta Exchange
o EPS - Encapsulated Postscript
o CGM - Computer Graphics Metafile
o PICT - Macintosh Picture
o WMF- Windows Metafile

2.2. Multimedia File Formats

Multimedia is any combination of digitally manipulated text, sound, animation and video.

2.2.1. Audio File Formats

o MP3- MPEG Layer 3

o WMA- Windows Media Audio
o WAV - Waveform audio file

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o MIDI-

2.2.2. Video File Formats

o AVI - Audio Video Interleave

o MPEG or MPG - Motion Picture Experts Group
o 3GPP - Third Generation Partnership Project

2.3. Common Application File Formats

o DOC or DOCX - Document file (ASCII or MS Word)
o PDF - Portable Document Format
o TXT - ASCII Text file
o XLS (XLSX)- Excel Worksheet file
o WKS, WK2, WK3- Lotus 1-2-3 or MS Works Worksheet
o PPT (PPTX)- PowerPoint presentation file

2.4. Hypermedia File Formats

o HTML (HTM)- Hypertext Markup Language
o XML- Extensible Markup Language
o SGML- Standard Generalized Markup Language

2.5. Other File Formats

o EXE - Executable file (machine-language program)
o DLL - Dynamic Link Library
o SYS - System file
o ZIP- Zip compressed file

3. File Organization
File organization refers to the logical structuring of records in a file. In other words, it is the way
records are arranged in a file.
In the context of data processing, files can be grouped into two types: master and transaction files.
 A master file contains the permanent data of a data processing system. Master files represent
the most up to date situation of the system and contain two basic types of data:
o data of a more or less permanent nature which only requires updating occasionally;
o data which will change every time transactions are applied to a file.

 A transaction filecontains data that is necessary to keep a master file up to date. Data iscollected
on a daily, weekly or monthly basis into a transaction file which is then used toupdate the
master file.

Depending on the arrangement of records in a file, files can be serially, sequentially or randomly
organized.

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3.1. Serial File Organization

Serial files are files in which records are stored in chronological order with no particular sequence.
As each record is received it is stored in the next available storage space. In order to access a
particular record, the file must be read record by record from the beginning of the file until the
required record is found. This type of access is called serial access. Serial access is very slow which
makes it impossible for serial files to be very useful if individual records have to be looked up. They
are used as temporary files to store transaction data.

3.2. Sequential File Organization

A sequential file is a serial file in which records are stored in order by a record-key field. That is, the
records are sorted according to a given field that identifies each record in the file, in a unique way.
Sequential files are also accessed serially. However, a sequential file is particularly useful when a
whole file of data has to be processed as it is faster and more efficient than other methods.
Sequential files are ideal for master files and batch processing applications such as payroll and
billing systems in which almost all records are processed in a single run of the application.
Serial and sequential files can be stored on both magnetic disk and magnetic tape. They are
particularly suited to tape which is a serial/sequential access medium.

3.3. Indexed Sequential File Organization

An indexed sequential file is a sequential file in which an index is added to support random access.
In this type of file, records are stored in blocks and the address of every block is stored in an index.
A block address may consist of the key of the first record in the block. Indexed sequential files
therefore combine the advantages of a sequential file with the possibility of direct access. To access
any record in the file, the index is searched to determine the block to which the record belongs. The
record is then searched for sequentially but only within the block in which it is found.

3.4. Random File Organization

A random file is a file in which records are stored in random order. In a random file, the value of the
record key is mapped by a hash function to an address within the file where the record will be
stored. The function transforms the value of a record key into an index that corresponds to a
location in the file. This process is called hashing. Any record within this type of file can be accessed
directly without reference to any other record.
To create and maintain a random file, a mapping function must be established between the record
key and the address where the record is held

4. Processing Files
The main processes that can be performed on files are adding records, deleting records and
updating records.

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4.1. Processing Serial Files

4.1.1. Adding a Record
As there is no particular order in a serial file new records are simply added at the end of the file. The
process can be expressed in simple algorithm:
Open file A for writing
Move record pointer to end of file A
Write new record to file A
Close file A

4.1.2. Deleting a Record

The process of deleting a record from a serial file is more complex. It involves reading the records
from the beginning of the file and writing them, one by one, to a new file and simply not writing the
record chosen for deletion.

Open file A for reading

Open file B for writing
While not at end of file A
Read a record from file A
If Key_of_A<>Key_to_Delete then
Write record A to File B
Endif
Endwhile
Close file A
Close file B

File B now contains the amended data and file A still exists with the original data.

4.2. Processing Sequential Files

4.2.1. Adding a Record
In order to maintain the order of the sequential file the new record has to be placed in thecorrect
position in the file. This is done by copying the records from the original file intoa new file until the
position for the new record is found. The new record is written and then the remaining records
copied after.

Open file A for reading

Open file B for writing
While not at end of file A
Read a record from file A
If Key_of_A<=Key_to_Add then
Write record A to File B
Else
Write new record to File B

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Endif
Endwhile
Close file A
Close file B

4.2.2. Deleting a Record

This is exactly the same process as for a serial file.

4.3. Processing Direct Files

4.3.1. Adding a Record

4.3.2. Deleting a Record

5. File Data Security

There is always a chance that data can be compromised though it may appear secure when confined
in a computer. One could suddenly be hit with a malware infection where a virus destroys the files
or hackers may gain access into the computer system and steal, delete or destroy files. To secure
data, some measures need to be taken.
Data security is the practice of keeping data protected from corruption and unauthorized access.
Measures taken to ensure the safekeeping of data include backup storage, archival storage, data
encryption, authentication, logs, antivirus and firewall.

4.1. Backup Storage

Backup is the process of making copies of data which may be used to restore the original data after a
data loss event. Copies of data can be made and stored on storage devices like external hard drives,
CDs and DVDs. Backups have two distinct purposes; to recover data after its loss, be it by data
deletion or corruptionand to recover data from an earlier time, according to a user-defined data
retention policy, typically configured within a backup application.

4.2. Archival Storage

Data archiving is the process of moving data that is no longer actively used to a separate data
storage device for long-term retention. Data archive is often confused with data backup, which are
copies of data. Data archives protect older information that is not needed for everyday operations
but may occasionally need to be accessed while data backups are used to restore frequently used
data in case it is corrupt or destroyed.

4.3. Audit Logs

An audit log is a record of all the actions carried out by the user of a system, stored together with
their user name. If a file is deleted, modified or copied, the person responsible can be identified by
examining the logs. Getting a computer system to keep logs is one way of deterring authorized users
from damaging or stealing data from the system.

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4.4. Transaction Logs

A transaction log (also database log or binary log) is a history of actions executed by a database
management system to guarantee ACID properties over crashes or hardware failures. ACID is a set
of properties that guarantee that database transactions are processed reliably. ACID stands for
atomicity, consistency, isolation and durability.

4.4.1. Atomicity
Atomicity requires that database modifications must follow an “all or nothing” rule. This means
that,if one part of a transaction fails, the entire transaction fails and the database state is left
unchanged. This guarantees that a transaction cannot be left in an incomplete state.

4.4.2. Consistency
Consistency ensures that any transaction will bring the database from one valid state to another.
Any data written to the database must be valid according to all defined rules.

4.4.3. Isolation
Isolation refers to the requirement that no transaction should be able to interfere with another
transaction. No transactions that affect the same rows can run concurrently since their sequence
and hence their outcome would be unpredictable.

4.4.4. Durability
Durability means that once a transaction has been committed, it will remain so even in the event of
power loss, crashes or errors.

4.5. Virus Checking Software

A virus checking software or antivirus is software that is used to prevent, detect and remove
malware. Malware are malicious software including but not limited to computer viruses, computer
worms, Trojan horses, spyware and adware. Malware are designed to cause damage or disruption to
a computer system. When an antivirus has been installed on a system, it is necessary to update it
regularly. Examples of antivirus software are Avast, Kaspersky, McAfee, Avira, AVG and Smadav.

See Encryption, authentication and firewall in Chapter 2.

VI. NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES

Introduction

1. Number Systems
A number system is a set of symbols and rules used to represent numbers. The number of different
symbols used in a given number system is known as the base or radix of the system. The largest
value of a symbol (digit) in a given number system is always one less than the base or radix of that
system. If the base of a system is represented by“�”, then the largest value a digit in that system can
assume is “� − 1”.

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Examples of number systems include the binary, octal, decimal (denary) and hexadecimal systems.

1.1. The Decimal System

The decimal system has a base value of 10. Its maximum or largest value of digit is � − 1 = 10 −
1 = 9, meaning thatthe decimal system uses the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 to represent any
quantity.
For any n-digit number, the value each digit represents depends on its position in the number.
Decimal positions (place values) are powers of ten as shown below:
Least Significant
Most Significant
10�−1 …P 102 101 100 Digit(LSD)
Digit(MSD)

Decimal positions 360

Where, 100 is the ones place

101 is the ten’s place
102 is the hundreds place

The value of any digit in a given n-digit number is obtained by multiplying the digit by its place value.
The value of the number is the sum of the products of the digits and their place values. That is, we
multiply each digit by its place value, then we add the different products obtained.
Example: 23410 = 2 × 102 + 3 × 101 + 4 × 100 . This means that there are two one hundreds, three
tens and four ones in the number 234.

Remark Each digit position in decimal has a weight that is ten times the one to its immediate right.
That is, 102 is ten times greater than 101 which is ten times greater than 100 .

1.2. The Binary System

The binary system has a base value of 2. Only two digits 0 and 1, are used to represent any quantity
in binary. These digits are called binary digits or more commonly bits. To express any quantity in
binary we use powers much like in the decimal system but this time, the weights are powers of 2 as
shown below.
Least Significant
Most Significant
Bit (LSB)
Bit (MSB)
�−1
2 … 2 2
21
2 0

Binary positions for an �-bit number

e.g. the binary number 11012 is expressed as11012 = 1× 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20

This means that there are 1 one, 0 two, 1 four, and 1 eight in the number 1101.

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1.2.1. Binary Addition

Rules for addition:
0+0=0; 0+1=1; 1+0=1; 1+1=10; 1+1+1 = (1+1) + 1 = 10+1 = 11

i. 100 + 01 = 101 ………………………………….(4 + 1 = 5)

ii. 1101 + 101 = 10010 …………………………. (13 + 5 = 18)
iii. 1111 + 110 = 10101 ………………………….. (15 + 6 = 21)

1.2.2. Binary Subtraction

Rules for subtraction:
0-0 = 0; 1-0 = 1; 0-1 = 0 (we borrow digit); 1-1 = 0

i. 10101 − 100 = 10001 (21 − 4 = 17)

ii. 1010 − 101 = 101 …... we borrow a digit worth 2 to continue with the calculation ( 10 −
5 = 5)
iii. 1001011 − 110101 = 10110 (75 − 53 = 22)

1.2.3. Binary Multiplication

Rules for multiplication:
0 × 0 = 0; 0 × 1 = 0; 1 × 0 = 0; 1 + 1 = 1

i. 101 × 10 = 1010 ……………………………….. (5 × 2 = 10)

ii. 111 × 101 = 100011 …………………………. (7 × 5 = 35)
iii. 11011 × 1101 = 101011111 ……………… (27 × 13 = 351)

1.2.4. Binary Division

Rules for division:
0/1 = 0; 1/1 = 1; 1/0 = undefined.

1.3. The Octal System

The octal system has a base value of 8. It uses the digits 0-7 to represent any quantity. Weights in
octal are powers of eight as shown below.
Least Significant
Most Significant
Digit (MSD) 8 �−1
… 8 2
8 1
8 0 Digit (LSD)

Octal positions

Where 80 is the one’s place

81 is the eights place
82 is the sixty fours place

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Example: 3678 = 3 × 82 + 6 × 81 + 7 × 80
(This means that there are 3 sixty fours, 6 eight’s and 7 one’s in 367)

1.4. The Hexadecimal System

The prefix “hex” means 6 and “deci” means 10. The hexadecimal number system is thus a base-16
number system. Each digit position represents a power of 16. The digits used in this system are 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F, where� = 1010 , � = 1110 , � = 1210 , � = 1310 , � = 1410 , � =
1510 .
1.5. Conversion from One Base to Another
1.5.1. Binary/Decimal Conversion
a. Decimal to Binary
To convert a binary number to decimal, we proceed as follows:
Step 1: starting with the 1s place, write the binary place value over each digit in the binary
number to be converted.
Step 2: add up all the place values that have a “1” in them

Example 1: Convert 110102 to base 10

16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 1 0

16 + 8 + 2 = 2610

Convert: 11112 (15), 100112 (19), 101012 (21) to base 10.

Example 2: Convert 1101.0112 to base 10

1101.0112 = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 0 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 + 1 × 2−3
=8+4+0+1+0+1 4+1 8
= 13 + 0.25 + 0.125
= 13 + 0.25 + 0.125
= 13.375

Exercise: Convert the following binary numbers to decimal

ii) 1010.1012 ii) 10011.0012

b. Binary to Decimal
There are two methods that can be used to convert decimal numbers to binary:
- repeated division method
- repeated subtraction method

 Repeated Division Method

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The general technique of this method can be used to convert any decimal number to any other
number system.
Step 1: divide the decimal number you want to convert by 2 in regular long division until you
obtain a final remainder
Step 2: use the remainder as the least significant bit of the binary number
Step 3: divide the quotient you got from the first division operation by 2 until you obtain a final
remainder
Step 4: use the remainder as the next digit of the binary number
Step 5: repeat steps 3 and 4 as many times as necessary until you get a quotient that cannot be
divided by 2.
Step 6: use the last remainder (that cannot be divided by 2) as the most significant bit of the
binary number.

Example 1: Convert 21310 to base 2

213/2 = 106 remainder 1 LSB
106/2 = 53 remainder 0
53/2 = 26 remainder 1
26/2 = 13 remainder 0
13/2 = 6 remainder 1
6/2 = 3 remainder 0
3/2 = 1 remainder 1
1/2 = 0 remainder 1 MSB

Therefore, 21310 = 110101012

 Repeated Subtraction Method

Step 1: starting with the 1s place, write down all the binary place values in order until you get to
the first value that is greater than the number to be converted.
Step 2: mark out the largest place value
Step 3: subtract the new largest place value from the number to be converted. Place a “1” under
the place value.
Step 4: for the rest of the place values, try to subtract each one from the previous result. If you
can, place a “1” under that place value. If you cannot, place a “0”.
Step 5: repeat step 4 until all the place values have been processed.
The resulting set of 1s and 0s is the decimal number you started with.

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Example 2: 34110 to base 2

512 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

512 is greater 341 so we mark it out. What is left is
256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
341 − 256 = 85 we place 1 under 256 (MSB)
85 − 128 = � we place 0 under 128
85 − 64 = 21 we place 1 under 64
21 − 32 = � we place 0 under 32
21 − 16 = 5 we place 1 under 16
5−8 = � we place 0 under 8
5−4 = 1 we place 1 under 4
1−2 = � we place 0 under 2
1−1 = 0 we place 1 under 1(LSB)

Therefore, 34110 = 101010101012

Example 3: Convert 25.7510 to binary

2510 = 110012 ,
0.75 × 2 = 1.5 1
0.5 × 2 = 1.0 1
0.7510 = 112

⇒ 25.7510 = 11001.112

Example 4: Convert: 33.332 to decimal.

1.5.2. Binary/Octal Conversion

Theorem
If base R1 is the integer power of another base, R2(i.e. R1 = R2d),then every group of d digits in R2 is
equivalent to 1 digit in the R1 base.
For example:
Assume that: R1 = 8 (octal) and R2 = 2 (binary)

From the theorem, 8 = 23

Hence, 3 digits in base-2 is equivalent to 1 digit in base-8.

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From the stated theorem, the following is a binary-octal conversion table.

a. Binary to Octal
Step1: make groups of three bits starting from the least significant bit and move towards the most
significant bit.
Step 2: replace each group of bits by its octal representation.

Example: 1. Convert 1001102 to base 8

1001102 = 100 110
1002 = 48 , 1102 = 68
∴ 1001102 = 468

Example 2: Convert 10111012 to base 8

10111012 = 001 011 101
0012 = 18 , 0112 = 38 , 1012 = 58
∴ 10111012 = 1358
Binary Hexadecimal
b. Octal to Binary 000 0
To convert from octal to binary, 001 1 we replace every octal digit by its 3-
bits binary equivalent. 010 2

011 3
Example1: Convert 738 to binary
100 4
78 = 1112 , 38 = 1012
101 5
∴ 738 = 1111012
110 6

111 7
Example 2: Convert 4508 to binary
48 = 1002 , 58 = 1012 , 08 = 0002

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∴ 4508 = 1001010002

1.5.3. Binary/Hexadecimal Conversion

Assume that:
R1 = 16 (hexadecimal)
R2 = 2 (binary)

From the theorem, 16 = 24

Hence, 4 digits in a binary number is equivalent to 1digit in the hexadecimal number system.
The following is the binary-hexadecimal conversion table
Binary Hexadecimal Binary Hexadecimal

0000 0 1000 8

0001 1 1001 9

0010 2 1010 A

0011 3 1011 B

0100 4 1100 C

0101 5 1101 D

0110 6 1110 E

0111 7 1111 F

a. Binary to Hexadecimal
Step1: make groups of four bits starting from the least significant bit and move towards the most
significant bit.
Step 2: replace each group of bits by its hexadecimal value representation.

Example 1: Convert 1001102 to base 16

1001102 = 0010 0110
00102 = 216 , 01102 = 616

∴ 1001102 = 2616

Example 2: Convert 10111012 to base 16

10111012 = 0000 0101 1101
00002 = 016 , 01012 = 516 , 11012 = �16

∴ 10111012 = 5�16

b. Hexadecimal to Binary

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To convert from hexadecimal to binary, we carry out the inverse operation. That is, we replace
every hexadecimal digit by its 4-bits binary equivalent.

Example: Convert 4508 to binary

416 = 01002 , 516 = 01012 , 016 = 00002
∴ 45016 = 100010100002

Example 2: Convert 6� to base 2

6 = 0110, � = 1110
∴ 6� = 11011102

Assignment:
1) Convert the following octal numbers to hexadecimal.
i) 658
ii) 538

2) Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to octal.

i) 12B16
ii) F2E16

2. Data Representation
Computers use binary patterns (fixed number of bits) to represent data, which could be numbers,
letters, videos, images or other symbols. It is important to decide on how these patterns will be
interpreted. The interpretation of binary patterns is called data representation or encoding.
Different representation schemes exist.

2.1. Representation of Unsigned Integers

Unsigned integers can represent zero and all positive integers. The value of an unsigned integer is
interpreted as “the magnitude of its underlying binary pattern”. That is, for an unsigned integer, all
the bits in the binary pattern are used to represent the magnitude of the integer.
In binary, an n-bit pattern can represent 2n distinct integers. Therefore, an n-bit pattern will
represent integers from 0 to 2n − 1.

For example:
o A 4-bit pattern will represent the integers 0 to 24 − 1 = 3
o An 8-bit pattern will represent the integers 0 to 28 − 1 = 255

2.2. Representation of Signed Integers

Signed integers can represent zero, positive integers, as well as negative integers. Four
representation schemes are available for signed integers:
1. Sign-Magnitude representation

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2. 1's Complement representation

3. 2's Complement representation
4. Biased representation (Excess-�)

2.2.1. Sign-Magnitude Representation

In sign-magnitude representation, the most significant bit is the sign bit with 0 for positive and 1 for
negative. The remaining (� − 1) bits represent the absolute value of the integer. The absolute value
of the integer is interpreted as "the magnitude of the (� − 1)-bit pattern".

Example 1: Suppose � = 8 and the binary representation 01000001.

Sign bit is 0 ⇒number is positive
Absolute value is 1000001 = 65
Hence, the integer is 65.

Example 2: Suppose � = 8 and the binary representation 10001001.

Sign bit is 1 ⇒number is negative
Absolute value is 0001001 = 9
Hence, the integer is −9

The drawbacks of sign-magnitude representation are:

o There are two representations (0000 0000 and 1000 0000) for the number zero, which could
lead to inefficiency and confusion.
o Arithmetic is cumbersome making the design of electronic circuits for this scheme difficult.

2.2.2. 1’s Complement Representation

In 1's complement representation the most significant bit is still the sign bit. The remaining (� − 1)
bits represent the magnitude of the integer as follows:
o for positive integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the
(� − 1)-bit pattern".
o for negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the
complement (inverse) of the (� − 1)-bit pattern".

Example 1: Using 1’s complement, represent the following base 10 numbers on 8 bits.
i) 2610 = 11010
Number is positive ⇒ sign bit is 0
⇒2610 = 0 0011010

ii) −25
Number is negative ⇒ sign bit is 1
25 = 11001
Complement of 0011001 is 1100110

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⇒−25 = 1 1100110

Example 2: Give the decimal equivalent of the following 1’s complement binary representations.
i) 0010 0001.
Sign bit is 0 ⇒ positive
Absolute value is 010 0001 = 33
Hence, the integer is +33

ii) 1000 0001

Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
Absolute value is the complement of 000 0001, i.e., 111 1110 = 126
Hence, the integer is −126

The problem with this representation is that there are still two representations for zero (0000 0000
and 1111 1111).

a. Addition in 1’s Complement

o Add binary representations of the two numbers
o If there is a carry (referred to as end-round carry), add it to the result.

b. Subtraction in 1’s complement

Subtraction is implemented using addition as follows:
o Determine the 1’s complement of the negative number
o Add the binary representations of the two numbers
o If there is any carry, add it to the result

Example: subtract 37 from 51 in binary

37 = 0100101 ⇒ 37 = 1011010 ⇒− 37 = 1101101in 1’s complement
(51) 00110011
(-37) + 11011010
--------------
1 00001101
+ 1
---------------
(14)00001110

2.2.3. 2’s Complement Representation

In 2's complement representation, the remaining (� − 1) bits represent the magnitude of the
integer as follows:
o for positive integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the
(� − 1)-bit pattern".

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o for negative integers, the absolute value of the integer is equal to "the magnitude of the
complement of the (� − 1)-bit pattern plus one". That is, we just add one to 1’s complement
to get 2’s complement.

An alternative and simple way of getting 2’s complement is

o to write the representation of the positive number
o starting from the least significant bit, flip all the bits to the left of the first 1.

Example 1: Using 2’s complement, store the following base 10 numbers.

i) −24
Number is negative ⇒ sign bit is 1
24 = 11000 = 0011000
1’s complement of 24 is 1100111
2’s complement of 24 is 1100111 + 1 = 1101000
⇒− 24is represented by 1 1101000

ii) −13
Number is negative ⇒ sign bit is 1
13 = 1101 = 0001101
1’s complement of 13 is 1110010
2’s complement of 13 is 1110010 + 1 = 1110011
⇒− 13is represented by 1 1110011

Example 2: Give the decimal equivalent of the following 2’s complement binary representations.
i) 01100000
Sign bit is 0⇒ positive
Absolute value is 110 0000 = 96
Hence, the integer is +96

ii) 1 001 0001

Sign bit is 1 ⇒ negative
Absolute value is the complement of 001 0001 plus 1, i.e.,110 1110 + 1 = 111
Hence, the integer is −111 (− 27 + 24 + 20 =− 128 + 16 + 1 =− 111)

Modern computers use 2's complement in representing signed integers. This is because:
2. There is only one representation for the number zero unlike in sign-magnitude and 1's
complement representations.
3. Positive and negative integers can be treated together in addition and subtraction.
Subtraction can be carried out using the "addition logic".

a. Addition in 2’s Complement

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o Add binary representations of the two numbers

o If there is a carry, ignore it

b. Subtraction in 2’s Complement

Subtraction is implemented as follows:
o Determine the 2’s complement for the negative number
o Add the binary representations of the two numbers
o If there is any carry, ignore it

Example: subtract 37 from 51

37 = 0100101 ⇒ 37 = 1011010 (1’s C) ⇒− 37 = 1 1011011 (2’s C)
(51) 00110011
(-37) + 11011011
- ------------
(14) 1 00001110 discard end-round carry

2.2.4. Excess-n Representation

In excess-n notation, where n is the number of bits used, the value represented is the unsigned value
with a fixed value 2n-1subtracted from it.

2.3. Representationof Real Numbers

Computers represent real numbers in a form similar to that of scientific notation of mantissa (M)
and an exponent (E) of a certain radix (R), in the form of� × �� . Both M and E can be positive as
well as negative. For example, 1.25 × 10−1 is expressed in scientific notation where 1.25 represents
the mantissa, −1 the exponent and 10, the radix.
The IEEE 754 standard for representing floating-point numbers in the computer has two
representation schemes: 32-bit single-precision and 64-bit double-precision.

 In 32-bit single-precision floating-point representation:

 the most significant bit is the sign bit (S), with 0 for negative numbers and 1 for positive
numbers.
 the following 8 bits represent the exponent (E).
 the remaining 23 bits represent the mantissa (M) or fraction (F).

o In 64-bit single-precision floating-point representation:

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 the most significant bit is the sign bit (S), with 0 for negative numbers and 1 for positive
numbers.
 the following 16 bits represent the exponent (E).
 the remaining 47 bits represent the mantissa (M) or fraction (F).

In floating-point representation, the mantissa and exponent play two important roles. The mantissa
affects the precision of the number while the exponent affects the range. Precision has to do with
the exactness of a number while range has to do with the set of numbers that can be represented.

For simplicity, we will use a 14-bit pattern for floating point with a 5-bit exponent and an 8-bit
mantissa. In this case, we will use excess-16 representation for the exponent.
Examples:
1. Represent the following numbers as 32-bit single precision floating-point numbers.
a. 32.2
b. −15.37
c. 0.125

Solution:
a. We convert the number to binary
32 = 100000
0.2 = 0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0 ���
= 0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
= 0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
= 0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1
= 0.2 × 2 = 0.4 0
= 0.4 × 2 = 0.8 0
= 0.8 × 2 = 1.6 1
= 0.6 × 2 = 1.2 1

So a binary representation of 0.2is given by 0.001100110011

64.2is100000.001100110011

Step 2: we normalize the binary representation

1000000.001100110011 becomes 1.00000001100110011 × 25

Step 3: 5 is the true exponent.

In excess-16, we have 5 + 16 = 21
21in 5-bit unsigned representation is 10101

Step 4: The mantissa stored is what is on the right side of the radix point of the normal form.

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So M is 0000000110011001100110

Putting all these together we have 64.2 represented as:

0 10101 00000001[10011001100110]

NB: On 8 bits we see that part of the number will be missing. That is why we say the mantissa
determines the precision (exactness) of the number.

b. −15.375
Negative number ⇒ sign bit is 1
15 = 1111
0.375 × 2 = 0.75 0 ���
0.75 × 2 = 1.5 1
0.5 × 2 = 0.96 0
0.5 × 2 = 1.0 1

0.375 = 0101

15.375 = 1111.0101
Normalized we have, 1.1110101 × 23
� = 3 ⇒ 19in excess-16
� = 10010
−15.375is represented as 1 10010 11101010

c. 0.125
Positive number ⇒Sign bit is 0
0 = 0000
0.125 × 2 = 0.25 0 ���
0.25 × 2 = 0.5 0
0.5 × 2 = 1.0 1

0.125 = 0.001
Normalized we have, 1.0 × 2−3
� =− 3 + 16 = 13 = 01101

0.125 is represented as 0 01100 00000000

2. Suppose the following 14-bit floating-point representation patterns, what decimal numbers do
they represent?

a. 01000011000000

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b. 10111010000000
c. 11111000000001

Solutions:

a. 010000110 00000
Sign bit is � = 0 ⇒positive number
� = 10000 = 16 (in normalized form)
Fraction is 1.11 (with an implicit leading 1) = 1 + 1 × 2−1 + 1 × 2−2 = 1.75
The number is +1.75 × 2(16−16) =+ 1.75 × 20 = + 1.75

b. 10111010000000
Sign bit � = 1 ⇒ negative number
� = 01110 = 13 (in normalized form)
Fraction is 1.1 (with an implicit leading 1) = 1 + 1 × 2−1 = 1.5
The number is −1.5 × 2 13−16 =− 1.5 × 2−3 = − 1.625

c. 1 11110 00000001
Sign bit � = 1 ⇒ negative number
� = 11110 = 30 (in normalized form)
Fraction is 1.00000001 (with an implicit leading 1) = 1 + 2−8
The number is −(1 + 2−8 ) × 2(30−16)

2.4. Representation of Characters

2.4.1. Binary Coded Decimal
2.4.2. American Standard Code for Information Interchange
2.4.3. Extended Binary Coded Decimal

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VII. DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Introduction

1. Boolean Algebra
Boolean algebra also known as the algebra of logic was developed by an English mathematician
called George Boole. It deals with binary variables and logic operators operating on these variables.
A binary variable has only two possible values 0 or 1. Logic operators operating on these variables
are AND (·), OR (+) and NOT (‘). Operations are defined for the values 0 and 1 as follows:
AND
OR
0·0 = 0 NOT
0+0 = 0
0·1 = 0 0=1
0+1 = 1
1·0 = 0 1=1
1+0 = 1
1·1 = 1
1+1 = 1

1.1. Laws and Theorems of Boolean Algebra

o Commutative law
�·� = �·�|� + � = � + �

o Associative law
(�·�)·� = �·(�·�)|(� + �) + � = � + (� + �)

o Distributive law
�(� + �) = (��) + (��) | � + (��) = (� + �)(� + �)

o Identity law
�·1 = � | � + 0 = �

o Redundancy law
�·0 = 0 | � + 1 = 1

o Complement law
�∙�=0 | �+�=1

o Idempotence law
�·� = � | � + � = �

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o Absorption law
� � + � = � | � + �� = �

o Involution law
�=�

o No name
� + �� = � + � | � � + � = ��

�� + �� = � | (� + �)(� + �) = �

o De Morgan’s Theorems
�� = � + � | � + � = � ∙ �

1.2. Simplifying Boolean Expressions

Simplifying a Boolean expression consists of using the laws of Boolean algebra to write the
expression in its simplest form.

Example 1: Simplify the expression �� + �(� + �) + �(� + �)

Solution:
�� + � � + � + � � + � = �� + �� + �� + �� + ��Distributiverule
= �� + �� + �� + � + �� Idempotence rule �� = �
= �� + �� + � + �� Idempotencerule �� + �� = ��
= �� + �� + � Absorption rule � + �� = �
= � + �� Absorption rule�� + � = �

Example 2: Simplify the expression

�� + �(� + �) + �(� + �) = �� + �(��) + �(��) De Morgan’s theorem
= �� + ��� + ���
= �� + ��� + 0� Complement law�� = 0
= �� + ��� + 0 Distributive law,
Redundancy law0�' = 0
= ��(1 + �) Redundancy1 + �’ = 1
= �� ∙ 1 Identity rule�� ∙ 1 = ��
= �� Identity rule�� ∙ 1

Example 3: Use De Morgan’s theorems to simplify the following

i) (� + �� + ��)
ii) (�� + ��)

Example 4: Show that

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i) � + �� = �
ii) (� + �) = �(� + �)
iii) (� + �)(� + �) = �

1.3. Constructing Truth Tables

A truth table shows the output for all possible values of the input variables. To construct a truth
table, we evaluate the Boolean expression for all possible combinations of values for the input
variables. The number of possible combinations is always equal to 2� where � is the number of
input variables.

Example 1: Construct a truth table for the expression � + ��

We have 2 input variables � and � ⇒ we will have 22 = 4 different combinations.
� � � �� �
+ �� Example 2: Construct a truth table for the expression � + ��
0 0 1 0 0 3 input variables ⇒ 23 = 8 different combinations
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 �
1 1 0 0 1 � � � ��
+ ��
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Example 3: Construct the truth tables for the following

i) �� + ��
ii) ��� + ��� [�(�xor C)]
iii) �(� + �)(� + �)

2. Logic Gates and Circuits

Logic gates and circuits are simply ways of representing Boolean functions and expressions
electronically.

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2.1. Logic Gates

A logic gate is an electronic device that implements a simple Boolean function. Logic gates carry out
the operations that the microprocessor performs. When a microprocessor is designed, a logic gate
cell library (collection of all low level logic functions used to implement the logic) is also deeply
planned and developed.
There are seven basic logic gates: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR and XOR.

a. AND Gate
It is a logic gate whose output is “true” only when both inputs are “true”. If neither or only one of the
inputs is “false”, the output is “false”. The following illustration and table show the circuit symbol
and logic combinations for an AND gate.

A B Output
Logic AND 0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

b. OR Gate
It is a logic gate whose output is “true” when either or both of the inputs are “true”. If both inputs
are "false," then the output is "false."

Logic OR
A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
c. NOT Gate
It is a logic gate whose output is “false” if its input is “true” and vice versa. It is called logical inverter,
because it reverses the state of its input. A NOT gate accepts one input and produces a single output.

A Output
0 1
1 0
Logic NOT (inverter)

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A B Output
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0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
d. NAND Gate
The NAND gate operates as an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The output is "false" if both inputs
are "true." Otherwise, the output is "true.

Logic NAND

e. NOR Gate
A NOR gate is equivalent to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. Its output is "true" if both inputs are
"false." Otherwise, the output is "false."
A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
Logic NOR 1 1 0

f. XOR Gate
Exclusive-OR is a logic gate whose output is “true” when one but not both of its inputs is “true”. The
output is "false" if both inputs are "false" or if both inputs are "true." Another way of looking at this
circuit is to observe that the output is “true” if the inputs are different, but “false” if the inputs are
the same.

A B Output
0 0 0
Logic XOR 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

2.2. Logic Circuits

Circuits are made by combining two or more logic gates. Gates are combined into circuits by using
the output of one gate as the input for another.
Examples

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Exercise 1: Construct logic circuits for the following expressions

1) �� + ��
2) (� + �)(� + �)
3) �(� + �)
4) � + � (ABC)
5) � + � ��

Exercise 2: What are the outputs for the following logic circuits

VIII. INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Introduction
A system is an integrated set of regularly interacting or interdependent components created to
accomplish a defined objective, with defined and maintained relationships among its components.
Basically, there are three major units in every system namely input, processing and output. The
objective of a system demands that some output be produced as a result of processing the suitable
inputs.
An information system can therefore be seen as a set of interrelated components that collectdata,
process the data to produce information.

1. Data and Information

Data are raw facts and figures that have no context or purposeful meaning. In computing, data is
simply any number, letter or symbol that can be entered into a computer system. When data has
been processed it gives information. Information is data that has meaning and is presented in a
context.

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For example, the number 12.5 is data because we do not know why or in what context it is being
used. However, if the number appears on a student’s report card to show that they have an average
of 12.5, then this data has changed into information, because it has acquired a context (it’s an
average) and meaning.
Also, the binary patterns that describe an icon on your desktop are data. They become information
after the operating system software has processed them, because then they become meaningful to
you as the icons representative of your hard disk or Internet explorer.
In summary,
����������� = ���� + �������

1.1. Sources of Data

a. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a set of questions used for collecting data from people. A questionnaire may be in
paper format or online.

b. Interview
An interview is a meeting during which somebody is asked questions. Interviews allow you to
collect a greater depth of data and understanding from people than is possible by just using a
questionnaire.

c. Observation
In observation, the data gatherer observes what is happening during a process or event and
produces some kind of data file as a result

d. Data logging
Data logging is an automated method of gathering data by using sensors.

e. Document review
Document review is getting relevant data from a document, an article or a book.

f. Data mining
Data mining is the exploration of databases to collect data.

1.2. Characteristicsof Information

Good information is that which is used and which creates value. Experience and research show that
good information has numerous qualities.

a. Timeliness
Delay destroys the value of information. For effective decision making, information must reach the
decision-maker at the right time. Timeliness means that information must reach its recipients
within the prescribed timeframes.

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b. Accuracy
Wrong information given to decision-makers would result in wrong decisions. Accuracy means that
information should be free from mistakes and errors.

c. Current
For the characteristic of timeliness to be effective, information should be current or up-to-date.
Information must be current as a fact of yesterday may not be a fact of today.

d. Completeness
Information should have every necessary part or everything that is wanted. If information is not
complete, it may lead to wrong decisions being made as only half of an entirety of the information is
known.

e. Explicitness
Good information should not require further analysis for decision making. It should be clear and
obvious, leaving no doubts as to its intended meaning.

1.3. Data Collection

All computer systems need to have data input into them otherwise they have nothing to process.
Getting the data for the computer to process is known as data collection. Data collection can be
manual or automatic.

1.3.1. Manual Data Collection

Manual data collection uses forms and questionnaires. Data collected through this method has to be
entered into the computer by typing and clicking.
Many different errors can occur when entering data into a system. To try and reduce the amount of
input errors, a system designer can build in validation and verification checks into the software that
the data is entered into.

a. Data Verification
Verification means checking the input data to make sure it has been entered correctly. Verification
tries to ensure there have been no transcription errors. It is a check on accuracy.Two methods of
data verification are double entry and proofreading.

 Double Entry
Double entry consists of entering the data twice. The two entries are then compared against each
other and a warning given if they do not match. For example, a new password is always entered
twice.

 Proof Reading
Proofreading consists of reading the data entered either on screen or printout, to be sure that it
matches the data source. It is also known as visual check.

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b. Data Validation
Validation is a check on input data to ensure that the data is sensible or reasonable. It compares the
input with a set of rules that the computer has been told the data must follow. If the data does not
match up with the rules then there must be an error. Validation only checks that the data is valid.
The data may be valid but not correct. Five types of validation checks are:

 Type check
A type check is used to ensure that data entered in a field fits the required data type. For example, a
person’s name will consist of letters of the alphabet and sometimes hyphens and apostrophe. Any
name that contains numbers will be rejected as invalid.

 Length check
A length check ensures that an entered value is not longer than a certain number of characters. For
example, a phone number has 8 digits. Entering fewer or more digits makes a number invalid.

 Range check
A range check is used to ensure that the data entered falls between a specified minimum and
maximum values. For example, a mark in an exam is between 0 and 20. Any mark below 0 or above
20 is rejected as invalid.

 Presence check
A presence check ensures that an entry has been made in a particular field. If it has not, the system
will not allow the record to be saved or any entries to be made in later fields. Such fields called
mandatory fields are indicated on some systems by the used of an asterisk.

 Check digits
A check digit is a digit attached to the end of a string of digits that can be used to check that the
string is correct. It is calculated from the other digits in the string. One example where a check digit
is used is in the 10 digit ISBN number which uniquely identifies books. The last number of the ISBN
is actually the check digit for the other numbers. For example, in the ISBN 1858134153, the 3 at the
end of the number is the check digit.
The check digit for ISBNs is obtained using a calculation method known as the Modulus-11 weighted
check digit calculation.

o Start with original number i.e. 185813415

o Weight each digit by its position in the string and add up the results.

Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Digit 1 8 5 8 1 3 4 1 5

Weightings 10 72 40 56 6 15 16 3 10

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Total = 10+72+40+56+6+15+16+3+10= 228

o Divide the total by 11 and then subtract the remainder from 11. The check digit is the result
of this operation.
228 / 11 = 20 remainder 8 => Check digit is 11-8 = 3.
o Add the check digit to the end of the original number to get the complete product number. i.e.
1858134153.

To check whether the ISBN is correct,

o Input the number including the check digit.
o Weight each digit by its position in the string and add up the results.

Position 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Digit 1 8 5 8 1 3 4 1 5 3

Weightings 10 72 40 56 6 15 16 3 10 3

Total = 10+72+40+56+6+15+16+3+10+3 = 231

o Divide the total by 11.If the remainder is 0, then the number has passed the validation check
and so it is likely that it has been inputted correctly.
231 / 11 = 21 remainder 0

Exercise:
i) Dates are read into a computer in the following format: DDMMMYY e.g. 15DEC92. The
following dates were rejected by a validation program: 3JAN71, AUG2166, 31SEP72. State the
validation check used to discover each error.

ii) Calculate the check digitsto complete the ISBNs:019276150-1 and 995640216-8.

iii) Set up a spreadsheet which will calculate and check the validity of Modulo-11 weighted check
digits for any given ISBN.

1.3.2. AutomaticData Collection

Automatic data collection is a form of data input in which there is no data entry. It uses sensors and
specialized input devices to collect data that is directly entered into the computer without any
human involvement. It is also called data capture. Different automatic data collection methods are:

a. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

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OMR uses a device called an optical mark reader to read marks made with prescribed pens, pencils
or special writing material on OMR forms, and convert them into information in the computer. This
system is good for multiple choice examination questions.

b. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

This method uses a device called an optical character reader to read characters from printed or
handwritten text and transmit them to the computer as if they were typed from the keyboard. This
method is suitable for capturing data from airline tickets; reading postal codes; capturing data from
telephone and electric bills.

c. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

The device used is a magnetic ink character reader that reads characters written in magnetic ink,
using magnetic stripe readers or card swipe machines that capture the information on the magnetic
card. These are seen on the back of credit cards and bank cards.

d. Barcode Reading
An optical device called barcode reader is used to read the barcode on products and convert them
into a form that can be processed by the computer. A bar code is a sequence of vertical lines and
numbers that identify a product. They are used in libraries, supermarkets and retail shops.

e. VoiceRecognition
This method converts speech into text or a sequence of computer commands. It is most common for
data entry and word processing environments.

2. Information System Components

There are six basic components in an information system: hardware, software, procedures, data and
people.

 Hardware
Hardware refers to the physical devices that make up the system. They are the whole set of
equipment used for input, processing, storage and communication of data.

 Software
Software is the collection of computer programs used in the system. They provide the instructions
that tell the computer what to do.

 Data
Data are raw, unorganized, potentially useful facts and figures that are processed to produce
information.

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 People
People are the main actors of the system. They are the users of the information system. They input
data into the computer, give some direction to the computer to perform tasks and review
information on the computer for output.

 Procedures
Procedures are the series of documented actions taken to achieve a particular goal. A procedure is
more than a single simple task. It can be complex and involved, such as reinstalling software,
performing a backup etc.

3. Organizational Information Systems

There are three levels at which information can be used in an organisation: strategic, tactical and
operational levels. This can be represented using the pyramid below.

Strategic Executives
Level

Tactical Managers
Level
Operational
Workers
Level

 At the strategic level, information is needed by senior managers (executives) to help them with
their business plans. Information at this level is used for making long term decisions.
 At the tactical level, information is needed by middle managers to help them monitor and
control business activities. Tactical planning and decision-making takes place within the
guidelines set by the strategic plan.
 At the operation level, employees with operational roles need information to help them carry
out their duties. Results of operational work are passed upwards to let the tactical planners
evaluate their plans.

In order to meet with the information needs of the organization, different types of information
systems exist which can be groupedinto two: operations support systems and management support
systems.

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3.1. Operations Support Systems

Operation support systems process data generated bybusiness operations. They act at the
operational level of the organization. Major categories of OSS are transaction processing systems,
office automation systems and process control systems.

3.1.1. Transaction Processing Systems

A transaction is any event of interest to an organization. It may be a business activity such as a
payment, a deposit, a customer’s order, a reservation or a student’s registration. Transaction
processing systems capture and process data generated during an organization’s day-to-day
transactions and maintain records about the transactions. They are vital for any organization or
business as they gather all the input necessary for other types of systems. TPS are also called Data
Processing Systems.

There are two types of TPS: batch processing and online processing systems.

a. Batch Processing
With batch processing, transaction data is collected over a period of time and all processing is done
as a group. Batch processing is ideal in situations where large amounts of data requiring similar
processing are to be processed. Examples are:
 Payrollsystems for calculating employee salaries
 Billing systems for calculating consumer bills.

b. Online Transaction Processing

With online transaction processing (OLTP) the computer processes transactions as they are entered.
Such systems are ideal for situations where the master file needs to be updated each time a
transaction is made. Examples are:
 Stock control systems which reduce automatically the number of items in stock once an item
has been bought
 Reservation systems which reduce automatically the number of seats available on a flight or
bus once a seat has been booked.

3.1.2. Office Automation Systems

Office automation systems automate office procedures and enhance office communication and
productivity. They support a wide range of office activities such as creating and distributing
documents, sending messages and scheduling. The software an OAS uses to support these activities
include word processing, spreadsheets, databases, presentation, graphics, e-mail, Web browsers,
personal information management, and groupware. They use communication technologies such as
voice mail, facsimile (fax), videoconferencing, and electronic data interchange (EDI) for the
electronic exchange of text, graphics, audio, and video. OAS are also called Office Information
Systems (OIS).

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3.2. ManagementSupport Systems

Management support systems provide information and support needed for effective decision
making by managers. They act at the tactical and strategic levels of the organization. Major
categories of MSS are management information systems, decision support systems and executive
information systems.

3.2.1. Management Information systems

Management information systems generate accurate, timely and organized information needed by
middle managers to take decisions, solve problems, supervise activities, and track progress. They
provide routine information for routine tasks. The source of data for an MIS usually comes from
numerous databases. These databases are usually the data storage for Transaction Processing
Systems. MIS take information from TPS and summarize them into a series of management reports.
As such, MIS are sometimes called Management Reporting Systems (MRS).
MIS generate three basic types of information or reports: detailed, summary and exception.
 Detailed reportsconfirm transaction processing activities. A detailed order report is an example
of a detail report.

 Summary reportsconsolidate data into a format that an individual can review quickly and easily.
To help synopsize information, a summary report typically contains totals, tables, or graphs. An
inventory summary report is an example of a summary report.

 Exception reports report information that is outside of a normal condition. These conditions
called the exception criteria, define the range of what is considered normal activity or status.
An example of an exception report is an inventory exception report that notifies the purchasing
department of items it needs to reorder. Exception reports help managers save time because
they do not have to search through a detailed report for exceptions. Instead, an exception
report brings exceptions to the manager’s attention in an easily identifiable form. Exception
reports thus help them focus on situations that require immediate decisions or actions.

Examples of MIS are:

 Sales management systems
 Inventory control systems
 Budgeting systems
 Management reporting systems

3.2.2. Decision Support Systems

Decision support systems are designed to help tactical and strategic decision-making in situations
where there is uncertainty about the possible outcomes of those decisions. They provide interactive
support for non-routine decisions or problems.
TPS and MIS provide information on a regular basis. However, managers need information not
provided in their reports to help them make decisions. Decision support systems therefore use data
from internal (TPS and MIS) and external sources.

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o Internal sources of data might include sales, manufacturing, inventory, or financial data from
an organization’s database.
o Data from external sources could include interest rates, population trends, and costs of new
housing construction or raw material pricing.
Examples of DSS are:
 Logistics Systems
 Financial Planning Systems
 Spreadsheet Models

3.2.3. Executive Information Systems

Executive information systems (EIS) are designed to support the information needs of executive
management. Their purpose is to analyse, compare and identify trends to help the strategic
direction of the organisation. Information in an EIS is presented in charts and tables that show
trends, ratios, and other managerial statistics. Because executives usually focus on strategic issues,
EISs rely on external data sources that can provide current information on interest rates,
commodity prices, and other leading economic indicators.
To store all the necessary decision-making data, DSSs or EISs often use extremely large databases,
called data warehouses.

4. Other Information Systems

4.1. Expert Systems
An expert system is a computer program that tries to emulate the decision making of a human
expert. It does this by combining the knowledge of human experts and then, following a set of rules,
it draws inferences. An expert system is made up of three parts: a knowledge base, an inference
engine and a user interface.
 The knowledge base stores all of the facts, rules and information needed to represent the
knowledge of the expert.
 The inference engine is the part of the system that interprets the rules and facts using backward
and forward chaining to find solutions to user queries.
 The user interface allows the user to enter new knowledge and query the system.

Non-management employees are the primary users of such systems for job-related decisions. For
example, there are expert systems that can diagnose human illnesses, make financial forecasts, and
schedule routes for delivery vehicles.

Expert systems are one part of an exciting branch of computer science called artificial intelligence
(AI). AI is the application of human intelligence to computers. AI technology can sense your actions
and, based on logical assumptions and prior experience, will take the appropriate action to complete
the task. AI has a variety of capabilities, including speech recognition, logical reasoning, and
creative responses.

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4.2. Geographic Information System

IX. DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

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Introduction
The use of computers and data communications networks has been termed the ‘second industrial
revolution’, because it is revolutionizing the way people work and communicate.

1. Computer Networks
A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that are connected together so
they can communicate and share resources. The smallest network can be as simple as two
computers linked together. The resources shared include files, folders, printers, disk drives and
anything else that exists on a computer. Any computer or device on a network is called a node.
Networking is the term that describes the processes involved in designing, implementing, upgrading,
managing and otherwise working with networks and network technologies

1.1. Types of Computer Networks

Different criteria exist for classifying computer networks. According to geographical area covered,
networks can be classified as local area networks, wide area networks, metropolitan area networks,
personal area networks etc.

1.1.1. Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that is used for communication among computer devices,
usually within an office building or home. It enables the sharing of resources such as files or
hardware devices that may be needed by multiple users in an organization. A LAN is limited in size,
spanning a few hundred meters, and not more than a mile. It is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10
Gbps. An example of LAN is the network in the Multimedia Resource Centre.

1.1.2. Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large
campus. It is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of
buildings to entire cities. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter. An
example of a MAN is a cable TV network.

1.1.3. Wide Area Network

A wide area network (WAN) covers a large geographic area such as a country, a continent or even
the whole world. It is a distributed collection of LANs. That is, it connects two or more LANs
together. This is done using devices such as bridges, routers or gateways, which enable them to
share data. The largest and most well-known example of a WAN is the Internet.

1.1.4. Personal Area Network

A personal area network (PAN) is a network that is used for communication among computers and
computer devices in close proximity of around a few meters within a room. A PAN usually includes
laptops, mobile phones, personal digital assistants, digital cameras and headsets. It can be used for
communication between the devices themselves, or for connection to a larger network such as the

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Internet. The most popular is the Wireless PAN (WPAN), a Bluetooth connection between two
laptop computers or phones.

1.2. Computer Network Components

All types of computer networks require special networking software and hardware to allow
different computers to communicate with each other. The most important software component
required for a network is the network operating system (NOS) while there are many types of
hardware devices which are either installed or connected to the computer terminals in order to
construct a network.

1.2.1. Network Operating System

A network operating system is an operating system which includes networking features. It contains
special functions, protocols and device drivers that enable the computer to be connected to a
network. NOS provide the ability to share resources and the ability to manage a network name
directory, security, and other housekeeping aspects of a network.
Examples of network operating systems are Windows-NT, Windows-2000 server, Windows server
3000, Novell Netware and Artisoft LANstatic.
Some multi-purpose operating systems like Windows XP, Windows 7 and Mac OS 10, come with
capabilities that enable them to be described as network operating systems.

1.2.2. Network Interface/Adapter Card

A network interface card (NIC) provides the physical interface (link) between the computer and the
communication medium. A NIC manages the communication and network protocol for the PC.It
prepares data, sends data and controls the flow of data. It plugs into the system board and provides
ports for connection to the network. A NIC is also called a LAN card or network adapter card. There
are two kinds of NIC: wired NIC for wired networks and wireless NIC (WNIC) for wireless networks.
A NIC may be designed as an Ethernet card, a Token Ring card, or an FDDI card (but not all three).

1.2.3. Hub
A hub is a device that works as central connecting point for multiple computers in a network. It has
ports to which the computers in the network are connected. Data sent to the hub is broadcasted to
all the ports but, only the destination computer receives it. There are three kinds of hubs:
 Passive hubs which only split the transmission signal so it can be sent to all the ports
 Active hubs (also called Multiport Repeaters) which regenerate data bits to maintain a strong
signal over extended cable lengths
 Intelligent hubs (also called Concentrators) usually have their own microprocessor chips and
network operating systems. They can be managed remotely on the network.

1.2.4. Switch
A switch is used at the same place as a hub but the difference between the two is that a switch has a
switching table within it. A switching table stores the Media Access Control (MAC) address of every
computer connected to the switch and sends the data only to the requested address, unlike the hub

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which broadcasts the data to all the ports. Switches can therefore be considered as an advanced
form of hubs.
A MAC address is a built-innumber (i.e. set by the manufacturer) consisting of 12 hexadecimal digits
that uniquely and permanently identifies the network adapter of a computer. Examples of a MAC
addressesare 00-14-22-DA-67-15 and 00-13-02-31-E8-BA.MAC address is also called the physical
address. Under Windows, the MAC address of a computer can be displayed by typing ipconfig/all at
a Command prompt.

1.2.5. Repeater
A repeater is a device used to expand the boundaries of a wired or wireless network. With physical
media, data transmissions can only span a limited distance before the quality of the signal degrades.
Repeaters are usedto preserve signal integrity and extend the distance over which data can safely
travel by regenerating the signals they receive. Active hubs are considered as repeaters (multiport
repeaters).

1.2.6. Bridge
A bridge, also called a layer 2 switch, is a device used to create a connection between two separate
computer networks or to divide one network into segments. Creating multiple segments in a local
network reduces the network traffic making the network to be faster and more efficient. A bridge
performs its segmenting function by examining the data packet and forwarding it to other physical
segments only if necessary.

1.2.7. Router
A router is a device that joins several networks together and is responsible for routing data from
one network to another. It keeps track of the IP addresses of the computers on the networks
connected to its network interface cards and directs data packets appropriately. It is more powerful
than a bridge because instead of just choosing network segments based on previous traffic, a router
can look up the best route for a packet to take. Routers can be computers with operating systems
and special network software, or they can be other dedicated devices built by network
manufacturers. The Internet relies heavily on routers.

1.2.8. Modem
A modem (modulator/demodulator) is a device that encodes data for transmission over a particular
medium, such as telephone line, coaxial cable, fiber optics, or microwaves. It converts digital signals
from a computer to analog signals or waveform for transmission over a medium (modulation) and
converts analog signals from the medium to digital signals understandable by the
computer(demodulation).
Common types of modems are:
 Dial-up Modem
 Cable Modem
 DSL Modem
 Sat modem

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1.2.9. Multiplexer
A multiplexer abbreviated MUX, is a device that takes input signals from different sources and
transmits them over a single transmission line. This process is known as multiplexing. There are
different types of multiplexing:
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), in which the carrier bandwidth is divided into sub
channels of different frequency widths, each carrying a signal at the same time in parallel.
 Time-division multiplexing (TDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same
channel in alternating time slots.
 Code-division multiplexing (CDM), in which the multiple signals are carried over the same
channel but every signal is coded differently.

Orange and MTN use a combination of FDM and TDM called GSM while Camtel uses CDMA.

1.2.10. Cables
Cables are used to link computers in a LAN. There are three types of cables commonly used:
 Coaxial cable
 Twisted pair cable
 Fiber optic cable

1.2.11. Gateway
A gateway is a device that connects two dissimilar computer networks using direct and systematic
translation between protocols. A gateway translates outgoing network traffic to the protocol needed
by the destination network. The term gatewayis also sometimes loosely used to describe any device
that acts as the entry or exit point for a network.

1.3. Network Topologies

Network topology is the layout or arrangement of the components of a network. It refers to the way
in which computers and cables are connected together to build a network. Different types of
topologies exist.

1.3.1. BusTopology
In bus topology, all computers are connected to a single cable (trunk or backbone) known as bus, by
a transceiver either directly or by using a short drop cable. Bus transmits in both directions such
that any transmission can be received by all stations. All ends of the cable must be terminated, that
is plugged into a device such as a computer or terminator, to avoid signals from bouncing back.

Bus topology

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a. Advantages
 Easy and inexpensive to set up as little cabling is required
 Easy to include additional stations without disrupting the network
 Failure of one node does not affect network

b. Disadvantages
 High rate of data collision
 Fails if there is any damage to the bus
 Any break in the bus is difficult to identify

1.3.2. StarTopology
In a star topology, all the computers are connected to a central device which could be a computer, a
hub or a switch. Any communications between computers in this topology must pass through the
central node. As such, the central node controls all the activities of the network.

Star topology

a. Advantages
 Breakdown of a node does not affect the network
 No disruption of the network when connecting or removing devices
 It is easy to detect faults

b. Disadvantage
 Failure of the central node affects the entire network
 It is costly due to the amount of cables required to connect the devices

1.3.3. RingTopology
In ring topology, all the nodes are connected in the form of a closed loop such that each node is
connected to two others. It uses an empty data packet called a token and a special protocol called
token ring. Packets travel around the ring in a clockwise direction. To transmit, a node requires an
empty token.

Ring topology

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a. Advantage
 No collision as a station needs the token to transmit
 Each computer acts like a repeater so signals are not attenuated

b. Disadvantage
 If a node in the network fails, the entire network fails
 Network is disrupted when additional stations are added

1.4. Network Standards

1.4.1. EthernetNetwork
Ethernet (IEEE 802.3 standard) is the most common and widely used technology to establish a local
area network. An Ethernet network is formed by physically connecting the individual computer
units to each other in a bus topology or a star topology. Ethernet’s media access policy is CSMA/CD
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection).
 CS: means that a station listens to (senses) the medium and transmits only if medium is idle
 MA: means that any station can use (access) the medium
 CD: means that each station stops transmitting immediately it senses a collision

When a collision is detected, the two stations involved will retransmit after a random time wait
created by a backoff algorithm.

1.4.2. TokenRing Network

Token ring (IEEE 802.5 standard) is a network technology developed by IBM in which computers
are connected together in a ring. Token ring’s media-access method is called token passing. A
special message, called token, circulates along the ring from one computer to another and each
computer can transmit only while it is holding the token. Information flows in one direction along
the ring from source to destination and back to source. When a station wishes to transmit, it waits
for the empty token to pass by. It seizes it and inserts data into it and then releases it to the medium.
The token circulates until it gets to the destination computer that picks it and retrieves the data.
After retrieving the data, it regenerates the token and sends it back to the medium.

1.4.3. FiberDistributed Data Interface

FDDI is a network technology that uses fiber-optic cables in a ring topology with dual rings on which
information can travel in opposite directions. The media access method for FDDI is token passing.
The primary ring is used for data transmission, and the secondary ring remains idle. Because of this
double ring topology, if a station fails or a cable becomes damaged, the dual ring is automatically
wrapped around itself, forming a single ring. This prevents downtime as a result of a failed machine
or faulty wiring.

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1.4.4. Frame Relay

1.4.5. Asynchronous Transfer Mode

1.4.6. WirelessNetworkStandards
Wireless networks are established without physical wiring techniques involved. They use radio and
infrared signals and are based around one of these technologies: Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, WiMax,
terrestrial microwaves and satellite.

a. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a low power, short-range wireless technology largely used to interconnect computing
devices into a personal area network. It is based on IEEE standard 802.15 which gives specifications
for Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN).

b. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fistands for Wireless Fidelity. It is based on a set of wireless networking technologies known as
802.11. These include 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n. The range of Wi-Fi network
transmission is about 30-40m indoors and up to about 100m outdoors.
The table below shows the different 802.11 standards for wireless networking.

Specificat Popular Frequen Speed Compatible

ion name cy with
802.11a Wireless-A 5 GHz 54
Mbps
802.11b Wireless-B 2.4 GHz 11 Wireless-B
Mbps
802.11g Wireless-G 2.4 GHz 54 Wireless-B, -G
Mbps
802.11n Wireless-N 2.4 GHz 100 Wireless-B, -G,
Mbps -N

c. WiMax
WiMax stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is based on IEEE standard
802.16 and facilitates high speed wireless network links to both fixed and mobile devices. The range
of a WiMax wireless connection is around 3-10km.WiMax service providers are now just entering
the market, offering customers an alternative to a DSL Internet connection.

1.5. Network Architectures

1.5.1. Client/ServerArchitecture
Client/server is a network architecture in which a more powerful computer called server is
dedicated to serving less powerful computers called clients. Servers hold shared resources like files,
programs and the network operating system. They provide access to network resources to all the

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users of the network. There are many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several
functions. For example, there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, database servers and Web
servers. Users run applications on client workstations which rely on servers for resources such as
files, devices and even processing power.
Internet services are organized according to a client/server architecture. Client programs, such as
Web browsers and file transfer programs create connections to servers, such as Web and FTP
servers. The clients make requests and the server responds to the requests by providing the
services requested by the client.

1.5.2. Peer-to-PeerArchitecture
Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a network configuration in which all the workstations (computers) have equal
capabilities and responsibilities. Each workstation acts both as a server and a client. This means that
any computer on the network can provide services to any other computer. Peer-2-peer is usually
implemented where strict security is not necessary. P2Pnetworks are generally simpler and less
expensive, but they usually do not offer the same performance under heavy loads.

Remark A hybrid network combines client/server and peer-to-peer architectures. It is the most
commonly used network architecture.

1.6. Benefits and Limitations Of Computer Networks

1.6.1. Benefits
 Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
 Site (software) licenses are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licenses.
 Files can easily be shared between users.
 Network users can communicate by email and instant messaging.
 Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.
 Organizations can organize videoconferences ( videoconferencing)
 Employees can work from home (telecommuting)

1.6.2. Limitations
 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
 Managing a large network is complicated.It requires training and a network manager usually
needs to be employed.
 If the file server breaks down the files on the server become inaccessible. Email might still
work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used but are isolated.
 Viruses can easily spread to other computers throughout the network, if one computer is
infected..
 There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are
needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

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2. Data Communication
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
communication channel. In data communication the following basic terms are frequently used:
 Data: a collection of facts in raw form that becomes information after processing.
 Signal: an electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.
 Signaling: propagation of signals across a communication channel.
 Transmission: sending of data from one place to another by means of signals.

There are five basic components in a communication system.

 Data Source: creates data for transmission
 Transmitter: encodes data for transmission
 Communication channel: connecting medium between communicating devices
 Receiver: decodes transmitted signals back to data
 Destination: the final destination of the transmission

Example: John calls Peter on phone.

The data source is John, the transmitter is John’s phone, the communication channel is the
telephone cable or microwave, the receiver is Peter’s phone and the destination is Peter.

2.1. Analog and Digital Signals

Data is transmitted from one point to another by means of electrical signals that may be in analogue
or digital form.

2.1.1. Analogue Signals

An analog signal is one in which information is represented as a continuous variation of some
physical property or quantity. Analog signals are continuous waves that carry information by
varying the frequency or amplitude of the wave.
 When the amplitude of the signal is varied the technique is called amplitude modulation (AM)
 When the frequency of the signals is varied, the technique is called frequency modulation (FM).
Human speech is an example of an analog signal. Telephone lines use analog signals because they
were originally designed for speech.

Analogue signal

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2.1.2. DigitalSignals
A digital signal is one in which information is represented as a sequence of binary values 0 and
1.These two values represent two conditions, on or off, corresponding to two known levels of
voltage or current.
Digital signals do not continuously vary as analogue signals. Signals are transmitted within the
computer as digital signals. Systems that use digital technology are known as baseband systems.

Digital signal

2.2. Broadband and Baseband Transmissions

2.2.1. BasebandSystem
A baseband system is a single-channel system that supports a single transmission at any given time.
In a baseband system, data is sent as a digital signal through the media as a single channel that uses
the entire bandwidth of the media. Baseband communication is bi-directional, which means that the
same channel can be used to send and receive signals. In Baseband, frequency-division multiplexing
is not possible.

2.2.2. BroadbandSystem
A broadband system is a system that supports multiple transmissions via multiple frequency
channels. In a broadband system, data is sent in the form of an analog signal where each
transmission is assigned a portion of the bandwidth. Broadband communication is unidirectional, so
in order to send and receive, two pathways are needed. This can be accomplished either by
assigning a frequency for sending and assigning a frequency for receiving along the same cable or by
using two cables, one for sending and one for receiving.

2.3. Transmission Modes and Techniques

Transmission modes simply refer to the direction of flow of information between two
communicating devices. It could be simplex, half duplex or full duplex.

2.3.1. Simplex
In simplex mode, signals are transmitted in only one direction. The flow of information is
unidirectional from transmitter to receiver always. Examples are television broadcasting, computer
to the printer connection and CPU to monitor communication.
A B

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2.3.2. HalfDuplex
In half duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions but only one way at a time. The
flow of information is bidirectional but information can only be sent if it is not being received. It is
suitable for data transmission between a computer and dumb terminals. An example is the police
radio (walkie-talkie).
A B

2.3.3. FullDuplex
In full duplex mode, signals can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The
communicating devices can transmit at the same time. The flow of information is bidirectional. It is
suitable for interactive systems. An example is the telephone.
A B

2.3.4. ParallelTransmission
Parallel transmission is the method of transferring several bits at the same time over separate
channels. For example, eight separate channels will be required if a block of eight bits is to be
transmitted in parallel. Parallel transmission is fast but it is suited only for short distances as cabling
for long distances will be expensive. It is mainly used for connections within the computer and for
connecting the computer to the printer.

2.3.5. Serial Transmissions

Serial transmission is the method of transferring data one bit at a time through the same channel. If
a block of 8 bits is to be transmitted in series, the bits will be transmitted one after the other on the
same channel. Serial transmission can be asynchronous or synchronous.

a. Asynchronous Serial Transmission

Asynchronous transmission describes the process where transmitted data is encoded with start and
stop bits, specifying respectively the beginning and end of each character. Data is sent character by
character with each character preceded by a start bit and a stop bit is added to the end. Other
control bits like the parity bit are added to the group before the stop bit and small gabs are inserted
to distinguish each group.

b. Synchronous Serial Transmission

Synchronous transmissiondescribes a continuous and consistent timed transfer of data blocks. Data
is sent as one long bit stream or block of data without start or stop bits and with no gabs. Upon
reception, the receiver counts the bits and reconstructs bytes. It is essential that the same timing is
maintained by both sender and receiver as there are no start and stop bits and no gaps. Another
channel is therefore used to transfer timing signals to keep the both parties synchronized. Accuracy
is dependent on the receiver keeping an accurate count of the bits as they arrive.

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Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission but it is suited for long distances. It is
cheaper as only one transmission line is required. Synchronous transmission is faster than
asynchronous transmission because fewer bits have to be transmitted; only data bits and no extra
control bits. For this reason it is the choice for network communications links.

2.4. Communication Switching Techniques

Long distance transmission is done over a network of switched nodes. Data is routed by being
switched from one node to another. Three switching techniques exist: packet switching, circuit
switching and message switching.

2.4.1. PacketSwitching
Packet switching is a switching method in which the message to be transmitted is broken into small
data packets and sent over the network. Each packet contains a portion of data and some control
information. The packets may take different routes to arrive their destination and they may arrive in
any other. On arrival, they are put back into order and the message is reconstituted. Each packet is
sent with a header address which tells what its destination is. The header address also describes the
sequence for reassembly at the destination. One packet contains information on how many packets
should be arriving. If a packet fails to arrive, the destination computer sends a message to the
sender’s computer asking it to send the missing packet again. This method is suitable for
transmission of data.

2.4.2. Circuit Switching

Circuit switching is a switching method in which a dedicated communication path in physical form
between two stations within a network is established, maintained and terminated for each
communication session. This channel remains open throughout the communication process and
cannot be used by anyone else. It has basically three phases: circuit establishment, data transfer and
circuit disconnect. The message is sent without being broken up, so it is received in the order it was
sent. This method was designed for voice transmissions. Telephone networks use circuit switching
for transmission of phone calls.

2.5. TransmissionMedia
A transmission medium is the physical pathway that connects computers and other devices on a
network. Each transmission medium requires specialized network hardware that is compatible with
that medium, and most networks need to use a combination of transmission media types selected
based on the network's needs.There are two categories of transmission media: guided and unguided
media.

2.5.1. Guided Media

Guided media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. They are
made up of an internal conductor bounded by jacket material. They are also called bounded or
conducted media. Three common types of guided media are coaxial cable, twisted pair cable and
fiber optical cable.

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a. Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of an inner core and an outer flexible braided shield, both of conductive
material separated by an insulator. The braided shield prevents the cable from picking up or
emitting electrical noise. There are two types of coaxial cable:
 thinnet and
 thicknet.

Coaxial cable

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connectors used today is the Bayone-Neill-Concelman, or BNC connector.

b. Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted-pair cable is the most common type of cabling used in LAN networks today. It consists of a
pair or pairs of insulated wires twisted together. Cable twisting helps reduce noise pickup from
outside sources and crosstalk on multi-pair cables. There are two types of twisted pair cables:
shielded twisted pairs (STP) and unshielded twisted pairs (UTP).

Twisted pair cable uses RJ-14

and RJ-45 connectors

Twisted pair cable

 Unshielded Twisted Pair

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair
cable use RJ-45 connector. RJ stands for registered jack. There are five levels of UTP:

Category 1: These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2: These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
Category 3: These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
Category 4: These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.

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Category 5: This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.

UTP can be connected as straight through or crossover. A straight-thru cable has identical ends. A
crossover cable has different ends.

c. Fiber Optic Cable

Fiber optic cables use optical fibers that carry digital data signals in the form of modulated light
pulses. An optic fiber consists of an extremely thin cylinder of glass, called the core, surrounded by a
concentric layer of glass, known as the cladding. Each cable has two fibers - one to transmit and one
to receive.
There are two types of optic fibers:
 A single mode fiber (SMF) uses a single ray of light to carry transmissions over long distances.
 A multi-mode fiber (MMF) uses multiple rays of light simultaneously with each ray of light
running at a different reflection angle to carry transmissions over short distances.

Optic fiber
The light source can be LED (light emitting diode) or LD (laser diode)

2.5.2. UnguidedMedia
Unguided media do not use physical means to define the path to be taken. They provide a means for
transmitting electromagnetic waves but do not guide them. They are also called unbounded media.
Examples of unguided media are infrared waves, radio wavesand microwaves.

a. Infrared
Infrared uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate non-coherent infrared light.
Infrared signals do not penetrate walls as such transceivers must be within line-of-sight either
directly or via reflection. Line of sight is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive data
only where transmit and receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle
between them.

b. Radio waves
Radio wave systems transmit signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies
below that of visible light. Radio waves carry information by systematically changing some property
of the radiated waves such as amplitude (AM radio), frequency (FM radio) and phase. Radiowaves
are omnidirectional.This means that signals spread out in all directions and can be received by
many antennas.

c. Microwaves

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Microwaves are electromagnetic radiations beyond the frequency range of radio and television.
There are two types of microwave systems: terrestrial microwave systems and satellite systems.

 Terrestrial microwavesystemsare land-based. Microwaves being line-of-sight and traveling in a

straight line, the earth’s curvature poses a problem to long distance microwave transmissions. As
such,long distance transmissionsrequiredirectional antennas (repeaters)to be used at intervals of
25 to 30 kilometers between the transmitting and receiving end.

 Satellite systems use communication satellites to solve the problem posed by the earth’s
curvature to terrestrial microwave systems. A communication satellite is a microwave relay station
placed in outer space. A microwave signal is transmitted from earth to the satellite which amplifies
the signal and sends it back to earth. The earth station transmits the signal to the satellite on an up-
link, on one frequency and the satellite repeats those signals on a down link which is on another
frequency.

 Advantages of microwave systems

o No cables needed
o Multiple channels available
o Wide bandwidth

 Disadvantages
o Line-of-sight will be disrupted if any obstacle, such as new buildings, are in the way
o Signal absorption by the atmosphere. Microwaves suffer from attenuation due to
atmospheric conditions.
o Towers are expensive to build

2.6. TransmissionChecks
Network data transmissions often produce errors, such as toggled, missing or duplicated bits. As a
result, the data received might not be identical to the data transmitted, which is obviously a bad
thing. Because of these transmission errors, network protocols very often use error-detection codes.
Examples of error-detection codes include parity checking, checksums and cyclic redundancy
checks.

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2.6.1. ParityChecking
Parity checking refers to the process of using a parity bit to check that data has been transmitted
accurately. A parity bit is an extra bit transmitted with a data unit that will be used to check its
integrity. There are two types of parity: odd parity and even parity.
 In odd parity, the parity bit is added such that the total number of bits at 1, in the data unit, is an
odd number.
 In even parity, the parity bit is added so that the total number of 1s is an even number.

Example: What are the parity bits for the following data units in odd parity?

i) 111011011 ii) 001001010 iii) 110101010

Example 2: What are the parity bits for the following data units in even parity?

i) 011010100 ii) 111001011 iii) 100111000

2.6.2. Checksum
A checksum or hash sum is a count of the number of bits in a transmission unit that is included with
the unit for the purpose of detecting errors that may have been introduced during transmission. The
checksum or hash sum may be computed according to the number of set or unset bits in the
message. On reception, the receiver applies the same checksum function/algorithm to the message.
If the checksum obtained matches the one sent, the transmission is considered to be successful and
error-free.

2.6.3. CyclicRedundancy Check

A CRC is an error-detection code in which each segment of the original message is combined with
additional bits to make a binary number that is divisible by some previously chosen divisor.
 kis the length of the message we want to send, i.e., the number of information bits.
 nis the total length of the message we will end up sending the information bits followed by the
check bits. Peterson and Brown call this a code polynomial.
 n-kis the number of check bits. It is also the degree of the generating polynomial. The basic
(mathematical) idea is that we're going to pick the n-k check digits in such a way that the code
polynomial is divisible by the generating polynomial. Then we send the data, and at the other
end we look to see whether it's still divisible by the generating polynomial; if it's not then we
know we have an error, if it is, we hope there was no error.

2.7. Peripheral Device Control

2.7.1. Buffering
A buffer is an area of memory used to temporarily store data while it is being moved from one place
to another. Buffers are used to compensate for differences in rate of flow of data or time of
occurrence of events, when transferring data from one device to another. Routers use buffers to
route data packets on the Internet. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or

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more intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored
there until the required output line is free, then the packet is forwarded.

2.7.2. Interrupt
An interrupt is a signal to the processor emitted by hardware or software indicating an event that
needs immediate attention. An interrupt alerts the processor of a high-priority condition requiring
the interruption of the current task the processor is executing. Interrupts are used to handle such
events as data receipt from a modem or network, or a key press or mouse movement.

2.7.3. Polling
Polling is the process by which the central computer or communications controller in a network,
"polls" or asks each device in the network if it has a message to send and then allows each in turn to
transmit data. Access and control of star network typically is maintained by a polling system.

2.7.4. Handshaking
Handshaking is the process by which two devices initiate communications. It begins when one
device sends a message to another device indicating that it wants to establish a communications
channel. The two devices then send several messages back and forth that enable them to agree on a
communications protocol.

2.8. CommunicationProtocols
For proper communication in a network, different entities must speak the same language. There
must be mutually acceptable conventions and rules about the content, timing and underlying
mechanisms. These conventions and associated rules are referred as protocols.

Definition: A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network
communicate.

The need for a protocol is obvious: it allows different computers from different vendors and with
different operating characteristics to ‘speak the same language’. The same protocols must be
followed by each machine involved in the communication in order for the receiving host to be able
to understand the message. A protocol may be physical or logical.

2.8.1. PhysicalProtocols
Physical protocols are concerned with how a device connects to a medium. They ensure that a
device connected to a medium can transmit through the medium. They make sure that the layout of
pins on the connectors is the same and that devices are correctly connected and configured. Few
examples of physical protocols are 802.11 for Wi-Fi connections and DSL for broadband.

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2.8.2. LogicalProtocols
Logical protocols are concerned with data handling. They ensure that data are in the right format for
the application, the bit rates match at both ends, and the same error correction is used. Examples of
logical protocols are TCP/IP, HTTP, POP3, FTP, SMTP and WAP.

2.8.3. The OSI Reference Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model or more commonly the OSI model is an
ISO standard that defines how network communications take place by providing a framework for
standardization. The OSI model divides network communications into seven layers. Each layer is
responsible for carrying out specific functions when transmitting data on the network. The table
below shows the layered architecture of the OSI reference model.

7 Application Layer

6 Presentation Layer

5 Session Layer

4 Transport Layer

3 Network Layer

2 Data Link Layer

1 Physical Layer
These layers can be recalled using the
OSI Reference Model following mnemonics: All People Seem
To Need Data Processing. (Layers 7 - 1)

Layer 7: Application
It provides network services directly to the user’s applications such as a web browser or e-mail
client. This layer is said to be “closest to the user”. Examples of protocols that operate at this layer
are: TELNET, HTTP, FTP, SMTP and POP.

Layer 6: Presentation
The Presentation layer represents the data in a particular format to the Application layer. It defines
encryption, compression, conversion and other coding functions. Examples of specifications defined
at this layer are: GIF, JPEG, MPEG, MIME and ASCII.

Layer 5: Session
It establishes, maintains and terminates end-to-end connections (session) between two applications
on two network nodes. It controls the dialogue between the source and destination nodes, which
node can send when and for how long. Examples of protocols that operate on this layer are: RPC,
NETBIOS and X.225

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Layer 4: Transport
It is responsible for end-to-end delivery of entire messages. It allows data to be transferred reliably
and uses sequencing to guarantee that it will be delivered in the same order it was sent. It also
provides services such as error checking and flow control. Examples of protocols at this layer are:
TCP, UDP, NETBEUI and SPX.

Layer 3: Network
It is responsible for path determination, routing, and the delivery of packets across internetworks. It
is also responsible for addressing (also known as logical addressing) for example IP addressing.
Examples of protocols at this layer are: IP, IPX and ICMP.
Examples of devices that operate at this level are Layer-3 switches and routers. WAPs (wireless
access points) with built-in routing capabilities also act at this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link

It is responsible for reassembling bits taken off the wire by the physical layer to frames and makes
sure they are in the correct order and requests retransmission of frames in case an error occurs. It
provides error checking by adding CRC to the frame. Examples of protocols at this layer are:
Ethernet, Token Ring, PPP and ISDN.
Examples of devices that operate at this layer are: switches, bridges, NICs and WAPs (Wireless
Access Points).

Layer 1: Physical
This layer communicates directly with the communication medium. It is responsible for activating,
maintaining and deactivating the physical link. It defines electrical and optical signaling, voltage
levels, data transmission rates, as well as mechanical specifications such as cable lengths, and
connectors, the amount of pins and their functions. Examples of devices that operate at this layer
are: hubs, repeaters, and NICs.

These layers can be recalled using the following mnemonics: All People Seem To Need Data
Processing. (Layers 7 - 1)

3. The Internet
3.1. Brief History
Many years ago, the military of the United States of America desired to interconnect or link their
computers in order to better understand and manage information and communication with respect
to enemy attacks in times of crisis. In the year 1969 the Department of Defense (DoD) then
developed an experimental network called the Advanced Research Project Agency Network
(ARPANet)
In the year 1980, the National Science Foundation of the United States of America then developed
the technology of ARPANet to produce the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet) which

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now enabled universities and other school establishments in the USA to be interconnected. After a
great deal of work, a network which enabled the transfer of large amounts of information at very
high speed which is today called the Internet was developed.
The Internet can be defined as a worldwide/global system of interconnected computer networks. It
is the network of networks in which users can view information on the World Wide Web, exchange
electronic mail, participate in electronic discussion forums (newsgroups), send files from any
computer to any other and even use each other’s computers directly if they have appropriate
passwords. Another name for the Internet is information superhighway.

3.2. ISP and Internet Access

An Internet service provider (ISP), also sometimes referred to as an Internet access provider (IAP),
is a company that offers Internet access to individuals and organizations. The ISP connects to its
customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering Internet Protocol
Paradigm, such as dial-up, digital subscriber line (DSL), cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-
speed interconnects.
ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate with one
another by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISP's servers. ISPs may provide
services such as remotely storing data files on behalf of their customers, as well as other services
unique to each particular ISP.
Different methods exist for connection to the Internet.

3.2.1. Dial-Up Connection

A dial-up connection is a connection that is established by dialing a telephone number through a
modem. A dial-up connection uses a dial-up modem to transmit digital information over thePlain
Old Telephone System (POTS). POTSrefers to the standard telephone network designed for analog
transmission of voice over copper wire. This type ofconnection offers relatively slow transfer rates
and is established on demand. This method has long been the most widely used method to connect
to the Internet but it has been replaced by high-speed broadband and wireless connections.

3.2.2. Digital Subscriber Line

DSL uses the standard copper telephone wires, often already installed in homes and offices to
provide a high-speed Internet connection. xDSL means that there are different types of DSL:
asynchronous DSL (ADSL), synchronous DSL (SDSL), High bit-rate DSL (HDSL), Rate Adaptive DSL
(RADSL) and ISDN DSL (IDSL).
 ADSL allows the telephone wires to be used for analog POTS system and digital data transfer
simultaneously. The download speed (downstream) for ADSL is faster than the upload speed
(upstream).
 SDSL cannot share the physical medium with standard telephone communications and has a
download speed equal to the upload speed.
A DSL connection requires a transceiver (DSL modem) which allows an Ethernet UTP or a USB
connection directly to a PC, or to a hub, router, or switch to provide Internet access to an entire
network. The transceiver can be integrated into a router or switch.

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3.2.3. BroadbandCable
TV channels only take up 6MHz of cable bandwidth each, which usually leaves several hundred MHz
available. This additional space on cable is used for high-speed Internet connection. Information
from the Internet travels through the cable as a single TV channel. Just as with DSL, cable Internet
requires a special transceiver (cable modem) which allows information to be sent and received on
frequencies not used by TV channels. The cable modem provides one or more LAN interfaces,
usually Ethernet or USB which connect directly to a client or a device such as a hub, switch, or
wireless router to allow additional clients or entire networks to use the same connection. The cable
modem is also equipped with connections for TV and radio.

3.2.4. Wireless Internet Access

Wireless Internet access or wireless broadband is particularly useful for mobile users. With
handheld devices becoming more advanced and increasingly popular, wireless access is becoming
one of the major ways of connecting to the Internet. This method provides an “always-on
connection” which can be accessed from anywhere as long as you are geographically within network
coverage. Wireless Internet access includes deploying Wi-Fi hotspots for accessing the Internet.
Technologies such as GPRS and UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) allow Smart
phones and other handhelds with Internet capabilities to access the Internet using existing cell
phone networks.

3.2.5. Internet over Satellite

Internet over satellite (IoS) allows a user to access the Internet via a satellite that orbits the earth. A
satellite placed at a static point above the earth's surface, communicates with the ISP’s dish giving
the user access to the internet.

3.3. The TCP/IP Model

The Internet uses a collection of protocols known as the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is called TCP/IP
after two of its most prominent protocols, but there are other protocols as well. The TCP/IP model
is based on a four-layer model for networking. The layers from top to bottom are application layer,
transport layer, Internet layer and network access layer.Below is a comparison between the TCP/IP
model and the OSI model.

Application Layer
Application Layer HTTP FTP SMTP DNS RIP
Presentation Layer

Session Layer Transport Layer

TCP UDP
Transport Layer (Host-to-host)

Network Layer Internet Layer IGMP ICMP

ARP IP

Data Link Layer Network Access

Layer Ethernet Token Frame ATM
Physical Layer Ring Relay

OSI Model TCP/IP Model

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

During a transmission, a message travels down all network layers at the source machine. Before
sending a message to the next layer, each layer places it in an envelope of overheadinformation
related to that layer. This process is called encapsulation. Encapsulation at each layer produces
adata unit called protocol data unit (PDU).
At the receiving end, the message travels up through the network layers, each layer removing the
envelopes added when the message was sent. So, upon its receipt, the message is in its original state.

3.3.1. Network Access Layer

This layer is responsible for sending and receiving TCP/IP packets on the network medium
(Physical/Data Link). The network Access layer PDUcalled frame, is obtained by adding a header
and a trailer to the PDU from the Internet layer.
Applicable LAN technologies: Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI etc.
Applicable WAN technologies: X.25 (old), Frame Relay, ATM etc.

3.3.2. InternetLayer
This layer is responsible for packaging, addressing and routing of packets. The PDU at this layer is
called datagram or packet.
Core Internet layer protocols are: IP, ARP, ICMP and IGMP.

a. Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol (IP) specifies the format of packets and the addressing scheme. All computer
devices (desktops, laptops, PDAs, phones, tablets) connected to the Internet, have IP addresses by
which they are identified.

Definition: An IP address is a unique identifying number given to every single computer on a TCP/IP
network.

Two versions of IP addresses are available: IPv4 that uses 32 bits and IPv6 that uses 128 bits.
 An IPv4 is made up of four sets of numbers separated by dots such as 123.23.168.22. This
notation is known as dotted decimal notation. Each of the four numbers separated by dots can
be any number from 0 to 255, making for a total of 4.3 billion potential IPv4 addresses (i.e.
255×255×255×255).

 An IPv6 has eight sets of numbers separated by colons such as

3ffe:1900:4545:3:200:f8ff:fe21:67cf.

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IP addresses are assigned manually (by an administrator) or automatically (by DHCP or APIPA). An
IP address is also known as a logical address.

b. Address Resolution Protocol

ARPresolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.

Assignment: Differentiate between an IP address and a MAC address.

c. Internet Control Message Protocol

ICMP isresponsible for diagnostics and error reporting.

d. Internet Group Management Protocol

IGMP is responsible for management of group multicast.

3.3.3. TransportLayer
The transport layer is responsible for sequencing and transmission of packets, acknowledgment of
receipts, recovery of packets and flow control. In essence, it engages in host-to-host transportation
of data packets and the delivery of them to the application layer. A transport layer PDU is called
segment.
Core protocols at this layer are TCP and UDP.

a. TransmissionControl Protocol
TCP is aconnection-orientedreliable protocol used in the accurate transmission of large amounts of
data. Data packets are verified using checksums and retransmitted if they are missing or corrupted.
The application plays no part in validating the transfer.

b. User Datagram Protocol

UDPis a connectionless unreliable protocol used for the transmission of small amounts of data. Data
packets are sent without testing to verify whether they actually arrive at the destination, nor
whether they were corrupted in transit. It is up to the application to determine these factors and
request retransmissions. UDP is faster compared to TCP.

3.3.4. ApplicationLayer
The application layer provides user applications with the ability to access the services of the other
layers. Some protocols of this layer are HTTP, FTP, POP, SMTP, Telnet, IMAP and WAP.

a. Hypertext Transfer Protocol

HTTPis a standard method of publishing information as hypertext in HTML format on the Internet.
It provides the ability to supply web pages between a browser and the server. HTTPS is a secure
version of HTTP used for accessing secure web servers, whereby all data transferred are encrypted.

b. File Transfer Protocol

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FTP is a standard for transferring files between a server and a client on a TCP/IP network. It
provides the ability to upload and download files between hosts on the network.

c. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is used for sending e-mails between servers on the Internet and other TCP/IP networks. It
governs the transmission of mail messages and attachments. SMTP is used in the case of outgoing
messages.

d. PostOfficeProtocol
POP is a standard protocol for delivering e-mails to personal computers.There are different versions
of the post office protocol indicated by POPn where n = 1, 2, 3 or4.

e. Telnet
Telnet is a protocol that allows a computer on the network to be accessed remotely. It provides the
ability to login into a remote host and administer the machine. Using Telnet a computer can be used
as a terminal on another.

f. WirelessApplicationProtocol
WAP is a protocol which runs on mobile phones and provides a universal open standard for
bringing Internet content to mobile phones and other wireless devices.

Assignment: Give the full meaning of the following protocols and state their functions.
i) IMAP
ii) RIP
iii) DNS

3.4. TCP/IP Ports

A computer has a single physical connection to the network. All data destined for a particular
computer arrives through that connection. However, the data may be intended for different
applications running on the computer. To identify the application for which the data is intended,
TCP requires port numbers on the host and destination for communication.

Definition: A communication port is a 16-bit number that identifies an application on the Internet or
TCP/IP network.

Popular Internet application protocols are associated with well-knownportsassigned by the Internet
Assigned Number Authority (IANA). Sample TCP port numbers are:

Port number Protocol

20 FTP data channel

21 FTP control channel

23 Telnet

25 SMTP

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Ports are usually combined with IP addresses to form a socket. For example 127.102.10.0:80.

3.5. Internet Services

3.5.1. The World Wide Web
The World Wide Web (WWW)is a system on the Internet which allows documents to be connected
to other documents by hypertext links, enabling the user to search for information by moving from
one document to another. It consists of a large number of web servers that host websites. A website
consists of a number of web pages connected by hypertext links. A web page is a text file that
contains information stored using a structured language called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language).
A website can be accessed by typing its address or URL (Uniform/Universal Resource Locator) into
the address bar of a web browser. An example of a URL is http://www.crtv.cmwhere http is the
protocol used and www.crtv.cm, the domain name (address) of the site.

Example 1: http://www.bgsmolyko.edu/Ls3,4/ict796/intenet.pdf
 http is the protocol used (hypertext transfer protocol)
 www.bgsmolyko.edu is the domain name (the machine at BGS Molyko that hosts the website)
 Ls3,4/ict796/internet.pdf is the path of the document (resource) on the host computer. Ls3,4 is
the folder, ict796 is the subfolder and internet.pdf is the file(resource).

Example 2: www.minsup.gov.cm
 gov is the top level domain which specifies that the URL is for a government institution.
 cm specifies the country in which the URL is hosted or the country in which the institution is
found.

Assignment: What is a home page?

Answer: A web page that links a user to the other areas of the website.

a. Domain Name System

A domain name system (DNS) is a service which performs the function of turning human-
understandable domain names into IP addresses.

b. Web Browser
A web browser (or simply browser) is a computer program that enables a user to read hypertext in
files or on the World Wide Web. Popular browsers include Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Internet
Explorer, Opera Mini and Netscape.

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c. Search Engine
A search engine is a computer program that searches for specific words on the World Wide Web and
returns a list of documents in which they were found. Examples of search engines include Google
and yahoo.

3.5.2. ElectronicMail
Electronic mail or e-mail (email) is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
computers via the Internet. To send and receive e-mails, you need an Internet connection and an e-
mail account which can be created within a webmail service such as Yahoo, Hotmail or Gmail. When
you create an e-mail account, you are given a unique email address that gives you access to your
mail box. An email address is made up of two parts separated by the symbol @ pronounced “at”. For
example [email protected].
In the above address,
 bgsmolyko is the user ID, user name or login
 yahoo.com is the domain name. The domain specifies the mail server (computer) on which
the mail box is located.

The part of the domain name after the dot is called top-level domain, and specifies the type of
organization or the country the host server is located. Some common top-level domains are:
o .com - for commercial enterprises
o .edu - for educational institutions and universities
o .gov - for United States government agencies
o .net - for organizations such as Internet Service Providers
o .org - for non-commercial organizations

3.5.3. InstantMessaging
Instant messaging is a live (or real time) communication which occurs when brief text messages are
exchanged instantly over the Internet. Instant Messaging requires that both users be on-line at the
same time. Common IM applications are AOL Instant Messenger, Yahoo Messenger and Microsoft
MSN messaging.

3.5.4. InternetTelephony
Internet telephony or voice over IP (VoIP) is the transmission of voice telephone conversations
through the Internet or IP networks. It allows users to have voice-talk with others. The telephone
calls are digitized and transmitted through the Internet. Internet telephone services can be mainly
categorized into net-to-net and net-to-phone telephony.
In net-to-net telephony, both caller and receiver must be online. When both are online, one dials the
other person’s phone number. If they accept the call, then voice communication is established.
In net-to-phone, only one person has to be online. This person dials the other person’s phone
number and the latter receives a ring on their phone. Yahoo messenger and Skype provide services
for both types.

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3.5.5. InterpersonalComputing
Interpersonal computing refers to person-to-person interactions facilitated by websites that enable
collaborative content creation, sharing and manipulation. Interpersonal computing involves: blogs,
social networks, wikis and viral video sites.

a. Blogs
A blog (web log) is a chronological, journal-style website which its author (or "blogger") maintains
like an online diary, with regular entries of commentary, descriptions of events, or other material
such as graphics or video. Many blogs provide commentary or news on a particular subject; others
function as more personal online diaries. They also provide the readers with the ability to leave
comments in an interactive format.

b. Social Networking Sites

Social networking sites are websites that allow user to build personalized communities to socialize
with. Common features include a customizable profile, the ability to add other users as friends, the
ease of sharing pictures, music, text, and links, and built-in chat and mail features. Examples of
social networking sites areFacebook, Twitter and Instagram.

c. Wikis
Wikis are websites that allow visitors to easily add, remove and edit content, hence enabling the
collaborative authorship of comprehensive documents. The best example of a wiki is the multi-
lingual, web-based encyclopediaWikipedia, and which currently includes over two million articles.

d. Viral Video Sites

A viral video is a video that is distributed by sharing. Viral videosites are websites that allow
anybody to post videos online. Whilst it is now not difficult to put a video on any website, the
significance of viral video sites is that they provide somewhere to put videos where it is likely that
at least some other people will actually find them. Examples are YouTube and Kaltura.

3.5.6. ElectronicCommerce
E-commerce refers to the buying and selling on the Internet. Different models of e-commerce exists:
business-to-business, business-to-consumer, business-to-government and m-commerce

a. Business-to-Business
B2C model sells goods or services to the consumer, generally using online catalog and shopping
cart transaction systems. For example, an online pharmacy giving free medical consultation and
selling medicines to patients is following B2C model. Amazon is an example of one of the first and
still one of the most successful B2C e-commerce companies.

b. Business-to-Business

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B2B describes commerce transactions between businesses, such as between a manufacturer and a
wholesaler, or between a wholesaler and a retailer. In this form, the buyers and sellers are both
business entities and do not involve an individual consumer.

c. Business-to-Government
B2G is a derivative of B2B marketing. B2G sites provide a platform for businesses to bid on
government opportunities which are presented as solicitations requests for proposal (RFPs) to
tender.

d. M-Commerce
M-commerce refers to the use of mobile devices for conducting transactions. The mobile device
holders can contact each other and can conduct the business. Even the web design and development
companies optimize the websites to be viewed correctly on mobile devices.

Some e-commerce websites are: www.bruneiair.com for airline ticket bookings, www.amazon.com
for sales of books and magazines, www.brumedia.com/shop for sales of computers, shirts, and
cameras

 Some advantages of setting up an e-commerce website are:

o Products can be sold to local customers and those from abroad.
o It is accessible 24 hours each day.
o It needs a small number of staff to run.
o It does not need huge office space.
o Products can be sold at cheap prices

 Some disadvantages of e-commerce are:

o Credit card fraud - hackers are able to steal credit card numbers on computers.
o Certain websites spy or track the buying habits of their customers.
o Some goods do not arrive after they are paid for.
o It lacks human interaction as one only sees pictures and some text descriptions.

3.5.7. Online Banking

Online banking (Internet banking) is simply the use of the Internet to perform banking operations
like opening an account, accessing account information, transferring funds, getting a bank statement
etc. In an Internet banking system, the bank has a centralized database that is web-enabled. All the
services that the bank has permitted on the Internet are displayed in a menu. Any service can be
selected and further interaction is dictated by the nature of service.

3.6. Intranet and Extranet

An intranet is a private network that is set up using the same technology and protocols as the
Internet but is restricted to users inside an organization. It provides similar services within an
organization to those provided by the Internet without necessarily being connected to the Internet.

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An intranet can be seen as a private version of the Internet. To access an intranet, some form of user
authentication is usually required. External access to an intranet is not always provided.
An extranet is an interconnection of two or more intranets. It allows an organization to share
information with other organizations using Internet standards but with security features preventing
access to others.

3.7. Web Design with HTML

HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language. It is the authoring language that describes how a
Web page should be displayed by a Web browser. Hypertext means that it provides ways of
representing information with links or connections to other information. These links are called
hypertext links. Markup means that it provides ways to indicate underlining, italics, paragraph
breaks, section headings, and so on, in text.

3.7.1. HTML Documents

An HTML document is simply a text file that is saved with the extension .html or .htm. It can be
created by a simple text editor like Microsoft Notepad, Notepad++ as well as a sophisticated web
authoring tool like FrontPage or Dreamweaver.
HTML documents are made up of markup tags (or simply tags). A tag is a code enclosed within angle
brackets that indicates how something is to be interpreted by a web browser. Some examples of
tags are <html>, <br> and <em>. Most tags come in pairs: an open tag and a closing tag which is
written with a slash after the first < (e.g. </html>). A closing tag tells the browser where to stop
applying the effect of a given tag.
An HTML document is contained within the <HTML> and </HTML> tags and comprises of two
sections: head and body.
 The Head contains the page title and meta-tags within the <HEAD></HEAD> tags. Any
JavaScript code that is used, as well as Cascading Style Sheet information is also contained
within the Head. This section will not be displayed on the web page.
 The Body holds the actual content of the page (text, graphics, lists, etc.) contained within the
<BODY></BODY> tags.
The <HTML>, <HEAD>, <TITLE>, and <BODY> tags are referred to as document tags while the tags
that are used within the body part of the document are known as markup tags.
A basic HTML document would look something like this:

<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Page title here</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
Page content here.
</BODY>
</HTML>

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o <HTML> marks the beginning of an HTML document

o <HEAD> begins the heading section of the document
o <TITLE> ... </TITLE> gives a title that will appear on the browser’s menu bar. This section
must appear between the <HEAD> ... </HEAD> tags and should be straight text, no tags.
o </HEAD> defines the end of the heading
o <BODY> … </BODY> defines the body of the document (text contained within the <BODY> …
</BODY> tags appears in the main browser window). It can be used with the attribute
BGCOLOR.
o </HTML> defines the end of the document

Remark Once an HTML document hasbeen saved, it can now be opened as a web page using a web
browser.
To edit the page, go back to the text document. Make the changes and save the document. In the web
page, click “reload” or “refresh” to apply the changes.

3.7.2. Text Tags

Text tags are used to format text within the document.Some tags are used with attributes. An
attribute is a special code that can enhance or modify a tag. They are generally located in the
starting tag after the tag name. The basic syntax for html tags and attributes is:

<tag attribute=“value”> … </tag>

Tags Description
<b> … </b> or Bolds the text between the
<strong> … </strong> opening and closing tags
<i>...</i> or
Puts text in italics
<em>...</em>
<u> … </u> Underlines text
<font> … </font> Sets the appearance of the
<font size=? text in your page. Can be
color=#0000FF> … used with "size", "color" and
</font> "face" attributes.
<blink> … </blink> Causes text to blink
Centers text or any item or
group of items place
<center> … </center>
between its open and
closing tags
<marquee> …
Causes text to navigate
</marquee>

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<p> … </p> Sets a paragraph apart from

<p align=“center”> … other text and adds a line
</p> break after. </p> is optional
Used to insert comments.
Comments are not displayed
<!--...-->
by the browser. They are
footnotes for you.
Used to insert a line break.
<br> It does not have a closing
tag.

Example 1:
<html>
<head>
<title>My First Web Page</title>
</head>
<body>
<strong>This text is bold</strong><br>
<b>This text is bold too</b><br>
<em>This text is in italics</em><br>
<i>This text is in italics too</i><br>
<u>This text is underlined</u><br>
<b><i>This text is bold and in italics</i></b><br>
<strong><em><u>This text is bold, underlined and in italics</u></em></strong>
</body>
</html>

Example 2:

<html>
<head>
<title>MyPage</title>
</head>
<bodybgcolor=“cyan”>
<font type=“Monotype corsiva” size= “12” color=“blue”
</body>
</html>

Remark! Tags are case insensitive but it is advisable to write them in lower case.
All attribute values must be written within double quotes.

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3.7.3. Heading Tags

Heading tags are used to highlight text by making them bigger and bolder than normal text. There
are six levels of headings numbered 1 through 6, where 1 is the biggest and 6 is the smallest
heading. Headings are specified as <h�></h�> where h stands for heading and � is the level number
(1 to 6).

Example:
<html>
<head>
<title>Heading</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Level 1 heading</h1>
<h2>Level 2 heading</h2>
</body>
</html>

3.7.4. List Tags

List tags are used to display items that are arranged in a list. Two types of lists exist: ordered and
unordered lists.
Their respective tags are <ol> … </ol> and <ul> and </ul>. No matter the type of list, the <li> …
</li> tag is used for every item inside the list.
Example:
<ol> <ul>
<li>item 1</li> <li>item 1</li>
<li>item 2</li> <li>item 2</li>
<li>item 3</li> <li>item 3</li>
</ol> </ul>

3.7.5. Anchor (Link) Tag

A link can be text or an image which when clicked takes one to another part of the document,
another html document on the same machine or to another website. A link is introduced using the
anchor <a> ... </a> tag.
<a href=“URL or address”> … </a>
<a href=“www.facebook.com”>Click here to log onto to Facebook</a>
<a href=“mailto:[email protected]”>Send a mail to Josh</a>
<a href="#top">Back to top of page </a>

3.7.6. Image Tag

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Images are inserted in the page with the use of the image tag <img>. It has no closing tag and can be
used with the attributes src which specifies the source of the image, align, top and width.

Example:
<img src= “image path” align=“top” height=“40” width=“30”> … </img>
<img src=“logo.jpg”>
<img src= “mypict.gif>

3.7.7. Table Tags

Tables are defined with the <table> tag. A table is divided into rows with the <tr> tag, and each row
is divided into data cells with the <td> tag. The letters td stands for table data, which is the content
of a data cell. A data cell can contain text, images, lists, paragraphs, forms, horizontal rules, tables,
etc.

Example:
<table>
<tr><td>row 1, cell 1</td>
<td>row 1, cell 2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td>row 2, cell 1</td>
<td>row 2, cell 2</td>
</tr>
</table>

3.7.8. Form Tags

3.7.9. F

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X. DATABASE DESIGN

Introduction
A database is an organized collection of related data stored in a way that it can be easily retrieved
and manipulated. A telephone directory, a library catalogue and a class register are examples of
manual or paper-based database systems. A paper-based database requires much paper as the
database becomes larger, making it difficult to manipulate the database. The problems caused by
paper-based systems are solved by the development of computer-based systems.
The capacity for computers to store large amounts of data and their ability to quickly and efficiently
retrieve the data makes them ideal for creating and using electronic or computerized databases. A
computerized database refers to a collection of related files that are digitized. Computerized
databases are created using database software called database management systems (DBMS).

1. Database Models

1.1. Flat-file Database

A flat file database is a single table database, with separate copies of data in each part of the
business. An example is a phone directory.
The problems encountered with flat file databases are
 Data duplication: data is repeated and hence stored many times. This wastes disk space and
slows down query time.
 Maintenance is difficult as every occurrence of a piece of data needs to be updated if its value
changes
 More manual data entry is required and therefore a greater likelihood of errors when data is
being entered.

The solution to these problems is to divide the data into logical groups and store the data in multiple
tables, then connect (relate) the tables to each other. This results to a Relational database.

1.2. Relational Database Model

In a relational database, data is organized in two dimensional tables called relations, which are
linked. Arelationhas the following features:
 Name: the name of the table
 Attributes:
 Records or tuples:

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1.3. Object-Oriented Database Model

An object-oriented database tries to keep the advantages of the relational model and at the same
time allows applications to access structured data.

1.4. Hierarchical Database Model

2. Database Modeling
2.1. DatabaseNormalization
Database normalization is the process of organizing the fields and tables of a relational database to
minimize redundancy and dependency. Normalization usually involves dividing large tables into
smaller and less redundant tables and defining relationships between them. Normalization works
through a series of stages known as normal forms. In order to achieve one level of normal form,
each previous level must be met.

2.1.1. First Normal Form

A relation (Table) is in first normal form (1NF) if and only if
 It contains a primary key. A primary key is an attribute that identifies each entity in a unique
way.
It contains no multivalued field or repeating groups. A multivalued field is one that may take several
values for a single record. A repeating group is a set of one or more multivalued attributes that are
related.

2.1.2. Second Normal Form

A relation is in second normal form (2NF)if and only if
 it is in 1NF
 every non-key attribute is fully dependent on the primary key.

In the above table, Subject does not depend on StudID. In this case, a different table is created for
subject with its own primary key and a relationship is created between the two tables.

2.1.3. ThirdNormal Form

A relation is in third normal form (3NF) if and only if
 It is in 2NF
 there are no transitive dependencies. Transitive dependency is a situation where a non-key
attribute depends on another non-key attribute.

2.2. Entity-RelationshipModeling
When a relational database is to be designed, an entity-relationship model is drawn at an early stage
and developed as the requirements of the database and its processing become better understood.

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Definition: An E-R model is a diagram which uses basic graphic symbols to show the organization of
and relationships between data in a database.

An E-R diagram serves as a schema diagram for the required database. A schema diagram is any
diagram that attempts to show the structure of the data in a database.

Name
Number

PERSON Owns HOUSE

DOB Street

An E-R diagram

The basic elements of an E-R diagram are entity sets, attributes and relationship types.

2.2.1. EntitySet
An entity is a person, place, concept or thing for which we intend to collect data. For example, a
customer, an employee, a book, an appointment.
A group of entities that share the same properties is an entity set.An entity is therefore a member or
an instance of an entity set. In an E-R diagram, an entity set is represented by a rectangle. In the
above E-R diagram, PERSON and HOUSE are entity sets

2.2.2. Attribute
An attribute is a fact about an entity or a property that describes an entity. For example, a person’s
name, date of birth or gender, a vehicle’s model, color or brand. Attributes store the actual data we
want to keep about each entity within an entity set. An attribute is represented by an ellipse. In the
above E-R diagram, name and date of birth are attributes of the entity set PERSON while Number
and Street are attributes of the entity set HOUSE.

2.2.3. RelationshipType
A relationship type is a named association between entities. A person (entity) owns (relationship) a
house (entity), a teacher (entity) teaches (relationship) a subject (entity). Normally, individual
entities have individual relationships of the type between them but in an E-R diagram, this is
generalized to entity sets and relationship types. For example, the entity set PERSON is related to
the entity set HOUSE by the relationship type OWNS.A relationship type is represented by a
diamond.

A relationship type can be characterized by a degree and cardinality ratio.

a. Degree of a Relationship Type

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The degree of a relationship type is the number of entity sets involved in the relationship. It can be
unary, binary, ternary or n-ary.

 A unary relationship type is one that involves entities from a single entity set. E.g. the
relationship MANAGES between entities within the entity set EMPLOYEE.

EMPLOYEE Manages

 A binary relationship type is a relationship between entities from two different entity sets. An
example is the relationship OWNS in the E-R diagram above.

PERSON Owns HOUSE

 A ternary relationship type is one that involves entities from three different entity sets. An
example is a LECTURER who teaches a certain COURSE in a DEPARTMENT.

LECTURER Teaches COURSE

DEPARTMENT

 An �-ary relationship type involves entities from � different entity sets.

b. Cardinality Ratio of a Relationship Type

Cardinality is the maximum number of entities within each entity type that can take part in a
relationship. For example, what is the maximum number of houses that a person can own? On the
other hand, the minimum number of entities within each entity that can take part in the relationship
is the Optionality. For example, what is the minimum number of houses that can be owned by a
person?
The cardinality ratio is a ratio of the cardinalities of the entity sets involved in a relationship. It can
be one-to-one (1:1), one-to-many (1:N) or many-to-many (M:N).

 In the relationship OWNS between PERSON and HOUSE, a person can own zero or many
houses. Therefore, the cardinality of PERSON in the relationship OWNS is many while the
optionality is zero.
On the other hand, a house is owned by one person. The cardinality of HOUSE in the inverse
relationship IS_OWNED_BY, is one while the optionality is one. The relationship OWNS is
therefore described as a one-to-many (1:N) relationship.

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(1,1) (0,N)
PERSON Owns HOUSE

(1:N) relationship

 In the relationship RECEIVES between STUDENT and SLIP, each student receives one andonly
one result slip. The cardinality of student is one and the optionality is one. Each result slip is
issued to one and only one student. The cardinality of SLIP is one and the optionality is one.
This relationship is described as one-to-one (1:1).
(1,1) (1,1)
STUDENT Receives SLIP

(1:1) relationship

 In the relationship TEACHES between TEACHER and SUBJECT, a teacher teaches one or many
subjects. The cardinality of TEACHER is many and the optionality is one.
A subject is taught by one or many teachers. The cardinality of SUBJECT in the inverse
relationship IS_TAUGHT_BY, is many and the optionality is one. This relationship is described
as many-to-many (M:N).
(1,M) (1,N)
TEACHER Teaches SUBJECT

(M:N) relationship

Remark In a normalized database, many-to-many relationships are eliminated by creating a link

entity between the entities involved in the relationship.
The above TEACHES relationship when normalized becomes
(1,1) (1,N) (1,N) (1,1)
TEACHER TEACHES SUBJECT

Normalized (M,N) relationship

The primary key of the link entity is a composite key that consists of the primary keys of the entities
TEACHER and SUBJECT.

The above representation of an E-R diagram is the Chen Convention. Another way of representing E-
R diagrams is the crow’s foot notation that uses three symbols to show cardinality ratios. Here, a
circle means zero, a line means one and a crow’sfoot means many. The cardinality is shown next to
the entity type and the optionality (if shown at all) is shown behind it.

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Where A and B are entity sets and R is the relationship type.

Exercise! Exercise! Exercise!

1) Identify the cardinality ratios of the following relationships.

2) A database will be made to store information about patients in a hospital. On arrival, each
patient’s personal details (name, address, and telephone number) are recorded where
possible, and they are given an admission number. They are then assigned to a particular
ward (Accident and Emergency, Cardiology, Oncology, etc.). In each ward there are a number
of doctors and nurses. A patient will be treated by one doctor and several nurses over the
course of their stay, and each doctor and nurse may be involved with several patients at any
given time.

From the description, draw a corresponding E-R diagram showing all entity sets, attributes,
relationship types and cardinality ratios.

3. Database Management Systems

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer program that is used to create, manipulate
and access a database. Examples are MS Access, MySQL, Oracle, Sybase, dBase, Paradox, Objecstore
and O2.
A DBMS provides users with:
 Data Definition Language (DDL): language which programs the structure (schema) of the
database
 Data Manipulation Language (DML): language which changes the contents (instance) of the
database
 Data Control Language (DCL)

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3.1. Microsoft Access 2007

MS Access 2007 is made up of several components including:
 Tables
 Forms
 Queries
 Reports

These components are called database objects. One or more of these components are formed when
a database is created. These components are stored in a single database file.

3.1.1. Tables
A table is an area of the database where information is stored. Tables organize data into columns
(called fields) and rows (called records). Example: a database storing information about books and
authors for a library could have a “BOOKS” table to store information about books (title, publisher,
Year, etc) and an “AUTHORS” table to store information about authors (name, birth date, birth place,
etc).

 A field is a specific piece of data stored in a table. The above mentioned ‘BOOKS’ table has fields
‘Title’, ‘Publisher’, ‘Year’ etc.

 A record is an individual entry in a database table. It comprises of one or more fields,

depending on the number of fields defined to the table. For example: if five books are entered
in our books and authors database, the “BOOKS” table would have five records (one for each
book).

 Each field in a database table is assigned a data type when the field is created. The data type
determines the kind and format of the information stored in the field. Example: the “Title” field
in the “BOOKS” table will store text that will vary with each book in the database, so the data
type in this case will be text or character type.

a. Creating a New Table

To create a new table,
o Click the Create Tab
o Select Table in the Tables group to create a new table in Datasheet view or Table Design
to create a new table in Design view

b. Adding Fields in a Table

To add a field to a table in Datasheet View,
o Click the Add New Field column label.
o Click Rename in the Fields & Columns group.
o Type the field name and press Enter. Access creates the field. Continue until you have
created all of the fields in your table.

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o Press Enter without entering a field name to end your entries.

To add a field to a table in Design View,

o Select a cell in the Field Name column
o Type a name for the first field in the table and press Enter
o Select a data type and press Enter
o Type a description and press Enter

c. Naming and Saving a Table

To name and save a table,
o Click the Save button on the Quick Access toolbar. The Save As dialog box appears.
o Type the name you want to give your table.
o Click OK. Access names your table.

Tip: You can use the Rename option at any time to rename any column. For example, you can
rename the ID column Author_ID.

d. Setting a Primary Key

A primary key is a field in a table that allows each entry in the table to be identified in a unique way.
No two entries in the database can have the same primary key. For example your ID card number is
unique. By default, Access sets the first field in the table as the Primary Key field.
To set a Primary Key:
o Switch to Design View
o Position your cursor in the field you wish to set as the Primary Key
o Click the Primary Key button on the Ribbon

e. The Foreign Key

The primary key is used to link the table with other tables in the database. When a primary key in
one table (known as the source table) is linked to another table (known as the target table), the
connecting field in the target table is called the foreign key. A foreign key must have the same
structure, data type, and field size as the associated primary key, but it must not have the same
name. Also, the foreign key in a relationship between two tables need not be a primary key in its
own table.

3.1.2. Relationships
Relating tables reduces the unnecessary duplication of data (redundancy).The general procedure
for creating relationships in Access is to
o Determine the type of the relationship and identify the source and target tables
o Create the foreign key field(s) in the target table if they are not already present

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o Select the Database Tools tab

o Click on the Relationships command
o Add all the tables involved in the relationship to the window
o Create the relationships by dragging the primary keys from the source table(s) and dropping
them on the associated foreign key(s) in the target table(s).

For example: Let’s create a relation between the AUTHORS table and the BOOKS table.

3.1.3. Queries
A query is a command that tells the database what data the user wants to see. A query allows
information to be found and retrieved from one or more tables based on a set of search conditions
you define. For example: a query can be written specifying that the database should retrieve all the
books from the “BOOKS” table written by William Shakespeare.

To create a query,
o Click the Create tab on the Ribbon
o Click the Query Design command
o Double-click Create Query in Design View
o Select the table that you would like to base your Query on
o Click Add
o Close the Show Table window

In order to control which records are displayed, you must define criteria in a Query.
To define criteria for your query:
o Position your cursor in the criteria row in the field for which you wish to define the criteria
for
o Enter the criteria
o Click the Run Query button

For example: a query to find the books written by Barack Obama

The result of a query is called a recordset.

To Save the Query:

o Click the Save Icon
o Enter a name for the query
o Click OK

3.1.4. Forms
A form is an interface that allows users to enter and view data. Forms give the ability to choose the
format and arrangement of fields. They can be used to enter, edit and display data. Forms can
retrieve data from one or more tables, and display the output on the screen.

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To create a Form using the Form Wizard

 Navigate to the table you want to base the form on
 Click Createon the Ribbon
 Click Forms
You are able to navigate using the navigation arrows at the bottom of the form.

To enter a record on the Form:

 Click the View button on the Ribbon to switch from Layout View to Form View
 Enter the data for each field in the record, pressing the Enter key to move to the next field
 Press Enter after you have entered data for the last field

NB. The form feeds the table. If you edit a record on the form, or create a new record, that data will
be passed to the table it is associated with.

3.1.5. Reports
A report is an effective way to analyze and present data in printable format using a specific layout.
Reports are the primary method of retrieving and viewing information. Using queries, reports pull
information the user has requested and either print that information or display it on screen. The
information that appears and the formatting and appearance of a report are set when the report is
created.

To create a Report using the Report Wizard:

 Click the Create tab on the Ribbon
 Click the Report Wizard command
 Select the table or query upon which the report will be based
 Select the fields that you want to include on the report by double clicking on them
 Click Next
 Select a style for the report
 Click Next
 Type a title for the report
Click Finish

3.2. Structured Query Language

Structured query language (SQL)

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XI. ALGORITHM DESIGN AND PROGRAMMING

1. Data Types and Structures

1.1. Data Types

Computers manipulate data of different types like numbers, letters, sound and images. No matter
the type, each data is stored as a pattern of binary digits. Numbers can be added, subtracted, divided
and multiplied whereas letters cannot. This implies that data of a given type will be treated
differently from data of another type. As such, the type of any data stored in the computer must be
specified so that the correct operations will be performed on it.
A data type is defined as a set of values and a collection of operations on those values. Examples of
data types are integer, real, string and Boolean.

a. Integer
An integer is a whole number that can be positive, negative or zero. Examples: -3, 5, 67, -134 and
4231.

b. Real
A real is a number that contains a decimal point. Computers manipulate numbers with fractions as
floating point numbers. Examples: 3.14, 12.25 and 0.001.

c. Boolean
A Boolean data type stores one of only two values – true or false, yes or no, or on or off. Usually
these values are stored as 1 for true and 0 for false.

d. Character
A character is any letter, digit, space, punctuation mark, or symbol that can be typed on a computer.
The word "computer" for example, consists of eight characters. The phrase "data type" takes up nine
characters. A character data type stores only a single character or digit. Each character requires one
byte of space, so "computer" takes up 8 bytes (8 × 8 = 64 ����). Examples: A, 5, -, and !.

e. String/Text

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A string is a set of characters grouped together. A string is sometimes just referred to as ‘text’. It can
contain a mixture of numbers, letters and, spaces. Numeric data stored as text is only for
representation not for calculation. Any type of alphabetic or numeric data can be stored as a string.
Examples: “Limbe City”, “10base-2” and “36.85”.

f. Date/ Timestamp
Date and timestamp are data types for storing date and time respectively. The format used for date
is either dd-mm-yy or mm-dd-yy and hh:mm:ss or ss:mm:hhfor time.

g. Container
A container is a data type used for storing images, video, sound or another type of ‘complex’ file. In
some languages, binary large object (blob) is used rather than container.

1.2. DataStructures
A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data in memory so that it can be used efficiently.
Any data structure is designed to organize data so that it can be accessed and worked with in
appropriate ways. A well-designed data structure allows a variety of critical operations to be
performed, using as few resources, both execution time and memory space, as possible. Data
structures include arrays, records, stacks, queues, trees, graphs and hash tables.

2.1.1. Arrays
An array is a data structure, which allows a set of items of identical data type to be stored together
using the same identifier name. When an array is created, its dimension (size) and the type of its
elements are specified.

For example: String Names[5]

Names :Array [1..5] of string

The above statements create an array called “Names” of five elements in C and Pascal respectively.
The size of the array is 5 and its elements are of type string.
To reference an element in an array, an index is used. An index is an integer that gives the element
at the indexed position in the array.
For example in C, Names[0] references the first element in the array Names, Names[1] references
the second element, Names[2] references the third and so on…
In Pascal, the referencing starts from 1 rather than 0.

a. One-dimensional Arrays
A one-dimensional array is an array which is declared using a single index and can be visually
represented as a list. The array “Names” above is one-dimensional.
If the array “Names” contains five elements (names), Raissa, Peter, James, Leticia and Isaac, it can be
visually represented as follows:

Element Raissa Peter James Leticia Isaac

Index [0] [1] [2] [3] [4]

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Names[0] == Raissa, Names[4] == Isaac

b. Two-dimensional Arrays
A two-dimensional array is an array which is declared using two indices and can be visually
represented as a table.
For example:

int Tab[3][2] or Tab : Array [1..3, 1..2] of integer

3 is the number of rows and 2 is the number of columns in the table Tab.

The elements of Tab will be referenced as:

Tab[0][0] Tab[0][1]
Tab[1][0] Tab[1][1]
Tab[2][0] Tab[2][1]

Example: Given the 2-dimensional array Tab[4][2] below, what are the elements given by the
references Tab[0][0], Tab[1][1], Tab[3][0] and Tab[2][1]?
Index [0] [1]

[0] 5 3

[1] 1 4

[2] 3 1

[3] 2 8

Each individual element can be referenced by its row and column indices. For
example:
Tab[0][0] = 5
Tab[1][1] = 4
Tab[3][0] = 2

2.1.2. Record
A record is a data structure which allows items of different types that define a particular structure
or object, to be stored together. The elements of a record are usually called fields or members.
Defining a record includes specifying the data type of each field and a name (label) by which the
field can be accessed.
For example,
Student = RECORD struct Student
Date= RECORD
Name: String {
Day: Integer
Gender: Character string Name
Month: String
DOB: Date char Gender
Year: Integer
End RECORD Date DOB
End RECORD
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The above Date record has a numeric field Day, a text field Month and a numeric field Year. The
Student record has fields Name, Gender and DOB which is of type Date. The table below gives
examples of student records.
Name Gender DOB

Raissa F 01 Apr 1996

Peter M 17 Oct 1995

Records
James M 05 May 1995

Leticia F 09 Dec 1997

Isaac M 29 Feb 1995

Each row in the table corresponds to a different record. This table has 5 records.
A field in a record is referenced as follows:

RecordName.fieldName = “”
Raissa.DOB= 01 Apr 1996

Record data structures are always used in association with arrays. That is, we define an array whose
elements are of type record. When this is done, we have an array of records.

For example: let’s define an arrayClassList, which stores information about the students in the table
above.

StudentClassList[5] or ClassList: Array [1..5] of Student

An element in this type of array is referenced as follows:

ArrayName[index].fieldName

ClassList[0].Gender == F; ClassList[4].DOB == 29 Feb 1995; ClassList[3].DOB.Month == Dec

2.1.3. Stack
A stack is a linear list in which items are added and removed from the same end (head). Items being
added and removed from the same end means that the last item to be added will be the first to be
removed. As such stacks are also called last in, first out (LIFO) lists as they use the LIFO principle.
(FILO)
Stack operations are:

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 Stack(S): creates an empty stack named S

 Push(S,x): inserts the element x to the top of the stack S. Inserting an element into a stack that
is full leads to a situation known as overflow. (START == NULL)
 Pop(S): removes an element from the top of the stack S. Removing an element from an empty
stack leads to a situation known as underflow. (START == HEAD)
 IsEmpty(S): checks whether the stack S is empty. Returns true if it is empty and false
otherwise.

Application of stacks:

a. Converting a Decimal Number to Binary

Initially we push the binary digit formed into the stack, instead of printing it directly. After the
entire digit has been converted into the binary form, we pop one digit at a time from the stack and
print it. Therefore we get the decimal number converted into its proper binary form.

b. Evaluating Arithmetic Expressions

Arithmetic expressions are usually written in the form(� + �), where the operator is in between the
operands. This is known as the infix notation. This notation poses problems for more complicated
expressions. For example:

� × � + �?
��+�=
�× �+� ?

2 × 6 + 5 = 17?
2×6+5 = ��
2 × 6 + 5 = 22?

Infix notation requires the use of order of precedence of operators and parentheses making it
complicated and difficult for computers to evaluate expressions in this form.
To ease evaluation of arithmetic expressions, other notations are used: the prefix and postfix
notations.
In prefix notation also called polish notation, operations are written before the operands. For
example the expression (� × �) + � will be written in prefix notation as
� × � + � = × �� + �
= +× ���

In postfix notation also called reverse polish notation, operands come before operators. For example
� × � + � = �� × + � = �� × � + 2 × 3 + 1 = 23 × 1 +
Also,
� × � + � = � × �� + = ��� +× 2 × 3 + 1 = 231 +×

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Prefix and postfix notations do not require parentheses or precedence rules. Calculators use postfix
notation to evaluate arithmetic expressions. A simple way to understand is by using the following
expression: Pre A InB Pos.

To convert from infix to prefix or postfix, priorities are assigned to operators as follows:
��������( × ) = �������� / > �������� + = �������� ( − ) and the following rules are used.
- When an operand lies between two operators, it associates with the operator that has higher
priority.
- When an operand lies between operators of same priority, it associates with the operator on
the left.

Example 1: Let’s convert the expression P: � + � × �/� to postfix.

Considering the priority rules given above, we can rewrite P as follows:
P:� + ((� × �)/�)

Stack[empty]
Output: [ ]
Read A push it into stack stack[A] output: [� ]
Read + stack[+] output: [� ]
Read ( stack[+(] output: [ ]
Read ( stack[+((] output: [ ]
Read B stack[+((] output: [ �� ]
Read * stack[+((*] output: [ �� ]
Read C stack [+((*]output: [���]
Read ) stack [+(] output: [��� × ] pop until you meet an opening )
Read / stack [+(/] output: [��� × ]
Read D stack [+(/] output: [��� × �]
Read )  stack [+] output: [��� × �/]
stack[ ] output: [��� × �/+ ]

� + ((� × �)/�)in postfix notation is��� × �/+

Example 2: Let’s evaluate the expression 234 × 5 +− written in postfix notation.

Read 2  stack [2]
Read 3  stack [2, 3]
Read 4  stack [2, 3, 4]
Read ×  stack [2, 3 × 4 = 12]= [2, 12]
Read 5  stack [2, 12, 5]
Read + stack [2, 12 + 5 = 17] = [2, 17]
Read −  stack [2 − 17 =− 15] = [ − 15]

The result of the expression 234 × 5 +− is −15

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Exercise: Convert the following to postfix notation and evaluate them.

i) 2 − 3 × 4 + 5 (34 × 2 − 5 + )
ii) (2 − 3) × (4 + 5) (23 − 45 +× )
iii) 2 × 3/(2 − 1) + 5 × 3 (23x

Exercise 2: Evaluate the following expressions

i) 623 +− 382/+× 2^3 +
ii) 12, 7, 3, − , /, 2, 1, 5, + , × , + (June 2013, Paper 2, Q5)

2.1.4. Queues
A queue is a linear list in which items are inserted at one end (tail/rear) and removed from the
other end (head/front) such the first item added to the queue is the first to be removed. Queues are
also called FIFO lists as they use the FIFO principle. (LILO)
Queue operations include:
 Create(Q): creates a queue Q.
 Enqueue(Q,x): inserts the element x to the tail of the queue Q.
 Dequeue(Q): removes the first element from the head of the queue Q
 Top(): checks the next element to be removed (do not remove)
 IsEmpty(): checks whether the queue is empty. Returns true if it is empty and false otherwise.

Application of queues:

a. Spooling
It is a method used to place input and output on a fast access storage device, such as a disk, so that
slow peripheral devices do not hold up the processor. For example, print spooler stores output to be
printed in a queue while waiting for the user’s program to finish creating the output. The spooler
then sends the stored output to the printer at the proper speed. If new output arrives for printing, it
is added to the queue.

b. Scheduling
It is the process of determining which of the jobs in memory will be executed by the CPU. When a
job is created, it is added to a queue, the ready queue. Any other job that arrives is added to the tail
of the queue. A scheduling algorithm like round-robin is then used to allocate the jobs one by one, to
the CPU for execution.

Remark A queue in which elements can be added and removed from any end is known as a double
ended queue (Deque).

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2.1.5. LinkedLists
A linked list is a linear list in which each element contains a pointer to the next element in the list.
Each element in a linked list is known as a node and consists of two parts: the data item and the
pointer to the next element.
A C E

Data Pointer

A linked list that stores characters

Linked lists make it possible to insert items in the middle of the list without moving other items to
make room.
A B E

C D P

Linked list with elements C and D inserted.

NB: In a double linked list, every node has two pointers: one for its predecessor and another for its
successor in the list.

2.1.6. BinaryTree
A binary tree is a finite set of nodes that is either empty or consists of a root and two disjoint binary
trees called the left sub-tree and the right sub-tree. In other words, it is a non-linear linked list
where each node may point to two other nodes. Binary trees are a very efficient way of storing items
that must be searched for and retrieved quickly. Suppose, for example, that you want to store the
following names in a computer using a binary tree:

Jones, Stephen, Agbor, William, Bate, Peter, Terence

The names can be arranged into a binary tree by using the following two-step procedure:
1. Use the first name on the list as the root of the tree.
2. To find where to put each subsequent name, start at the root of the tree. If the name you are
dealing with precedes the root name alphabetically, follow the left pointer; otherwise follow the
right pointer. Proceed in this way until you come to an empty pointer; attach the name to it.

Jones

Agbor Stephen

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The topmost node in the tree is known as the root node. Each node in a binary tree may have at most
two children or child nodes. A node that has a child is called the child's parent node (or ancestor node,
or superior). A node has at most one parent except the root node that has no parent. Nodes that
have the same parent are called siblings. Every node in a tree can be seen as the root node of the
sub-tree rooted at that node.
Nodes at the bottom most level of the tree are called leaf nodes. Since there are at the bottom most
level, they will not have any children.

Tree traversal is the process of systematically visiting all the nodes in a tree and performing some
computation. When describing a traversal strategy, we need not concern ourselves with what that
computation is. There are two methods for traversing a tree: breadth first traversal and depth first
traversal.

a. Breadth First Traversal

In a breadth first traversal all of the nodes on a given level are visited and then all of the nodes on
the next level are visited, usually in a left to right fashion. It is also called level order traversal.

Consider the following binary tree.

A level order traversal of this tree gives: ABCDEGHFJKL

b. Depth First Traversal

In depth first traversal, the left subtree is traversed, the right subtree is traversed and the root is
visited. There are three different depth first traversal techniques; preorder, in order and post order
traversals. What distinguishes them is the order in which the subtrees and the root are visited.

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 Preorder Traversal:
- Visit the root
- Traverse left subtree
- Traverse right subtree

A preorder of the above tree gives: ABDEFCGHJLK

 Inorder Traversal:
- Traverse left subtree
- Visit the root
- Traverse right subtree

An inorder traversal of the tree above gives: Inorder traversal: DBFEAGCLJHK

 Postorder Traversal:
- Traverse left subtree
- Traverse right subtree
- Visit the root

A post order traversal of the tree above give: DFEBGLJKHCA

2.1.7. HashTable
A hash table is an array in which data is stored at specific locations designated by a hash function. A
hash function is a function that transforms the value of a record key into an index that corresponds
to a location for storing the record. A hash function maps the set of input data to a set of integers.
Each element to be stored in the array has a unique key that is mapped by the hash function to a
numeric value that represents an index in the array.
For example,
Index Element

0 Null
Key

35 1 Agbor

34 2 Kome

3 Eyong
43

44 4 Epie

66 5 Null

6 Sama

A hash table

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The above hash table stores the names Agbor, Epie, Sama, Kome and Eyong using the hash
functionh(k)= k mod tablesize, where k, the key of each string is the sum of its letters’ positions in
the alphabet. This means that if an element p has key k, then p will be stored at position h(k) in the
table.
Keys:
Agbor = 1+7+2+15+18=43
Epie=5+16+9+5=35
Sama = 19+1+13+1=34
Kome=11+15+13+5=44
Eyong=5+25+15+14+7=66

Applying the function ℎ to each key we get:

Agbor= 43 mod 7=1
Epie=35 mod 7=4
Sama=34 mod 7=6
Kome=44 mod 7=2
Eyong=66 mod 7=3

Hash table operations are:

o Search: compute ℎ(�) and see if an element exists
o Insert: compute ℎ(�) and place element in the resulting position
o Delete: compute ℎ(�) and remove element in that position

Remarks! The size of the array should be preferably a prime number.

With hash tables, there always exists the possibility that two data elements will hash to the
same integer value. This situation is known as collision. Two methods to solve collision are
separate chaining and probing (closed hashing).

3. Algorithms
An algorithm is a well-defined set of step-by-step instructions for solving a problem in a finite
amount of time. A set of instructions is not an algorithm if there is no definite stopping place, or if
the instructions are too vague to be followed clearly.
A good algorithm:
- should be explicit (i.e. clear and obvious)
- should be precise (i.e. exact and accurate)
- should be unambiguous (i.e. no doubts about what to do/ only one way of interpreting the
instructions)
- should be effective (i.e. produce good results)
- should be finite (i.e. have a definite stopping place)

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3.1. Representation of Algorithms

There are different ways for representing algorithms such as pseudo code, flow chart and
structured English.

3.1.1. Pseudo code

A pseudo code is an outline of a computer program, written in a mixture of a programming language
and English. Writing pseudo code is one of the best ways to represent an algorithm as it allows the
programmer to concentrate on how the program works while ignoring the details of the language.
In a pseudo code, some terms are commonly used to represent the various actions. For example, for
inputting data the terms may be (INPUT, GET, READ), for outputting data (OUTPUT, PRINT,
DISPLAY), for calculations (COMPUTE, CALCULATE), for incrementing (INCREMENT), in addition
words like ADD, SUBTRACT, INITIALIZE are used for addition, subtraction, and initialization,
respectively.
For example, here is a pseudo code for an algorithm that reads two numbers, computes and displays
their sum:

Begin
Get A
Get B
Result = A + B
Print Result
End

3.1.2. Flowchart
A flow chart is a diagram that uses graphic symbols to describe the nature and flow of steps in an
algorithm. Each step in a flowchart is followed by an arrow that indicates which step to go next. The
following symbols are used in flow charting:

a. Elongated circle: indicates the beginning (start) or end (stop) of the algorithm
Start/Stop

b. Rectangle: indicates instructions or actions

c. Diamond: indicates a decision that has to be made

d. Arrow: indicates the direction of flow

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e. Parallelogram: indicates data input and output

f. Circle: serves as a connector

Example: flow chart for an algorithm that divides two numbers x and y.

Start

Get x, y

Is y=0

z = x/y Error

Stop

3.2. Variables, Constants and Literals

A variable is an object in a program whose value can be modified during the execution of the
program. In the above flow chart, x, y and z are variables.

A constant is an object whose value cannot be modified in the course of the algorithm or program. A
constant is given a value that remains the same all through the program.

Variables and constants are characterized by:

o an identifier: which is the name of the object
o a value: which is the content of the object
o a type: which defines the domain in which the object gets its value

A literal is anything (numbers or text) that is usually written within double quotes. For example,
“Enter a number”, “The result is”.

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3.3. BasicInstructions
Three basic instructions used in an algorithm are input, output and assignment instructions:
 An input instruction allows information to be typed from the keyboard. Example: read (a, b), get
(number)
 An output instruction allows:
 display of information on the screen
 printing of information on paper
For example: write “a is greater than b” or print “b is greater than a”

 The assignment statement allows a value to be assigned to a variable.A variable can be assigned
the content of another variable, a constant, a literal, an arithmetic or Boolean expression. The
symbol used is.

Examples: ��/�, ���� + �, ���������� + 1, �� 3.14

In an assignment statement, the value to the right is assigned to the variable in the left.
In the case of ���� + �, “� + �” is calculated and the result is assigned (kept) in the variable sum.
For ���������� + 1, “����� + 1” is calculatedand the result is assigned to the variable total,meaning
that the value of total has been increased by 1.
E.g. Let ����� = 3
���������� + 1 ⇒ ����� = 3 + 1 = 4.

Activity: Complete the table below.

������� � � �
3.4. Control Structures
�← 2 − −
The logic of a program may not always be a linear sequence of
� − −
statements to be executed in that order. The logic of a program may ←� + 1
require execution of a statement based on a decision. It may �← 1 −
repetitively execute a set of statements unless or until some �
condition is met. Control structures specify the statements to be ←� + �
executed and their order ofexecution. �
←� + �
3.4.1. Sequential Control
A sequence control structure executes a set of instructions one after the other from the first to the
last in the order they are given.

Syntax: begin Begin

statement 1 get a statement 1
get b
statement 2 c a + b
statement 2
… print “Sum =”, c
End
statement n
end statement n

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3.4.2. SelectionControl
A selection control structure (condition control structure) chooses the instruction or instructions to
be executed based on the validity of a certain condition. Examples are IF and CASE statements.

a. The IF Statement

Syntax: if condition then statement

statement 1
else No Yes
?
statement 2
statement 1 statement 2

Explanation Condition is a Boolean expression meaning that it can take only one of two values true
or false. The condition is evaluated, if it is true, Action3 is executed. If it is false, Action 2 is executed.
Note that actions 2 and 3 could be a block statements.
E Get a, b
if (a = 0) then
Print “Error”
else
Print b/a

It is possible to nest many selection structures.

E get a, b
Syntax: if condition1 then if a <> 0 then
if b <> 0 then
if condition2 then print b/a
statement 1 else
print “Answer is 0”
else else
print “Error: division by 0”
statement 2 end
else
statement 3

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Explanation If condition1 is true, we move to condition2. If condition2 is true, then statement 1 is

executed otherwise, statement 2 is executed. If condition 1 is false, instruction 3 is executed.
Instruction1 or instruction 2 will be executed if and only if condition 1 is true.

b. The CASE Statement

Syntax: case variable of

case 1: statement 1
case 2: statement 2
…
case n: statement n
end case

Explanation The value of variable is evaluated, if it matches with case 1, instruction 1 is executed.
If it matches with case 2, instruction 2 is executed and so on. CASE is a multiple selection structure.
It is used when an important number of choices are to be considered depending on the value of a
variable.

E Get a, b
Get op
caseop of
1: print a+b
2: print a*b
3: print a/b
4: print a-b
end case

3.4.3. RepetitionControl
The repetition (iteration) control structure executes a statement or group of statements many times
until a certain condition is reached. Repetition structures define the order of operations and the
number of repetitions. They are also called loops. Examples are, the WHILE, REPEAT and FOR loops.

a. The WHILE Loop No

?

Syntax: while condition do Yes

statement(s); statement(s)

end while

statement

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Explanation The condition is evaluated, if it is true statement(s) is/are executed. Instruction(s)

is/are executed as long as condition remains true. When the condition becomes false, the loop stops.
The condition for the loop to stop comprises of a variable called control or iteration variable whose
value must change at the end of each execution of the loop. In the example above, the control
variable is “i”.

E Get n
i 1
while (i <= n) do
print “this is a while loop”
ii + 1
endwhile

b. The REPEAT Loop

Syntax: repeat
statement(s);
until (condition) statement(s)
Yes
?

No

statement

Explanation The statement(s) is(are) executed and the condition is evaluated. If it evaluates to
false, the statement or set statements is/are executed again. If condition evaluates to true, the
program exits the loop.

Get n
i 1
repeat
print “This is a repeat loop”
i := i + 1
until(i <= n)

Remark! The repeat loop must be executed at least once as the condition is evaluated only at the
end of the loop.

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c. The FOR Loop

Syntax: forvar  low_limit to hi_limit do

statement(s);
end for
Or
for var  hi_limit downto low_limit do
statement(s);
end for

Explanation var (variable) is given a value low_limit or hi_limit depending on the loop, which is
automatically incremented or decremented (by 1) after each iteration of the loop. The loop stops
when low_limit becomes greater than hi_limit. In both cases, if hi_limit is less than low_limit, the loop
body is not executed at all.
E Get n
Fori  1 to n do
print “this is a for loop”
end For
Or
Get n
Fori n downto 1 do
print “this is a for loop”
end For
Exercise! Exercise! Exercise!

1) Write an algorithm that reads a number � and returns the first � numbers. n should be a
whole number greater than 0.

2) Write an algorithm that reads a number � and returns the sum of the first � numbers.

3) Write an algorithm to calculate the area of a circle.

4) Write an algorithm to solve a linear equation

5) Write an algorithm that reads a person’s name and sex, and returns the message “good
morning Mr. name” if the person is a man and “Good morning Mrs. Name” for a woman.

3.5. Recursion
Some problems are recursive in nature. This means that the solution to such problems involves the
repeated application of the solution to its own values until a certain condition is reached.
Algorithms for such problems are known as recursive algorithms.
A recursive algorithm is an algorithm that calls (invokes) itself during its execution. Examples are
the factorial function and the sum function.
Recursion can be defined as the calling of a procedure by itself, creating a new copy of the procedure.

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a. Factorial Function
Factorial is defined as:
1! = 1
2! = 2 × 1 = 2
3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120
…
�! = � × � − 1 × � − 2 × … × 2 × 1

By studying the above equations closely, we see that the factorial of any number � can be calculated
by multiplying the number by the factorial of the preceding number.
We therefore have:

1! = 1
2! = 2 × 1!
3! = 3 × 2!
4! = 4 × 3!
5! = 5 × 4!
…
�! = � × (� − 1)!

Factorial is defined recursively as follows:

Get n
1 �� � = 1 base case If� = 0or� = 1then
���� � ����1
= � × ���� � − 1 ��� > 1 else
����� × ����(� − 1)
return fact

Remark 1! = 1 is known as the base case. Every recursive problem must always have some base
case which can be solved without recursion. For cases that are to be solved recursively, the
recursive call must always make progress towards the base case.

b. The Sum Function

The sum function is a function that calculates the sum of the first n integers. For example we want to
calculate the sum of the first 5 integers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Their sum is calculated as follows:

Sum(5) = 1+2+3+4+5

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We can see that for any number n, the sumsum(n), is the numbern plus the sum of the previous
numbers.
The sum function can therefore be defined recursively as:

���(1) = 1
���(2) = 2 + ���(1) The base case is � = 1
���(3) = 3 + ���(2) which gives ���(1) = 1
���(4) = 4 + ���(3)
…
���(�) = � + ���(� − 1)

getn
��� 0
if� = 1then
��� 1
else
��� n + ���(� − 1)

return sum

c. The Fibonacci Series

The Fibonacci series is a series in which each number is the sum of the two previous numbers in the
series. E.g. 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21…

The Fibonacci series is defined as follows:

Get �
���(0) = 0 ��� 0
���(1) = 1 if� = 0then
��� 0
���(�) = ���(� − 1) + ���(� − 2) else
if� = 1then
��� = 1
���(0) and ���(1) are the base cases. else
��� fib(� − 1) + ���(� − 2)
return fib

Exercise! Exercise! Exercise!

Write a recursive algorithm to find the greatest common divisor (gcd) of two numbers.

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3.6. Sort Algorithms

Sorting is a programming technique which is used to arrange a list of pre-stored data in an
ascending or descending order according to a preset criterion. There are lots of useful sorting
methods. For example: insertion sort, bubble sort, selection sort, quick sort, merge sort and heap
sort algorithms.

a. Bubble Sort
Bubble sort algorithm arranges items in order as follows:
- First, examine the first two items in the list. If they are in order, leave them alone; if not,
interchange them.
- Do the same with the second and third items, then with the third and fourth items, until you
have reached the last two. At this point you are guaranteed that the item that should come last
in the list has indeed “bubbled” up to that position.
- Now repeat the whole process for the first (n-1) items in the list, then for (n-2)and so on until
the list is sorted.

b. Selection Sort
To perform an insertion sort, examine every item in the list except the first. Whenever you find an
item that should come before the item that immediately precedes it, pick up the item, shift its
neighbor on the left (predecessor) one step to the right, and see whether you can put the current
item in the space thus vacated. If not, shift that item to the right and try again.

c. Insertion Sort

3.7. Search Algorithms

A search algorithm is a method of locating a specific item in a larger collection of data. They can be
used to search for items within an array or list. Common search algorithms are sequential search
and binary search.

a. Sequential Search
Sequential search is a simple technique for searching an item in a list by comparing each element
with the element searched for, beginning with the first element until the element is found.

b. Binary Search

4. Programming
Programming is the activity of writing computer programs. A computer program is a set of
instructions that will be followed by a computer to perform a computation. These instructions are
made up of statements written in some languages specially designed for this purpose. These
languages are called programming languages.
In other words, a program is an algorithm expressed in a programming language.

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4.1. Programming Languages

A programming language is a set of predefined words, symbols and rules that are used to write
computer programs. Programming languages aregrouped intolow-level and high-level languages.

4.1.1. Low-Level Languages

A low-level language is a language whose instruction set reflects the processor architecture.An
instruction set is the set of bit patterns or binary codes for the machine operations that a processor
has been designed to perform. Low-level languages include machine language and assembly
language.

a. Machine Language
Machine language is the computer’s language. It is the language the computer understands. Machine
language instructions are written in binary (a series of 0s and 1s), and are directly executable by the
computer. Each machine language statement corresponds to one machine action. Machine language
is the first generation of programming languages. For example a short (3 instruction) program
might look like this:

0111 0001: 0000 1111

1001 1011: 0001 1010
1110 0001: 0011 1110

b. Assembly Language
Assembly language is a low-level language consisting of mnemonic codes and symbolic addresses
corresponding to machine language instructions. Assembly language is the second generation of
programming languages. For example:

LOAD R0 Number1 Load number1 in register 0

LOAD R1 Number2 Load Number2 in register 1
ADD R2 R0 R1 Add register 0 and register 1 and keep result in register 2

 Advantages of assembly language

o It is easier to write and understand when compared to machine language.
o It can produce small program sizes
o It can produce very fast code as it allows low-level access to hardware features

 Disadvantages of assembly language

o Programs are not as easy to write and understand when compared to high level languages.
o Programs are tied to specific computer hardware and can’t be reused on another kind of
computer.
o Writing programs is very time consuming, tedious, and error-prone.

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4.1.2. High-Level Languages

High-level languages are closer to human language. Theyallow programmers to write programs
without having to understand the inner workings of the computer. One high-level language
statement will generally be translated into several low-level language statements. They are the third
generation of programming languages. Examples are C, BASIC (Beginner’s All-
purposeSymbolicInstruction Code), Pascal, Java, FORTRAN (Formula Translator) and COBOL
(Common Business-Oriented Language). Below is a small code for adding two numbers in Pascal
and C.
Pascal C
program addition; #include <stdio.h>
usescrt; intmain()
var number1, number2, sum: integer; { int number1, number2, sum;
begin scanf(“%d”, &number1);
read(Number1); scanf(“%d”, &number2);
read(Number2); sum = number1 + number2;
sum := Number1 + Number2; printf(“%d”, sum);
write(sum); return 0;
end. }

 Advantages of high-level languages

o easy to understand and write programs as they are user oriented
o they have built in libraries to perform routine tasks
o programs can be ported to multiple hardware setups from same code

 Disadvantages of high-level languages

o programs may be slower than second generation languages
o may produce larger program files for same functionality as second generation languages.
o may not allow for low level hardware access

4.2. LanguageTranslators
To run a program on a computer, the program needs to be translated into the machine language of
the computer on which it will run. A language translator is a computer program that translates
program instructions from one programming language to another without loss of original meaning.
There are three types of language translators: compiler, interpreter and assembler.

4.2.1. Assembler
An assembler translates assembly language into machine language. The process is called assembling.

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Program assembling

4.2.2. Compiler
A compiler translates the entire high-level program into a machine language program. The high-
level language program is called source program or source code and the generated machine
language program is called object program or object code. This process is called compilation. Some
compilers convert high-level language into assembly language, then an assembler is used to create
the finished object code.

Program compilation

 Advantages of a Compiler
o Fast in execution
o The object code produced by a compiler can be distributed or executed without having to
have the compiler present.
o The object program can be used whenever required without the need of recompilation.

 Disadvantages of a Compiler
o Debugging a program is much harder. Therefore not so good at finding errors
o When an error is found, the whole program has to be re-compiled

4.2.3. Interpreter
An interpreter is a computer program that translates and executes instructions written in a high-
level language into machine language instructions one line at a time. The interpreter translates an
instruction and allows it to be executed before translating the next line. If a program performs a
section code 1000 times, then the section is translated into machine code 1000 times since each line
is interpreted and then executed.

Program interpretation

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 Advantages of an Interpreter
o It is good at locating errors in programs
o Debugging is easier since the interpreter stops when it encounters an error.
o If an error is corrected, there is no need to retranslate the whole program

 Disadvantages of an Interpreter
o It is slow as interpretation and execution is done line by line.
o Translation has to be done every time the program is to be executed since no object code is
produced.
o For the program to run, the interpreter must be present

4.3. Program Errors and Correction

4.3.1. Syntax Errors
Syntax is the set of rules that specify how the symbols of a language can be put together to form
meaningful statements. In other words, syntax defines the structure of legal statements in a
language. A syntax error is an error in a program that occurs due to the non-respect of the syntax
rules of the language used. A syntax error will cause a compiler/interpreter to stop trying to
generate machine code and will not create an executable. However, a compiler will usually not stop
at the first error it encounters but will attempt to continue checking the syntax of a program right to
the last line. For example, a misspelled key word, a missing punctuation mark or the incorrect use of
an operator is a syntax error.

4.3.2. Semantic Errors

Semantics specify the meaning of a well-formed program. A semantic error occurs when you write a
program that works, but does not do what you intend it to do. Compilation and interpretation do not
detect semantic errors. Semantic or logicerrors are detected from wrong results. Something may be
syntactically correct but semantically incorrect.

4.3.3. Run-time Errors

A run-time error is an error that occurs during program execution. For example, a run-time error
may occur if division by 0 is attempted. A run-time error may cause the program to stop execution,
or it may be handled by an error-trapping routine.

4.3.4. Debugging
An error in a computer program is known as a bug. Debugging is the process of detecting and
removing bugs. Syntax errors and semantic errors are bugs. A debugger is the software tool used for
this purpose.

4.4. Programming Paradigms

A programming paradigm (or technique) is a fundamental style of computer programming. It
describes a programming language’s approach to solving a problem. Paradigms differ in the
concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program and the steps that compose

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a computation. High level languages can be classified under four different paradigms: procedural,
functional, object-oriented and declarative paradigms.

4.4.1. Procedural Paradigm

In the procedural/imperative paradigm, a program is a collection of statements and procedures that
affect data. Here, a program can be seen as an active agent that manipulates passive
objects(variables).These objectsarepassive because they cannot initiate an action by themselves, but
can only receive actions from active agents.The focus in procedural programming is to write good
functions and procedures.
Examples of imperative languages are Pascal, C, Ada, FORTRAN, and COBOL.

4.4.2. Object Oriented Paradigm

The object-oriented paradigm presents a program as a collection of classes for interacting objects.
Unlike in imperative programming, object-oriented programming deals with active objects instead
of passive objects. These objects are active because the actions to be performed on the objects are
included in them (the objects). The objects need only to receive the appropriate stimulus from
outside to perform one of the actions.
Examples of object-oriented languages are C++, Java, Visual Basic and Smalltalk.
Some important concepts related to object oriented programming (OOP) are: class, object,
abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism.

a. Class
A class is a description of an object or a real life concept. Classes are templates for creating objects,
providing initial values for instance variables (attributes) and the bodies for methods. All objects
generated from the same class share the same methods, but contain separate copies of the instance
variables. New objects can be created from a class by applying the new operator to the name of the
class.

ClassPerson {
private:
charname[20];
charsex;
datebirthdate;
public:
updateInfo();
returnAge();
};

The name of the class is person. It has four instance variables (attributes)name,sexand age, and
three methods: updateInfo(),and returnAge(). These methods act on the instance variables when
invoked.

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b. Object
An object is an instance of a class. An object consists of a collection of attributes, representing the
state of the object, and a collection of methods, representing the behavior that the object is capable
of performing. Attributes are sometimes referred to as the fields of an object. The methods are
routines that are capable of accessing and manipulating the values of the attributes of the object.
Objects interact with each other by sending messages. When a message is sent to an object, the
corresponding method of the object is executed.

c. Abstraction

d. Encapsulation
Encapsulationis the process of combining together the attributes and methods of a class into a single
abstract data type with a public interface and a private implementation. The goal of encapsulation is
to protect the implementation from the users of the object. It ensures that all access to the internal
representation of the object pass through the class methods, which act as an "interface" to the object.
This is done by making properties and methods “private.”

e. Inheritance
Inheritance is the derivation of one class from another so that the attributes and methods of the
derived class are part of the definition of the initial class. The initial class is often called the base
class, parent class or superclass while thederived class is often referred to as the child class or sub-
class. The subclass usually contains all the attributes and methods of the superclass plus some of its
own.
For example: the class Student inheriting from the class person will have all the attributes and
methods of Person plus the following:

Class Student extends Person {

private
intadmNumber;
intlevel;
public
changeLevel(int newLevel) {
level=newLevel;
}
}

Inheritance is usually represented using an inheritance diagram.

For example: if the classesStudent and Teacher are derived from the superclass Person, this is
represented as:

Person Person

Student Teacher

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There are two types of Inheritance: multiple inheritance and multilevel inheritance.

 Multiple inheritance iswhen a derived class inherits features from more than one superclass.
It is illustrated as follows:

Base class 1 Base class 2

Derived class

 Multi-level inheritance is when a class inherits from a class which is itself inherited from
another class. It is illustrated as follows:
Base class

Derived class 1

Derived class 2

f. Polymorphism:
Polymorphism is the use of different methods, each with the same name, which are associated with
different object types. In other words, it is the ability for different objects to respond to the same
message in different, class-specific ways. Polymorphic methods are used which have one name but
different implementations for different classes.
Assume you have a “shape” superclass. This class has a method called “area” which returns the area
of the shape. Polymorphism allows you to make subclasses like “circle,” “square,” and “triangle”
which inherit the “area” method, but each subclass would return the correct value even though they
have different formulas to calculate their areas.

4.4.3. Functional Paradigm

In functional (applicative) programming, a program is a collection of function definitions. Lambda
calculus forms the basis of almost all functional programming languages. Lambda calculus is the use
of lambda expressions to define functions. A lambda expression is a formula that defines a function.
For example:�(�) = � + 2
Examples of functional languages are Haskell, LISP, ML and Scheme.

Sum function in Haskell

��� : : (���, ���) → ���
��� (�, � ) = � + �

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Quick sort in Haskell

�: : [ �] → [� ]
� = []
�(�: ��) = ��� ++ [�] ++ ���
Where
�� = [� | � ← ��, � ≤ �]
�� = [� | � ← ��, � > �]

4.4.4. Declarative Paradigm

In declarative (logic) programming, a program is a collection of facts and rules involving relational
expressions. Declarative paradigm uses the principle of logical reasoning to answer queries. It is
based on formal logic defined by Greek mathematicians and later developed into first-order
predicate calculus. The point of logic programming is to bring the style of mathematical logic to
computer programming. An example of a declarative programming language is PROLOG
(programming logic).

These facts are given:

human (John)
mortal (human)

The user asks the following question:

?-mortal (John)

The program answers yes.

4.5. C Programming
C is a high-level programming language developed by Dennis Ritchie and Brian Kernighan at Bell
Labs in the mid-1970s. Although originally designed as a systems programming language, C has
proved to be a powerful and flexible language that can be used for a variety of applications, from
business programs to engineering.
The first major program written in C was the UNIX operating system, and for many years C was
considered to be inextricably linked with UNIX. Now, however, C is an important language
independent of UNIX.
C is a particularly popular language for personal computer programmers because it is relatively
small - it requires less memory than other languages.

4.5.1. Basic Structureof a C Program

A C program is made up of the following components:
 Processor directive
 Declaration of variables

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 Declaration of functions
 Function main()
 Definition of functions

a. The Preprocessor Directive

A preprocessor directive is a statement that begins with the # symbol. It instructs the compiler to
include C preprocessors such as header files and symbolic constants before compiling the C
program. There are two categories of preprocessor directives: the include directive and the define
directive.

 The Include Directive

An “include directive” is used to include a header file. A header file is a library file that contains
declarations for a special group of functions that can be used in the main body of the program. A
header file must be included at the beginning of a program, if its functions are to be used in the
program. The extension of a header file is ".h". A program may contain many header files. The
general syntax to include a header file at the beginning of a program is:

#include <name of header file>

For example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>

The file “stdio.h” contains standard input and output functions that are used to get input (scanf) and
print output (printf). The file “math.h” contains math functions used for mathematic calculations.

 The Define Directive

The “define directive” is used to define a symbolic constant which is assigned a value that will
remain constant during the execution of the program. Its general syntax is:

#define identifier expression

Where
o Identifier specifies the macro name to which a value will be assigned
o Expression specifies the value that is assigned to the identifier. It may be a constant value, a
string or an arithmetic expression.

For example:
#define Pi 3.14
#define CityLimbe

b. Declaration of Variables

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A variable is a memory location reserved to contain a value that may change during the execution of
the program. Variables are used for storing input data or values generated as result of processing.
Variables are characterized by their name, type and scope.

 Variable Names
A variable’s name or identifier in C can be anything from a single letter to a word. However, it must
begin with a letter or the underscore character but the other characters in the name can be chosen
from the following sets:
a ..z (any letter from a to z)
A .. Z (any letter from A to Z)
0 .. 9 (any digit from 0 to 9)
_ (the underscore character)

Examples of valid variable identifiers are: x, total, area_of_circle, x1, _a and aX.

Remark! C is case sensitive, so the identifiers sum and SUM are different. Same for total and Total.
All key words must be in lower case.

 Variable Types
Every variable has a type. The type of the variable specifies what sort of data will be stored in it. The
type of a variable is specified during its declaration. To declare a variable in C, one writes the type
followed by the variable name or identifier.
The general syntax for declaring a variable is:

[Type] [Name of variable]

For example:
int age;
float area;
int sum = 0;
inti,j=2;

o int specifies that the variables age and sum are integers while float specifies that the variable
area is a floating point (real or decimal) number.
o int sum=0 indicates that variables can be assigned values when they are declared. This is
called initialization. Therefore, one can initialize a variable at the time of declaration.
o i and j are integers with j initialized at 2.

Variable declaration serves two purposes:

o It gives the compiler precise information about the amount of memory that will have to be
given over to a variable when a program is finally run and what sort of operations will have
to be used on it.

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o It provides the compiler with a list of the variables in a convenient place so that it can cross
check names and types for any errors.

Some basic C types are:

Type Description
1. Char a single ASCII character
 C fun!
int standard integers (usually 32 The bank said they couldn’t FLOAT our loan because we were LON
2. debt and SHORT of funds. Our application was UNSIGNED, so the w
bits)
deal was VOID. Can you believe it? The bank rejected us in C-speak!
3. long int (long) long integers
Float standard floating point or
4.
real numbers
long float long floating point numbers  Scope of a Variable
5.
(double) The scope of a variable describes where in
6. unsigned int positive short integers the program the variable can be legally
unsigned float positive standard floating used. Based on its scope, a variable can be
7.
point numbers global or local.
8. unsigned long positive long integers A global variable is a variable that can be
unsigned double positive long floating point recognized anywhere in the program.
9. Global variables are declared before the
numbers
function main().
A local variable is a variable that has meaning only within a particular function or other program
unit. Local variables can be declared anywhere following the opening brace ({) of a block. The name
of a local variable can be used in another block elsewhere in the program, where it will refer to an
entirely different variable.

c. The Function main( )

The function main() indicates the beginning of the actual C program. It is the point at which
execution of program is started. When a C program is executed, the execution control goes directly
to the function main(). Every C program must have a function main(). The general syntax is:
int main()
{declaration of local variables;
program statements;
return 0;
}

 The keyword “int” is used before the main() function to indicate the type of the value that is
returned by the main() function. By definition, a function may accept no, one or more inputs
and returns no or a single value. 'int' means that the program will return an integer value after
its execution. The word “void” can be used in the place of “int” to indicate that the program will
not return any value.

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It is good practice to always return a value because the operating system uses the return value
to determine whether the program has been executed successfully or not.

 The body of the main() function must be enclosed in braces (or curly brackets { }). These
braces are called delimiters. The left brace indicates the start of the body of the function
whereas the matching right brace indicates the end of the body of the function. Braces are also
used to indicate the beginning and ending of block (compound) statements.

Remark! The use of 'void' or 'int' before the function main() is optional. If it is not specified, the
compiler assumes it is int.

 The body of the function main() is made up of program statements which represent
instructions to be executed by the computer. An instruction may be an input/output
statement, an arithmetic statement, a control statement, a simple assignment statement or
any other statement.

A basic C program looks like this:  C fun!

C programmers know that the real reason the Roman
#include <header.h> #include <stdio.h>
empire fell was that, because they had no number zero,
they had no way to successfully return from C programs.
#define symbolic constant
Global declarations int main()
void main() {
{ local declarations printf(“Welcome to the world of C!”);
program instructions; return 0;
} }

4.5.2. Input/Output Statements

a. The scanf Function

scanf (print-formatted) is used to interpret characters input to the computer and to store the
interpretation in the specified variable(s).

Example:
scanf("%d", &x);

This statement reads a decimal integer from the keyboard and stores the value in the memory
address of the variable x.
In the statement,
 %d is a conversion specifier and specifies that the variable to be readis of type integer. Other
conversion specifiers used in C are %f for floating point numbers, %c for characters and %s for
strings.

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 &gives the address of something in memory. That is, it generates a pointer to the object.The
arguments to scanf must be pointers (addresses), hence the need for &.

b. The printf Function

printf(print-formatted) is used to display information on the screen.

Example:
printf("The radius is %f cm",x);

in the statement,
 “The radius is %f cm” is the control string. The text in between the double quotes will be
displayed except the conversion specifier %f.

 x is the variable to be printed. The value of x will be printed where the conversion specifier is
placed in the control string.

Many conversion specifications can be used in a control string. In this case, the programmer has to
ensure that both the number of conversion specifications and the number of variables to be printed
are the same and, of the correct type specified.

Example:
printf(“The sum of %d and %d is %d”, x, y, x+y).

If x=2 and y=3, then what will be displayed on the screen is: The sum of 2 and 3 is 5

c. Common Conversion Specifiers

Character Form of output

c Character
d Decimal integer
f Normal floating point
s String
Scientific notation floating
e
point

Examples:
scanf(“%s”, &Name);
printf(“Name: %s”, Name);

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scanf("%d %d",&x,&y);
printf("The sum of %d and %d = %d",x,y,z);

d. Character Input/Output
getchar and putchar are used for the input and output of single characters respectively.
getchar() returns an int which is either EOF (indicating end-of-file) or the next character in the
standard input stream
putchar(c) puts the character c on the standard output stream

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{ charch;
ch=getchar();
printf(“%c”,ch);
}

4.5.3. Operatorsand Expressions

An operator is something which takes one or more values and does something useful with those
values to produce a result. C has different types of operators which can be arithmetic, relational,
logical, assignment operators etc.
An expression is simply the name for any string of operators, variables and numbers.

a. Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used for arithmetic calculations.

Operator Description
1. + Addition
2. − Subtraction
3. ∗ Multiplication
4. / Division
5. % Remainder after division(modulo
arithmetic)

b. Relational Operators
Relational operators are used for comparisons. Expressions that use these operators produce a true
or false value when they are evaluated.

Operator Description Example

If a == 2 and b== 5; a == b
1. == Equal to
evaluates to FALSE
2. < Less than a < b evaluates to TRUE

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3. > Greater than a > 5 evaluates to FALSE

Less than or b <= 5 evaluates to TRUE
4. <=
equal to
Greater or a >= 5 evaluates to FALSE
5. >=
equal to
6. != Not equal to a != b evaluates to TRUE

c. Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine logical values.

Operator Description Example

1. && Logical AND (a>b) && (a>C)
2. || Logical OR If ((a ==0) || (a ==1)),
printf(“a!=1”);
3. ! Logical NOT If found == 1 (true), !(found)
(Negation) == 0 (false)
4. & Bitwise AND 4 & 5 = 0100 & 0101 = 0100 =
4
5. | Bitwise OR 4 | 5 = 0100 | 0101 = 0101 = 5
6. ^ Bitwise XOR 3 ^ 9 = 0011 ^ 1001 = 1010 =
10

Remark! Bitwise operators allow manipulation of the actual bits held in each byte of a variable.
Other bitwise operators are:
 Right shift (>>) – binary division by 2
E.g. if � == 0010111 then �>>= 0001011.
Also, �>>2 = 0000101
 Left shift (<<) – binary multiplication by 2
If � == 0010111 then �<<= 0010110.
Also, �<< 2 = 1011100
 One’s complement (~)
If � == 0010111 then � ~ = 1101000

d. Assignment Operators
Assignment is the process of storing a value in a variable. The assignment operator is the equal sign
(=).

For example:
�� = 3.14
s�� = ��� + 1

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The variable ��is assigned the value 3.14 and the variable sum is incremented by 1.

C has different types of assignment operators.

Operator Description Example
1. = assign c=2
2. += Assign with add � =� +� ≡ �
+=�
3. -= Assign with � = � − � ≡ � -
subtract =�
4. *= Assign with � = � ∗ � ≡ � -=�
multiply
5. /= Assign with divide � = �/� ≡ � /=�
6. %= Assign with � = � % � ≡ � %
remainder =�
7. >>= Assign with right �>>= b
shift
8. <<= Assign with left �<<= b
shift
9. &= Assign with � = � & � ≡ � &=
bitwise AND �
10. |= Assign with � = � | � ≡ � |=�
bitwise OR
11. ^= Assign with � = � ^ � ≡ �
bitwise XOR ^=�

e. Increment and Decrement Operators

Increment and decrement operators give a shorthand method of adding and subtracting 1 from an
object respectively.

++ Increment �++ ≡ � = � + 1
-- Decrement �-- ≡ � = � − 1

These operators can be prefix or postfix. With the prefix form the variable is changed before the
value of the expression in which it appears is evaluated, and with the postfix form the variable is
modified afterwards.
� = 3; � = 3;
� = �++ + 6; /* a = 9, b = 4 */ � = ++� + 6; /* a = 10, b = 4 */

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4.5.4. Control Flow Statements

Control flow statementsmake it possible to make decisions, to perform tasks repeatedly or to jump
from one section of code to another. C control flow statements are If statement, switch statement,
while statement, do … while statement, for statement and jump statements.

a. The IFStatement
The IFstatement is a decision-making statement that is used to evaluate an expression and then take
one of two possible actions depending on the validity of the expression.The IF statement has two
forms.

Syntax:if(expression)
statement(s);

and

if (condition)
{
statement(s);
}
else
{
statement(s)
}

In the first form, if the expression specified in the if statement evaluates to true, the statements
inside the if-block are executed and then the control gets transferred to the statement immediately
after the if-block.
In the second form, the else part is required only if a certain sequence of instructions needs to be
executed if the expression evaluates to false.
scanf(“%d”,&b);
if (b>0)
printf(“Number %d is positive”,b);
else
printf(“Number %d is negative”,b);

 The expression is always enclosed within brackets.

 If statement(s) is a single statement, the curly brackets can be omitted as in the example above
though it is good practice to always enclose them with curly brackets.

Sometimes we may want to evaluate more than one thing in an expression. This can be done in C by
using the logic operators AND and OR.

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For example:
 if (a==0 || b==1)
This expression is TRUE if a is 0 OR b is 1. It is also true if� = 0and� = 1.

 if (a == 1 && b == 2)
This expression is TRUE if � is 0 AND� is 1. If one is NOT TRUE, the whole expression is evaluated to
FALSE. In other words, � must equal 0 and � equal 2, for the expression to be TRUE.

C Fun!
Shakespeare must have been disappointed to learnthat, whatever
the value of a variable tobe, the result of the question tobe || !tobe,
isalwaystrue. Fortunately, thisis not a question of life or death!

b. Nested IF
It is also possible to embed or to nest IF statements one within the other. Nesting is useful in
situations where one of several different courses of action need to be selected.

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int a, b;
scanf(“%d %d ”, &a,&b);
if(a>b)
{
printf("%d is greater.", a);
}
else
if(a==b)
{
printf("%d and %d are the same: ", a,b);
}
else
{
printf("%d is greater.", b);
}
return 0;
}

c. SWITCH Statement

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A switch statement is used for multiple way selections that will branch into different code segments
based on the value of a variable.

Syntax:switch(variable)
{
casevalue1 : code segment1; break;
casevalue2 :code segment2; break;
…
casevalueN : code segment N; break;
default: statement(s);
}

If the value of the variable equals ‘value1’, code segment1 is executed. Otherwise, if it equals value2,
code segment2 is executed and so on.
The statement break is used after every case in order to prevent execution from continuing into the
code segment of the next case without even checking its value.
For example, supposing a switch statement has five cases and the value of the third case matches
the value of expression. If no break statement were present at the end of the third case, all the cases
after case 3 would also get executed along with case 3. If break is present only the required case is
selected and executed; after which the control gets transferred to the next statement immediately
after the switch statement. There is no break after default because after the default case the control
will either way get transferred to the next statement immediately after switch.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int a, b; char op;
printf("Enter two integers: ");
scanf(“%d %d”, &a, &b);
printf("Enter an operator: ");
scanf("%c", &op);
switch(op)
{
case+: printf("%d + %d = %d ", a, b, a+b); break;
case-: printf("("%d - %d = %d ", a, b, a-b); break;
case*: printf("("%d * %d = %d ", a, b, a*b); break;
case/: printf("%d / %d = %f ", a, b, a/b "); break;
default: printf("Error!");
}
return 0;
}

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Remark! If you need to select among a large group of values, a switch statement will run much
faster than a set of nested IFs.
The switch differs from the IF in that switch can only test for equality, whereas IF can evaluate any
type of Boolean expression.

d. WHILE Statement
The While statement or while loop is an iteration statement. Iteration statements are used to
execute a particular set of instructions repeatedly until a particular condition is met or for a fixed
number of iterations.

Syntax:while (condition)
{
statements;
}

The statement or statements are only executed if the expression is true (non-zero). After every
execution of the statements, the expression is evaluated again and the process repeats if it is true.

Example:
int i=1;
while(i<=10)
{
printf(“%d”, i);
i++;
}
This code will loop 10 times writing the numbers 1 to 10.

Example: A program that counts the number of blank spaces in a line of text.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ charch; short count = 0;
printf("Type in a line of text\n");
while((ch = getchar()) != '\n')
{
if(ch == ' ')
count++;
}
printf("Number of spaces = %d\n",count);
return 0;
}

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e. DO… WHILE Statement

The do-while statement evaluates the condition at the end of the loop after executing the block of
statements at least once. If the condition is true the loop continues, else it terminates after the first
iteration.

Syntax:do {
statements to be executed;
} while(expression);

Remark!
 Pay attention to the semicolon which ends the do-while statement.
 The difference between while and do-while is that the while loop is an entry-controlled loop -
it tests the condition at the beginning of the loop and will not execute even once if the
condition is false, whereas the do-while loop is an exit-controlled loop - it tests the condition at
the end of the loop after completing the first iteration.

Example: A program to print the sum of the digits in a number.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{ int n, a,sum=0;
printf("Enter a number:");
scanf("%d", &n);
do{
a =n%10;
sum=sum+a;
n=n/10;
} while(n>0);
printf("Sum of the digits = %d",sum);
return 0;
}

A practical use of the do-while loop is in an interactive menu-driven program where the menu is
presented at least once and then depending upon the choice of the user, the menu is displayed again
or the session is terminated. Consider the same example that we saw in switch-case. Without using
an iteration statement like do-while, the user can choose any option from the menu only once.
Moreover, if a wrong choice is entered by mistake the user doesn’t have the option of entering his
choice again. Both these faults can be corrected by using the do-while loop.

f. FOR Statement
The FOR statement or the FOR loop repeatedly executes a set of instructions that comprise the body
of the loop until a particular condition is satisfied.

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Syntax: for(initialization; termination; increment/decrement;)

{
statements to be executed;
}

 The initialization expression initializes the looping index which controls the looping action.
The initialization expression is executed only once, when the loop begins.
 The termination expression represents a condition that must be true for the loop to continue
execution.
 The increment/decrement expression is executed after very iteration to update the value of
the looping index.

Example: A program to multiply two numbers by successive additions.

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{ int a, b, i, prod=0;
scanf(“%d”,&a);
scanf(“%d”,&b);

for (i=1;i<=b;i++)
prod=prod+a;

printf(“%d”,prod);
return 0;
}

4.5.5. Arrays
An array isa collection of data items of the same type that are given a single name (identifier) and
distinguished by numbers (subscripts).In simple terms, an array is a list of elements of the same
type. When an array is created (declared), its size (dimension) and the type of its elements are
specified. Arrays can be one dimensional or multidimensional.

a. One-Dimensional Arrays
One-dimensional arrays are declared using a single index (subscript).
For example:
int A[10], char Name[10], int vect[20]

int A[10] creates an array called “A” of 10 integers. The elements of array A are referenced as:
A[0], A[1], [2], … A[8], A[9]

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Where A[0] is the first element in the array, A[1] the second element, A[2] the third element and A[9]
the last element.

Values can be assigned to the array as if each element were a separate variable.
A[0] =3; A[1] =1; A[2] =0; … A[9] =-5

A loop can as well be used.

For example:
int main()
{ int i, n=10, A[n]
i=0;
while( i<=n)
{
printf(“Enter element at position %d”, i);
scanf(“%d”,&A[i]);
i++;
}
return 0;
}

To display the individual elements of the array A, we can proceed as follows.

printf(“%d”, A[0]); //prints the first element of the array.
printf(“%d”, A[1]); //prints the second element of the array.
printf(“%d”, A[2]); //prints the third element of the array.
…
printf(“%d”, A[n-1]); //prints the last element of the array.

Using a loop to display the elements of an array.

for(i=0; i<=n; i++)
printf(“%d”, A[i]);

b. Two-Dimensional Arrays
Two dimensional arrays are declared using two indices (subscripts).
For example:
int A[3][2], int B[5][3], int M[3][4]

int M[3][4] declares a 3x4 array where 3 is the number of rows and 4 the number of columns. The
elements of the array M can be visually represented as a table as follows:

M[0][0] M[0][1] M[0][2] M[0][3]

M[1][0] M[1][1] M[1][2] M[1][3]
M[2][0] M[2][1] M[2][2] M[2][3]

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The elements of a 2-dimensional array can be assigned using nested loops or as separate variables.

 As separate variables

M[0][0] = 2; //element on row 1, column 1

M[1][2] = 5 //element on row 2, column 3

 Using nested loops

int main( )
{ int i, j, n=3, m=4;
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
for(j=0; j<m; j++)
{
printf(“M[%d][%d] = ”, i, j);
scanf(“%d %d”,&M[i][j]);
}
return 0;
}

The elements of a 2-dimensional array can be displayed using nested loops or as separate variables.
Using nested loops, we have

int main( )
{ int i, j, n=3, m=4;
for(i=0; i<n; i++)
for(j=0; j<m; j++)
printf(“M[%d] [%d]=%d ”, i, j, M[i][j]);
return 0;
}

4.5.6. User-Defined Functions

A user defined function is a subprogram written by the user to perform a specific task. User defined
functions have to be declared and defined. They are declared before the function main but, may be
defined (written)at declaration or after the function main().

a. Function Declaration
A function declaration (also called function prototype) is simply a statement which specifies the
function’s type, name and parameter or argument list.Function names follow the same rules as
variable names. The general syntax for declaring a function is:

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TypefunctionName(parameter list, if any)

 Type refers to the type of the value the function returns.

 Parameters or arguments refer to the function’s inputs. A function may take no parameter,
one or more parameters and returns no or a single value. If a function returns no value, it is
of type “void”. If the function takes in any parameters, their types and names are specified
(declared) within the brackets.
Example:
intsquare(int n) a function which takes an integer� and returns its square (�2 ).
intpower(int b, int n) a function which takes two integers � and � and returns��
chargetchar() a function that takes no parameter and returns a character.

Remark! Parameter names are optional in a function prototype, so for the above prototypes we
could have written:
int square(int)
int power(int, int)

b. Function Definition
Function definition consists of writing the actual statements of the function. A function definition
has the form:

TypefunctionName(parameter list, if any)

{
local declarations; declaration of local variables
statements; function statements
}

For example:
FloatareaCircle(int r) int square(int r)
{ float area; { intsqr;
area = 3.14*r*r; sqr=r*r;
return (area); return (sqr);
} }

A function that has been defined can be called within the function main()or within any other
function.

For example:
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
Float areaCircle(int) //prototype int square(int) //prototype

int main() int main()

{ float area; int rad; { int a, b;
scanf(“%d”, &rad); scanf(“%d”, &a);
area = areaCircle(rad); b = square(a);
179
printf(“The area is %f”,area); printf(“The square of %d is %d”,a,b)
return 0; return 0;
} }
 Advanced Level Computer Science/ICT

Remarks!
 If the type of a function is not specified, C will always assume that the function is of typeint.
 Notice that the function areaCircle was declared in the variables section of the function main().
Thisis because, if a function whose type is not int is not declared in the variables section of the
function in which it is called, compilation errors will occur.
 The names used by a function for its parameters are local to the function, and are not visible to
any other function: other routines can use the same names without conflict. This is also true of
the variables declared within the function.
 When a function is called, parameters are passed to the function as inputs. In the above
examples, ��� and � are passed to the functions areaCircle and square respectively.
 These parameters which replace the formal parameters when a function is called are passed
either by value or by reference. A parameter is passed by value when the value of the
parameter is calculated and this is passed into the function. A parameter is passed by reference
by using pointers. Pointers are addresses.

XII. COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY AND COMPUTABILITY

Introduction
There may be several different methods for solving a particular problem. How can one decide which
method is the best in a certain situation? How would one define "best" – is it the fastest method or
the one that takes up the least amount of memory space?
Understanding the relative efficiencies of algorithms designed to do the same task is very important
in every area of computing.

1. Computational Complexity
Complexity theory is the mathematical study of the time and amount of memory needed to perform
a computation. The goal of computational complexity is to classify algorithms according to their
performances.
The efficiency of an algorithm can be measured in terms of:
 The execution time (time complexity)
 The amount of memory required (space complexity).

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1.1. Time Complexity

Time complexity is a measure of the amount of time required to execute an algorithm. It is
expressed as the number of times the algorithm’s basic operations are executed on inputs of size n.
Time in seconds is not used because there are too many factors that can vary e.g. computer speed.
As an illustration, consider a pseudo code algorithm that calculates the mean (average) of a set of n
numbers:

1. n = read input from user

2. sum = 0
3. i=0
4. while(i<n)
5. number = read input from user
6. sum = sum + number
7. i=i+1
8. mean = sum / n

Statements 1, 2, and 3 are each executed once. Statements 5, 6, and 7 are each executed n times.
Statement 4 (which controls the loop) is executed n + 1 times (one additional check is required), and
statement 8 is executed once. The running time T(n) of this algorithm is given as follows:
Number of
�(�) = 1 + 1 + 1 + � + 1 + � + � + � + 1 = 4� + 5
Statement times
executed
1.1.1. Big-O Notation
1 1
Big-O notation also called Landau's symbol, is a symbolism used to describe
2 1
the asymptotic behavior of functions. Basically, it assesses by what factor
3 1
execution time increases when the size of the input is increased. The letter O is
4 n+1
used because the rate of growth of a function is also called its order of growth.
5 n
For example, let’s suppose that the execution time for an algorithm of input
6 n
size � is given by:
7 n
� � = 4�2 − 2� + 2 8 1

Ignoring constants as they depend on the particular hardware the program is running on, and
slower growing terms, we could say "T(n) grows at the order of �2 " and write:

�(�) = �(�2 )

This simply means that if the input size (n) doubles, the algorithm takes four times longer to execute
and the order of growth is said to be quadratic.

Some programs perform the same number of operations every time they are executed while others
may perform different numbers of operations, depending onthe value of a parameter.

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Suppose a computer is going to process �items of input. The time complexity of the calculation may
be any of the following:

a. Constant Timeor O(1)

An algorithm is said to run in constant time if the computation takes the same number of steps
regardless of how many items are to be processed. For example storing and retrieving array
elements.

b. Linear Time or O(n)

An algorithm is said to run in linear time if its time of execution (number of steps) is directly
proportional to the input size n. That is, time grows linearly as input size increases. An example
would be finding the sum of n numbers, or any program that contains only one loop.

c. Quadratic Time or O(�� )

An algorithm is said to run in quadratic time if its execution time is proportional to n squared. For
example, if the computation involves comparing each item of input with all of the other items, it will
take �2 steps. Many sorting algorithms are O(�2 ).

d. Polynomial Time or O(�� )

An algorithm is said to run in polynomial time if its execution time is proportional to n raised to
some constant power. A program that contains k nested loops, each with a number of steps
proportional to n, will take time proportional to ��.

e. Exponential Time or O(�� )

An algorithm is said to run in exponential time if its execution timeis proportional to someconstant
k raised to the nth power. Exponential-time computations are generally not practical.

f. Logarithmic Time or O(log n)

An algorithm is said to run in logarithmic time if its execution time is proportional to the logarithm
of the input size. An example is binary search.

Remark! Big-O expressions do not have constants or low-order terms. This is because, when � gets
large enough, constants and low-order terms don't matter.
A constant-time algorithm will be faster than a linear-time algorithm, which will be faster than a
quadratic-time algorithm.

Formally, the time complexity of an algorithm is of the order f(n)

1.1.2. Best Case, Worst Case and Average Case

Some algorithms perform differently on various inputs of similar size. It is sometimes helpful to
consider the Worst-Case, Best-Case, and Average-Case efficiencies of algorithms. For example, say
we want to search an array A of size n for a given value K.

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 Best Case: K is the first item that we check, so only one comparison.
 Worst Case: K is not in the array, then we must search every item (� comparisons)
 Average Case:

Exercise! Exercise! Exercise!

1. The big-O notation is often used to describe the efficiency of an algorithm.

(a) Place the following algorithms in order of efficiency, the most efficient first.

Algorithm A that is O(n)

Algorithm B that is O(aⁿ)
Algorithm C that is O(n²) (1 mark)

(b) Describe a linear search and explain why it is O(n).

(4 marks)

(c) Describe a bubble sort and explain why it is O(n²).

(4 marks)

1.2. SpaceComplexity
Space complexity is essentially the amount of memory (number of cells) which a program needs to
execute. A good algorithm keeps this number as small as possible.

2. Computability
Computability deals with whether a problem can be solved at all, regardless of the resources
required.

2.1. TuringMachines
A Turing machine (TM) is an imaginary machine conceived by Alan Turing in the 1930s to help
identify the kinds of problems that are potentially solvable by machines. It consists of a read/write
head and an infinite string of paper tape made up of cells where each cell can hold a symbol from the
tape alphabet.
The head scans at a cell on the tape and can read, erase, and write a symbol on the cell. In each move,
the head can move to the right cell or to the left cell or stay in the same cell.

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Formally, a TM is defined as:

TM = <S, T, s0, d, H> where,
S is a set of TM states
T is a set of tape symbols
s0is the start state
H ⊂ S is a set of halting states
d : S x T ⟶ S x T x {L,R} is the transition function

A TM begins computation at state s0. At each computational step, it reads the present tape symbol,
changes its internal state, optionally writes another symbol onto tape, and moves one cell to the left
or right in the tape.
The TM halts computation (and accepts the input string) when it reaches one of the halt states in H.

2.2. The Church-Turing Thesis

3. Computable Functions
A function is computable if it can be computed by a Turing machine.

4. Decidability
5. The Halting Problem

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XIII. SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Most computer-based information systems are conceived, designed, and implemented using some
form of systematic development process called software development process. In this process, end
users and system analysts design systems based on an analysis of the information requirements of
the information system to be built. The software development process is also called system
development life cycle.

1. Software Development Life Cycle

SDLC is a structured step-by-step approach for creating and maintaining information systems. It
consists of a number of stages that describe the activities involved in an information system
development process. SDLC involves the following stages: system study, system analysis, system
design, development and testing, implementation, and maintenance.
System Study

Maintenance System Analysis

Implementation System Design

Development
and Testing

System Development Life Cycle

1.1. SystemStudy
System study is a brief investigationof the system under consideration that gives a clear picture of
what actually it is. During this phase, the system is evaluated and deficiencies are identified. This
can be done by interviewing users of the system and consulting with support personnel. Main
activities at this stage are:
 Determining whether a business problem or opportunity exists. i.e. identifying problems and
opportunities.

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o A problem is a basic condition that is causing undesirable results

o An opportunity is a basic condition that presents the potential for desirable results.
 Conducting a preliminary feasibility study to determine whether a new or improved
information system is a feasible solution.
 Developing a project management plan and obtaining management approval.

1.2. SystemAnalysis
Systems analysis is an in-depth study of end user information needs which produces functional
requirements that are used as the basis for the design of a new information system. System analysis
describes what a system should do to meet the information needs of users. It involves:

1.2.2. Analysis of the Old System

Analysis of present system involves:
 Collecting factual data about the present system (questionnaires, interviews, observations, etc.)
 Identifying how input, processing, storage and output are being accomplished.
 Analyzing how the present system uses resources (hardware, software and people) to convert
input data into useful information
 Understanding information flow within the system
 Identifying problems with the system

1.2.3. Functional Requirements Analysis

Functional requirements explain what has to be done byidentifying the necessary tasks, actions or
activities that must beaccomplished.
It involves:
 Determining specific information needs
 Determining the information processing capabilities required for each system activity (input,
processing, output, storage, and control) to meet the needs. The goal here is to identify “what”
should be done not “how” to do it.
 Determining functional requirements (information requirements that are not tied to the
hardware, software, and people resources that end users presently use or might use in the new
system).

1.2.4. Feasibility Analysis

Feasibility analysis is a study which investigates the information needs of prospective users and
determines the resource requirements, cost, benefits, and workability of a proposed project. Its goal
is to evaluate alternative systems and propose the most feasible and desirable system for
development.
Feasibility of a system can be evaluated in terms of four major categories: organisational feasibility,
technical feasibility, economic feasibility and operational feasibility.
a. Organizational feasibility focuses on how well a proposed information system supports
the objectives of the organization and its strategic plan for information systems.

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b. Technical feasibilityfocuses on the reliability/capabilities of the hardware and software

to meet the needs of the proposed system, and whether they can be acquired or
developed in the required time.
c. Economic feasibilityfocuses on whether the tangible costs and benefits of the proposed
system will exceed the costs of developing and operating it.
d. Operational feasibility focuses on the ability of the end users to operate, use, and support
the proposed system.

The outcome of a feasibility analysis is a feasibility report which is presented to the user
management for approval. It may be accepted or accepted with modifications or rejected.

1.2.5. Documenting System Analysis

The outcome of systems analysis is a system proposal or requirements specification document
which describes what the new system should do without specifying how to do it. At the end of
systems analysis phase, the systemanalyst produces a system proposal that will be used as basis for
the design phase.

1.3. SystemDesign
Systems design consists of design activities, which produce systems specifications satisfying the
functional requirements developed in the systems analysis stage. While system analysis specifies
what is to be done by the new system, system design describes how the system will accomplish
what is to be done.
System design focuses on three main activities: user interface design, data design and process
design.

1.3.1. User Interface Design

A user interface is a means of interaction between the user and the computer-based application.
This activity focuses on designing how data will be introduced into the system and how the
information generated will be retrieved. It produces detailed specifications for information products
such as:
o Display screens
o Interactive user/computer dialogues
o Forms (on-screen forms for data input and output)
o Reports (on-screen and printed)

1.3.2. DataDesign
Data design focuses on the design of the structure of data and files to be used by the proposed (new)
system. It provides detailed descriptions of:
o Attributes (characteristics) of the entities about which the proposed system needs to
maintain information.
o Relationships between these entities (E-R diagrams, data flow diagrams)

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o Specific data elements (databases, files, records, etc.) that need to be maintained for each
entity.
o Data dictionary
o Integrity rules (data validation and verification) that govern how each data element is
specified and used in the system.

1.3.3. ProcessDesign
Process design focuses on the design of software resources, that is, computer programs and of
procedures needed by the proposed system. It concentrates on developing detailed specifications
for the program modules that will have to be purchased as software packages or developed by
custom programming. Process design produces:
o Detailed specification of algorithms (pseudo-codes, flow charts, etc.)
o Detailed specifications of the procedures needed to meet the user interface and data design
specifications.
o Detailed specification of the database schema (E-R diagram, object diagrams)

The design stage is very important because it is the place where quality is fostered in software
engineering. Design provides us with representations of software that can be assessed for quality.
Design is the only way that we can accurately translate a customer's requirements into a finished
software product or system.

1.4. Developmentand Testing

Once the design of the system is complete,it has to be converted into a computer understandable
form.

1.4.1. Coding (programming)

Coding is an important activity by which a programmer converts the systems specifications from the
design stage into computer instructions referred to as programs.It is generally felt that the
programs must be modular in nature. This helps in fast development, maintenance and future
change if required.

1.4.2. Prototyping
Prototyping is the rapid development and testing of a working model of a product in an interactive
and iterative process involving both systems analysts and end users. This working model or
prototype, is a partially developed product that enables customers and developers to examine some
aspects of the proposed product and decide if it is suitable for a finished product.
Various types of prototyping exist.

a. Throw-away Prototyping
In throw-away prototyping, the prototype is discarded once the actual requirements have been
understood and the final system is developed with a much clear understanding of user
requirements.

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b. Evolutionary Prototyping
In evolutionary prototyping, a functional prototype with minimal functionality is built in the
beginning and is refined over time, as requirements are better understood.

c. Incremental Prototyping
In incremental prototyping, functional prototypes of the various subsystems are built and then
integrated to form a complete system. In other words, the product is built as separate prototypes
which are later merged into a final product.

1.4.3. Testing
Testing is the process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error. During testing, trial
runs are done to check for errors and whether or not the new system meets the users' needs. Once
source code has been generated, the software must be tested to uncover and correct as many errors
as possible before delivery.
There are three sets of data that can be used to test the system: normal data and abnormal data.
o Normal data is data which the system will accept.
o Abnormal (erroneous) data is invalid data which the system will reject.
o Extreme data are data values that are chosen at the absolute limits of the normal range. This
is to ensure that all normal values will be accepted and processed correctly.

Using these test data, the following test runs can be carried out:

a. Unit Testing
The individual units or modules are tested separately with prepared test data so that any errors can
be corrected.

b. Integration Testing
The complete system is tested after the individual units have been tested and put together. This
tests that separately developed modules/units work together as planned without error.

c. System Testing
The integrated system is tested to evaluate the system's compliance with specified requirements.

d. Black-Box Testing
Black-box testing is a test that relies on the input/output behavior of the system, without any
assumptions to what is happening within the system. It examines some fundamental aspects of a
system with little regard for the internal logical structure of the system. Black-box tests are used to
demonstrate that system functions are operational, that input is properly accepted and output is
correctly produced, while at the same time searching for errors in each function.

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e. White Box Testing

White-box testing, also called glass-box testing, is a test that relies on information about how the
system has been designed and constructed. It requires knowledge of the internal structure or
implementation of the system. White-box tests are conducted to ensure that internal operations are
performed according to specifications and all internal components have been adequately exercised.

1.4.4. Documentation
The job of the programmer does not end with the code or software instructions. The organization or
users need to know how to get the best out of the system. This is done through documentation.
System documentation ensures continuity of the system.
There are two types of documentation; user documentation and technical documentation.

a. User Documentation
User documentation is a complete description of the system from the user’s point of view detailing
how to use or operate the system. It could be a paper-based user manual or help incorporated into
the software that can be accessed when the software is installed. User documentation always covers
the following:
o A guide that describes what the system is supposed to do in non-technical terms
o Instructions for installing and running the program
o Definition for hardware and Operating System requirements
o The format of the output data
o Explanation of common error messages and how to recover from them
o Description of how to make backups against accidental data loss

b. Technical Documentation
Technical documentation is a description from the designer’s point of view. Technical
documentation often contains:
o Detail functioning of the software showing algorithms, formulae, source codes etc.
o Description of data structures
o Test plans and testing procedures
o User interface and reports
o Location and version of the software

1.5. Implementation
Implementation is the conversion from the use of the present (old) system to the operation of the
new system. It involves:
 Installation of new system
 Loading of data into new system
 Education and training of users of the system

There are different types of conversions:

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a. Direct cutover
The old system is completely replaced by the new one. Its disadvantage is that, if the new system
fails, there is no back-up system, so data can be lost.

b. Pilot run
The new system is installed in one part of the business or organization. This allows the new system
to be fully developed and tested. Once the pilot system is running successfully, the new system is
introduced to all of the business/organization.
o Its advantages are that, if something goes wrong with the new system, only a small part of the
organization is affected, and the staffs that were part of the pilot scheme can help train other
staff.
o As a disadvantage, there is no back-up system for the office/department doing the pilot, if
things go wrong.

c. Parallel run
The old and new systems are operated alongside each other (in parallel) until new system is proven
capable.
o It is advantageous in that, if the new system fails, the old system will act as a back-up. Also, the
outputs from the old and new systems can be compared to check that the new system is
running correctly.
o Its disadvantage is that, entering data into two systems, and running two systems together,
takes a lot of extra time and effort.

d. Phased implementation
The new system is installed in phases (stages or steps) gradually replacing parts of the old system
until eventually, the new system takes over.
o Its advantages are that, it allows users to gradually get used to the new system, and training of
staff can be done in stages.
o Its disadvantage is that, if a part of the new system fails, there is no back-up system, so data
can be lost

1.6. Maintenance
Maintenance is the general process of changing a system after delivery to correct faults, improve
performance or adapt the system to a changing environment or business requirements.
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its working life and to tune the
system to any variations in its working environment.
Maintenance can be adaptive, preventive, corrective or perfective.

a. Adaptive Maintenance

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Adaptive maintenance focuses on adjusting a software product to properly interface with a

changing environment. Changes are made to the system to provide a closer fit between the system
and its environment.

b. Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance aims in retaining the system’s capabilities before the occurrence of any
problem (e.g. system failure). It locates weaknesses in the system and provides repairs in order to
avoid any eventual breakdown of the system.

c. Corrective Maintenance
Corrective maintenance aims in restoring a defective system to a required state. This implies that
repairs are made after a breakdown of the system.

d. Perfective Maintenance
Perfective maintenance refers to enhancements to the product in order to either add new
capabilities or modify existing functions.

2. SDLC Models
There are various SDLC models defined and designed which are followed during software
development processes. These models are also referred to as "Software Development Process
Models". Each model follows a series of steps unique to its type, in order to ensure success in the
process of software development.

2.1. Waterfall Model

The waterfall model is the most common and classic of SDLC models. It illustrates the software
development process in a linear sequential flow; hence it is also referred to as a linear-sequential
life cycle model. In the waterfall model, each phase must be completed in its entirety before the
next phase can begin. At the end of each phase, a review takes place to determine if the project is on
the right path and whether or not to continue or discard the project.
Requirements

Analysis

Design

Implementation

Testing

Maintenance
Waterfall Model
 Advantages
o Simple and easy to use.

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o Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model – each phase has specific deliverables and a
review process.
o Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
o Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well understood.

 Disadvantages
o Adjusting scope during the life cycle can kill a project
o No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
o High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
o Poor model for complex and object-oriented projects.

2.2. V-Shape Model

The V-shape model is an SDLC model where execution of processes happens in a sequential manner
in V-shape. It is also known as Verification and Validation model.
Requirement Acceptance
Analysis Testing

System Design System Testing

Architecture Design Integration Testing

Module Design Unit Testing

Testing

V-Shape Model

V-shape model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on association of a testing phase
for each corresponding development stage. This means that for every single phase in the
development cycle there is a directly associated testing phase. This is a highly disciplined model and
next phase starts only after completion of the previous phase.

 Advantages
o Simple and easy to use.
o Each phase has specific deliverables.
o Higher chance of success over the waterfall model due to the development of test plans early
on during the life cycle.
o Works well for small projects where requirements are easily understood.

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 Disadvantages
o Very rigid, like the waterfall model.
o Little flexibility and adjusting scope is difficult and expensive.
o Software is developed during the implementation phase, so no early prototypes of the
software are produced.
o Model doesn’t provide a clear path for problems found during testing phases.

2.3. The Spiral Model

The spiral model has four phases: Planning, Risk Analysis, Engineering and Evaluation. A software
project repeatedly passes through these phases in iterations (called Spirals in this model). In the
baseline spiral, starting in the planning phase, requirements are gathered and risk is assessed. Each
subsequent spiral builds on the baseline spiral.
Requirements are gathered during the planning phase. In the risk analysis phase, a process is
undertaken to identify risk and alternate solutions. A prototype is produced at the end of the risk
analysis phase.

 Advantages
o High amount of risk analysis
o Good for large and mission-critical projects.
o Software is produced early in the software life cycle.

 Disadvantages
o Can be a costly model to use.
o Risk analysis requires highly specific expertise.
o Project’s success is highly dependent on the risk analysis phase.
o Doesn’t work well for smaller projects.

3. Software Design
Software design is the process of defining the architecture, components, modules, interfaces, and
data for a software to satisfy specified requirements. It is the activity within the software
development life cycle, where software requirements are analyzed in order to produce a description
of the internal structure and organization of the system that will serve as the basis for its
construction.
A software design must describe the architecture of the system, that is, how the system is
decomposed and organized into components and must describe the interfaces between these
components. It must also describe these components into a level of detail suitable for allowing their
construction.

3.1. The Design Model

The design model encompasses the representation of data, architecture, interfaces, and procedures
of the software.

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3.1.1. Data Design

Data design selects logical representations of data objects (data structures) identified during
requirements definition and specification. Well-designed data can lead to better program structure
and modularity, and reduced procedural complexity.

3.1.2. Interface Design

3.1.3. Architecture Design
3.1.4. Procedure Design

3.2. Design Strategies and Methods

Various general strategies can be used to help guide the design process. Common examples are top-
down design and stepwise refinement.

3.2.1. Top-down Design

Looking at some problems as a whole can make them seem impossible to solve because they are so
complex. For example, writing a word processor program or an operating system. Such complex
problems can be solved by breaking them into smaller parts which are solved individually and the
smaller solutions are assembled into a big solution. This process is called decomposition, divide and
conquer, or more commonly top-down design.

Definition: Top-down design is the process of designing a solution to a problem by systematically

breaking the problem into smaller, more manageable parts.

The problem is broken down into smaller problems called sub-problems, which in turn are broken
into smaller sub-problems, continuing until each sub-problem can be solved in a few steps.

Top-down design leads to modular development. Modular development is the process of developing
software modules individually then combining the modules to form a solution to an overall problem.

Definition: A module is a self-contained entity that results when a problem is divided into sub-
problems; each module corresponds to a sub-problem.

Modular development of computer software:

 Makes large projects more manageable.
Smaller and less complex tasks are easier to understand than larger ones and are less
demanding of resources.

 Is faster for large projects.

Different people work on different modules at the same time which speeds up the overall
project.

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 Leads to a higher quality product

Programmers with knowledge and skills in a specific area can be assigned to the parts of the
project that require those skills.

 Makes it easier to find and correct errors

It is easy to isolate the part of the software that is causing trouble, making it easy to fix it.

 Increases the reusability of solutions

Solutions to smaller problems are more likely to be useful elsewhere than solutions to bigger
problems.

3.2.2. Stepwise Refinement

Stepwise refinement is the process of breaking a problem down through successive steps into
smaller problems. It is an iterative process where each problem is decomposed and refined step by
step.In stepwise refinement, the solution to a problem is first described in terms of high level
functions, then, each function is broken down into details that are refined in successive steps until
the whole problem is fully defined.

3.3. Design Notations

A large number of notations and languages exist to represent software design artifacts. Some are
used mainly to describe the structural organization of a design, whereas others are used to
represent the behavior of such software systems. Notations for describing the structural
organization of the system are static. For example, entity relationship diagrams, structure charts,
class and object diagrams. Notations for describing the behavioral organization of the system are
dynamic. Examples are data flow diagrams, flow charts, sequence diagrams, state transition
diagrams and pseudo-code.

3.3.1. Data Flow Diagrams

A data-flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the "flow" of data through a system. A
DFD shows the flow of data among a set of processes.

3.3.2. Flowcharts
They are used to show the flow of control and the associated actions to be performed.

3.3.3. State Transition Diagrams

They are used to show the flow of control from state to state in a state machine.

S0 S1 S2 S3

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3.4. SoftwareReuse
Software reuse is the process of implementing or updating software using existing software assets.
Reusable software assets include more than just codes. Requirements, designs, models, algorithms,
tests, documents, and many other products of the software process can be reused.
Software reuse makes programming easier because you only need to develop the solution to a
problem once; then you can call up that code whenever you need it. Modules developed as part of
one project, can be reused later as parts of other projects, modified if necessary to fit new situations.
Most computer systems are filled with layers of short programming modules that are constantly
reused in different situations.
Software reuse can be horizontal or vertical.

3.4.1. HorizontalReuse
Horizontal reuse refers to software components used across a wide variety of applications. This
type of reuse includes library of components, string manipulation routines, or graphical user
interface functions.

3.4.2. VerticalReuse
Vertical reuse, in another way, deals with the reuse of system functional areas, or domains that can
be shared between systems with similar functionality.

3.4.3. Advantages of Software Reuse

The main advantages of software reuse include:
 Increase in software productivity
 Reduced software development time
 Reduced software development and maintenance costs
 Improved software system interoperability
 Software is developed with fewer people
 Easy movement of personnel from project to project,
 Production of more standardized software,
 Production of better quality software

4. Project Management
A project is an endeavor to accomplish a specific objective through a unique set of interrelated tasks
and the effective utilization of resources. A project has a definite start and finish time, well-defined
outcomes or performance goals, and consumes scarce resources such as money, personnel, material,
and equipment.
A project is considered constrained by three functions:
 Scope: what it is intended to accomplish. In other words, the customer’s requirements for the
project.
 Time allocation: the time schedule for the project.
 Cost: the money, budget, and resources for a project.

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These three functions are called the Triple Constraint. The relationship between them is
represented using the Project Management Triangle.

Time Cost

Scope

The Project Management Triangle visualizes the fact that time, cost and scope of a project are
interdependent; changing one of them causes changes in the other two. For example, if you want to
shorten a schedule, you can hire more resources which would increase cost, or reduce customer
requirements which would affect quality. This simply means “you can have any two of quick, good
or cheap, but not all three.”

Projects are implemented through project management. Project management is defined as the
application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to activities of a project for the achievement of
the project’s objectives/requirements. Project management ensures that an acceptable system is
developed within time and budget.

4.1. Project Management Terms

 Task/Activity: anything that needs to be done that requires time and consumes resources.
 Dependent task: a task that can only begin after a previous one is finished. For example, roofing
a house depends on the construction of the walls.
 Slack time or float time: the amount of delay that can be tolerated between the starting time
and completion time of a task without causing a delay in the completion date of the entire
project. If we have tasks A and B that start at the same time and task C that is dependent on
both tasks A and B. If task A takes 3 days and task B takes 5 days, then task A has 2 days slack
time. That is, it can run for 2 days before it affects the planned starting time for task C.
 Lag time: the delay or amount of time that passes between the end of one activity and the
beginning of another if the two are dependent. For example, if task A is laying of cement blocks
and dependent task B is building the walls of the house, there would be some lag time between
the end of task A and the start of task B to let the blocks get dry.
 Lead time: occurs when a task should theoretically wait for its predecessor to finish, but can
actually start a little early. The time that the tasks overlap is lead time.
 Milestone: an event that signifies the accomplishment or completion of a major deliverable
during a project.
 Deliverable: some concrete thing which is to be delivered, to the client or internally to the
development team.
 Leveling: the process of adjusting tasks to match resources available. There are two techniques
for leveling: task delay and task split.

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 Critical path:a sequence of dependent tasks that have the largest sum of most likely durations.
The critical path determines the earliest possible completion date of the project.
 Critical task: a task found on the critical path. A critical task cannot be delayed without
delaying the entire project schedule.
 Work Breakdown Structure: a hierarchical decomposition of the project into phases, activities,
and tasks.
 Project management plan (PMP): a document that describes how the project is to beexecuted,
monitored and controlled, which includes creating a project workbreakdown structure,
identifying and planning to mitigate risk, identifyingmanners in which to effectively
communicate with stakeholders and other project team members, and developing a plan to
manage changes.

4.2. ProjectLife Cycle

The activities related to a project can be structured and grouped into stages according to the aim of
the activities. A typical project goes through the following stages called project life cycle: initiation,
planning, execution, monitoring and control, and closing.

4.2.1. Initiation
Project initiation determines the main objective of the project and forms a clear understanding
about the necessity and suitability of the project. This stage answers the questions “what?” and
“why?” Common activities at this stage are:
 Identification and initial analysis of the business needs.
 Determination of the main objective(s).
 Resource analysis (people, equipment, financial; needs and availability).
 Composition of the project charter.
(Project charter - document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes
the existence of a project, and provides the project manager with the authority to apply
organizational resources to project activities.)

4.2.2. Planning
Project planning involves the project plan development and approval. It determinesan optimal
scheme/algorithm for project execution. This stage answers the question “how?” The main activities
at this stage are:
 Needs analysis
 Description of the project (including determination of activities and necessary resources)
 Composition of project plan
 Planning and performing necessary PR-activities.
(PR is the practice of managing the spread of information between an individual or an organization
and the public. Public relations activities include: launchings, media conferences, sales promotions,
open day, product testing, websites, press release, newsletters.)

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4.2.3. Execution
Project execution is the phase within which the deliverables are physically constructed and
presented to the customer for acceptance. It integrates people and other resources to carry out the
project management plan for the project. The activities undertaken to construct each deliverable
will vary depending on the type of project being undertaken. Main activities are:
 Starting up the execution.
 Building the deliverables
 Day-to-day management and reporting

4.2.4. Monitoring and Control

Project control measures and monitors progress toidentify variances from the project management
plan so that corrective action canbe taken when necessary to meet project objectives. Control occurs
throughout the duration of the project and has a range relatively similar to that of execution. While
the project is being executed, a series of management processes are undertaken to monitor and
control thedeliverables being output by the project. This includes:
 Requesting, evaluating and approving changes to the project scope,deliverables, timescales or
resources (change management)
 Controlling theamount of time spent undertaking each activity within the project (time
management)
 Identifying, approving and paying cost/expenses incurred on project (cost management)
 Reviewing deliverable quality (quality management)
 Identifying, quantifying and managing risks to the project (risk management)
 Identifying and handling issues currently affecting the ability ofthe project to produce the
required deliverables (issue management)
 Measuring each deliverable produced against acceptance criteria (acceptance management)
 Handling sourcing of products from an external supplier (procurement management)
 Identifying, creating, and reviewing communication messages within the project
(communication management)
 Performing a phase review at the end of execution to ensure the project has achieved its
objectives as planned.

4.2.5. Closing
Once all the deliverables have been produced and the customer has accepted the final solution, the
project isready for closure.
Project closureinvolves:
 releasing the final deliverables to the customer
 handing over project documentation to the business
 terminating supplier contracts,
 releasing project resources
 communicating the closure of the project to all stakeholders

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4.3. ProjectAnalysis and Scheduling

Project scheduling is the process of converting a general or outline plan for a project into a time-
based schedule based on the available resources and time constraints. Different techniques exist for
analyzing and scheduling project activities.

4.3.1. CriticalPath Method(CPM)

CPM is an analysis technique used to predict project duration by analyzing which sequence of
activities (which path) has the least amount of scheduling flexibility (the least amount of total float).
Early dates are calculated by means of a forward pass using a specified start date while late dates
are calculated by means of a backward pass starting from a specified completion date, usually the
forward pass’s calculated project early finish date.
 Forward pass: The calculation of the early start and early finish dates for the uncompleted
portions of all network activities, determined by working forward through the schedule network
logic from the project’s start date.
 Backward pass: The calculation of late finish and late start dates for the uncompleted portions of
all schedule activities, determined by working backward through the schedule network logic from
the project’s end date.

CPM models the events and activities of a project as a network. Activities are depicted as nodes on
the network and events that signify the beginning or ending of activities are depicted as arcs or lines
between the nodes.
a)

b)

Network diagrams

In the above network diagram,

 Tasks are lettered from A to J. There are two ways of representing the activities on a network
diagram: (a) activity on node and (b) activity on arc.
 Joining task A to E shows that task A must be completed before task E can be started.
 Joining tasks A and B to E shows that both task A and B must be completed before task E can be
started.

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 The number marked on each arc (arrow) shows the duration of the task from which the arc
starts.

The critical path can be identified by determining the following four parameters for each activity:
 ES – earliest start time: the earliest time at which an activity can begin given that its
predecessor activities must be completed first.
 EF – earliest finish time, equal to the earliest start time for the activity plus the time required to
complete the activity.
 LF – latest finish time: the latest time at which an activity can be completed without delaying
the project.
 LS – latest start time, equal to the latest finish time minus the time required to complete the
activity.

Activities with the same earliest and latest start times (ES=LS) or with same earliest and latest finish
times (EF=LF) define the critical path. This means that these activities have a float time of 0.

For the above network diagram, we have:

Start times Float

Activity Duration
Earliest Latest time
A 7 0 0 0
B 2 0 5 5
C 15 0 12 12
E 10 7 7 0
D 8 17 17 0
F 2 25 25 0
G 5 17 19 2
H 8 22 24 2
I 2 27 27 0
J 3 29 29 0
Finish 32 32

The critical path is A-E-D-F-I-J

The total estimated duration of the project = sum of duration of critical tasks = 7 + 10 + 8 + 2 +
2 + 3 = 32 ����

Exercise 1: Given the task description table below:

Activity Duration Precedence

A 3 -
B 3 A

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C 4 -
D 1 C
E 3 B, D
F 2 A, B, D
G 2 C, F
H 4 G
I 1 C
J 3 E, G
K 5 F, H, I

1. Draw the corresponding PERT diagram for this project

2. Determine the critical path
3. Calculate the total estimated duration of the project
4. State the float time for all non-critical activities

Exercise 2: Find the critical path for each of the activity networks below.
a.

b.

c.

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Remark! CPM was developed for complex but fairly routine projects with minimal uncertainty in
project completion times. For less routine projects there is more uncertainty in the completion
times, and this uncertainty limits the usefulness of the deterministic CPM model. An alternative to
CPM is the PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique) project planning model.

4.3.2. Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

PERT is an event-oriented network analysis technique used to estimate project duration when there
is a high degree of uncertainty with the individual activity duration estimates. Each activity is
assigned three time estimates
m= most likely time estimate, (mode)
a = optimistic time estimate (best case)
b = pessimistic time estimate (worst case)
These three estimates are then used to calculate a weighted duration for each task by using the
formula�� = (� + 4� + �)/6
The weighted durations are then used as a more realistic estimate of task durations for constructing
a PERT chart (network diagram).
Using PERT, the probability of completing the project by a certain date t, can now be found by
finding
�−� �−�
� �≥� = =
σT 2 σ
Where
� is the expected completion time of the project
And
�−� 2
σT =
2
6
is the variance of T = (variances of activities on the critical path).

Example:
If a project’s expected completion time is � = 246 ���� with its variance σT 2 = 25, then what is the
probability that the project
a) is actually completed within 246 days?
b) is actually completed within 240 days?
c) is actually completed within 256 days

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Solution
a) � = 246, � = 246 and σT 2 = 25
246 − 246
� �≥� = =0
25

b) � = 240, � = 246 and σT 2 = 25

240 − 246 −6
� �<� = = =− 0.24
25 25
∴ � � ≤ � = 1 − (� � < 0.24 ) = 1 − 0.24 = 0.76

c) � = 256, � = 246 and σT 2 = 25

256 − 246 6
� �≥� = = = 0.24
25 25

Definition: A PERT chart/diagram is a graphic illustration of a project as a network diagram

consisting of numbered nodes (either circles or rectangles) representing events, or milestones in the
project linked by labeled vectors (directional lines) representing tasks in the project. The direction of
the arrows on the lines indicates the sequence of tasks.

Comparison between CPM and PERT

CPM task durations are known with certainty. CPM is therefore said to be deterministic while PERT
is probabilistic.

CPM PERT
1 Uses network,
calculate float or slack,
identify critical path
Same as CPM
and activities, guides
to monitor and
controlling project
2 Requires 3 estimates of
Uses one value of activity time
activity time Calculates standard deviation
and variance of time
3 Used where times can
Used where times cannot be
be estimated with
estimated with confidence.
confidence, familiar
Unfamiliar or new activities
activities
4 Minimizing cost is Meeting time target or
more important estimating percent

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completion is more important

4.3.3. GanttChart
A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar graph that helps plan and monitor project development or resource
allocation on a horizontal time scale. It depicts project tasks against a calendar.
A Gantt chart is constructed with a horizontal axis representing the total time span of the project,
broken down into increments (days, weeks, or months) and a vertical axis representing the tasks
that make up the project. Horizontal bars of varying lengths represent the sequences, timing, and
time span for each task. The bar spans may overlap, as, for example, you may conduct research and
choose software during the same time span. As the project progresses, secondary bars, arrowheads,
or darkened bars may be added to indicate completed tasks, or the portions of tasks that have been
completed. A vertical line is used to represent the report date.

A Gantt chart

The critical path is A-C-D-F-H = 5+6+4+2 = 17 days

Exercises!
Exercise 1: A project has been defined to contain the following list of activities along with their
required times for completion.

Time Immediate
Activi
Activity (weeks Predecesso
ty No.
) rs
1 Collect 3
requirements
2 Analyze 2 1
processes
3 Analyze data 2 2
4 Design 6 2
processes
5 Design data 3 3
6 Design screens 2 3,4

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7 Design reports 4 4,5

8 Program 5 6,7
9 Test and 7 7
Document
10 Install 2 8,9

a. Draw a network diagram for this project.

b. Calculate the earliest completion time of the project
c. Show the critical path.
d. What would happen if activity 6 were revised to take 6 weeks instead of 2 weeks?
e. Construct a Gantt chart for this project

Exercise 2: At 4:30 pm one day CRTV news team hears of a Government Minister resigning. They
wish to prepare an item on the event for that evening’s 6 o’clock news. The table below list the
jobs needed to prepare this news item, the time each job takes and the constraints on when the job
can commence.

Time
Job Constraints
needed
A - Interview
the resigning 15 mins. Starts at 4:30 pm
minister
B - Film the
20 mins. None
ministry
C - Get reactions Cannot start until A
25 mins.
from regions and B are completed
D - Review
Cannot start until B is
possible 40 mins
completed
replacements
E- Review the Cannot start until A is
25 mins
minister’s career completed
Cannot start until E
F- Prepare film
20 mins. and
for archives
C are completed
Cannot start until A, B,
G- Edit 20 mins. C, D, E and F are
completed

a. Construct an activity network for this problem and by finding the critical path in your network,
show that the news item can be ready before 6 pm that day.
b. Construct the corresponding Gantt chart for this project

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References
[1] D. Kahn, “The Codebreakers, Macmillan Publishing Company, 1976”.
[2] A. Menezes, P. van Oorschot, and S. Vanstone, “Handbook of Applied Cryptography, CRC Press,
1997”.
[3] M. Gardner, “Codes, Ciphers, and Secret Writing, Dover Publications, Inc., 1972”
[4] L. Smith, “Cryptography the Science of Secret Writing, Dover Publications, Inc., 1943”.
[5] John D. Carpinelli, “Computer Systems Organization & Architecture”

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