Scalars and Vectors Acceleration-time graph under constant acceleration Bernoulli’s Principle

Scalars are quantities described only by a magnitude (how A flat line indicates an object has a constant acceleration (zero or as the speed of aircraft
much) otherwise). increases, its pressure
vectors are described by a magnitude and a direction (how Negative acceleration corresponds with the velocity reducing. decreases.
much where) The signed area between a line and the t-axis gives the velocity This creates a pressure
Distance is the total length of a path an object travels between two times. difference where the air above
Displacement is measured from the starting position Areas beneath the time-axis will be negative, as this indicates a the wing is lower pressure
negative velocity. compared to below the wing ➔
Instantaneous and average velocity​ lift
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a given point in time Conservation of momentum
Friction (reading the speedometer).​ The downward momentum
The force that resists motion.​ Average velocity gives the velocity over a period of time. transferred to the air creates
Acts parallel to the surface.​ an equal and opposite upward
Static friction – Resists the initiation of movement​➔ walking graphing non-uniform motion
Non-uniform motion represents most real-life scenarios force on the aerofoil ➔ lift.
Kinetic friction – Resists the motion of one object over another
Velocity-time graphs are the most useful. Thrust
Drag forces – Friction forces as objects move through liquids or
Area can be approximated using squares thrust on an aircraft in flight is
gases.
Gradient can be approximated between two points. a reaction force equal in
Solving for an unknown vector magnitude and opposite in
Equations for constant acceleration​ direction to a force applied to
expel or accelerate mass away
from the object.
types of drag
Skin friction: Happens
Component vectors​ between the surface of
aircraft and the air moving
over it. magnitude depends on
the smoothness of the skin
and the density of the air
Form drag: magnitude
determined by how
streamlined the vertical
Vertical motion​ surfaces are.
Lift-induced drag: Caused by
aerofoils redirecting air
downwards in the downwash,
Speed and velocity​
Speed – The total measurement of how fast an The force due to gravity
object is travelling. Rate of change of distance ➔ A The force due to gravity on an
scalar quantity as it only gives magnitude.​ aircraft in flight acts at the
Velocity – The measurement of the change in centre of mass in the direction
position of two objects. Rate of change of of the centre of the Earth.
displacement ➔ A vector quantity as it gives both Proportional to the aircraft’s
direction and magnitude​ mass.
Average speed

Vector addition in 2D

Average velocity

Acceleration

Distance-time graphs​
Gradient = velocity ➔ The steeper the gradient the faster the
velocity
Zero gradient = horizontal line = zero velocity​
Positive gradient = travelling away from origin.​
Negative gradient = travelling back towards origin.
Velocity-time graphs​under constant velocity
A flat line indicates an object has a constant velocity (zero or
otherwise).
The signed area between a line and the t-axis gives the
displacement between two times.
Areas beneath the time-axis will be negative as this indicates a
negative displacement.
Negative velocity indicates movement in the opposite direction.
Velocity-time graph under constant acceleration
A flat line indicates an object is moving with a constant velocity.
The gradient gives the acceleration
mat a time, or between two times. Negative velocity indicates
movement in the opposite direction.
The area under the graph represents displacement ➔ A = LW
 Area under an acceleration–time graph
Solving for an unknown vector

Displacement–time graph gradient

Average velocity and the instantaneous velocity

Reading a velocity–time graph

Using equations of constant acceleration

Momentum Inclined planes​ Energy transfer and transformation​
Heavy objects and harder to stop than lighter The law of conservation of energy states that energy
objects travelling at the same speed. can be transformed or transferred but it cannot be
vector created or destroyed.​
stationary object has no momentum but has inertia.​ Gravitational potential energy will be converted to
kinetic energy when an object falls from a height.​

Law of conservation of momentum​

For a collision between two or more objects in a
closed system, the total momentum will remain the
same.

Equilibrium​
When forces are balanced
more on next page

Torque
Kinetic energy​ Force from a turning effect.​
Energy of motion​ Object needs to have a pivot point to turn around.​ Power
Scalar quantity A force must be applied that is not aligned with the pivot A measure of work done over time
point in order to cause a rotation.​ in Watts (w)
E = energy (j)
There must be distance between the line of action of the
W = work (j)
force and the pivot point.​
△
t = time
Elastic and inelastic collisions​
Elastic collisions – Total kinetic energy is the same Considering friction​
before and after the collision (gas particles).​ Friction opposes motion.
Inelastic collisions – Kinetic energy is larger prior to Additional energy input is required to keep constant
Non-perpendicular force example​
the collision. Energy is converted to other forms velocity to overcome friction
during the collision.​ F = friction (N)
Rotational equilibrium​
△ t = time
s = displacment
v = average velocity
Impulse Translational equilibrium​ Efficiency of energy transformations​
Change in momentum by a force acting over a period When forces are equal or balanced they are said to be in The transformation of energy is never perfect.
of time.​ translational equilibrium.
Vector quantity​ This means the object will be experiencing no movement or
Increase in velocity increases momentum and vice moving
Cantilevers​ Hooke’s law​
versa.
A beam that extends beyond its support. The force applied by a spring is directly proportional
Must have both a downwards and upwards force applied at to the spring’s extension or compression in the
the support.​ opposite direction.
Work
When force acts upon an object.
Newton’s first law​ Causes a change in energy due to a force being applied
An object in a state of rest or travelling at a constant over a distance.
velocity will remain in its state of motion unless Scalar W = work (j)
acted upon by a net force.​ F = force (N) Assumes that the springs are ideal
Also know as the law of inertia. s = change in displacement Force-compression graphs​
Newton’s second law​ the higher the gradient the higher the spring constant
when the force is applied on an angle we need to consider:
Acceleration experienced by a body is directly
Elastic potential energy​
proportional to the net force on the body and
Energy is stored when something is stretched or
inversely proportional to the mass of the body.​ Force-displacement graphs​ compressed.
Work is calculated from the area under the graph.​
When this is released, work will occur.
How elastic an object will determine the shape of the
graph.​ E = energy (j)
If the force applied is consistent then a horizontal graph k = spring constant (N/m
Newton’s third law​ will be seen.​ x = change in position
every action force has an equal and opposite If it is fully elastic (such as a spring) it will be linear.​
reaction. For a partially elastic object it will be curved.​
Normal force​ Energy
The force that a surface applies to a body resting on Energy released by a compressed spring​
The capacity to cause change.​
it. The force is always applied perpendicular to the The ability to do work​
surface and prevents the body from falling through Scalar
the surface. in joules
Other spring formulae​
Mechanical energy​
Kinetic energy in a horizontal spring system:
Energy due to movement
types include: kinetic, gravitational, elastic

Potential energy
Force due to gravity​ Potential energy describes a type of energy available to
an object. Something has to occur for this energy to be
transferred into work.
Gravitational potential energy
The amount of work that needs to be applied against
gravity to get the object to its position. Kinetic energy in a Transformation of kinetic
E = Energy (j) vertical spring energy in a vertical spring
Changing normal forces​ m = Mass (kg) system: system
The normal force of a surface on a mass resting on it
G= Gravitational force (9.8)
changes when the surface (such as the floor of a lift)
accelerates vertically up or down. Kinetic energy​
△ h = change in hight (m)

Calculating the work force looks at the change in kinetic

energy: W = work (j)
m = Mass (kg)
v = final velocity (Km/h
u = initial velocity (Km/h)
Collisions Collisions in one dimension :
Collisions in one dimension :

Two objects colliding and combining :

A single object breaking apart

One full oscillation of a horizontal spring

Two objects colliding and combining :

A single object breaking apart

Force vector components

One full oscillation of a vertical spring

Addition and subtraction of forces in two dimensions

Rotational equilibrium​

Force-compression graphs​

Lift

Translational equilibrium​

Lift on an aircraft in flight is an upward force

generated by the surrounding air interacting with the
aircraft’s aerofoils, due to their shape and movement.

cantilever with support​ Drag

force applied by fluid opposing its motion

types: skin friction, form drag and lift induced drag