Unit-II

Carpentry, Fitting & Forming

Processes

Prepared by:
Dr. Anil Kumar Gillawat
RBSSIET, Zainabad
Mechanical Working of Metals
• Mechanical working of a metal is the shaping of metals (plastic deformation) performed to
change dimensions, properties or surface conditions by means of external force (mechanical
pressure).
• Mechanical working may be either hot working or cold working depending upon the operating
temperature.
• If the plastic deformation is done above the recrystalline temperature (it is the temperature at
which the new grains are formed) that mechanical working is known as hot working and if the
plastic deformation is done below the recrystalline temperature that mechanical working is
known as cold working.
• The metal which has been cold-worked will have distorted lattice and will be in non-equilibrium
conditions. The stored energy will drive the lattice towards equilibrium, but the mobility of atoms
is very less at normal temperature, the driving force cannot produce the movement necessary to
destroy the distortion.
• When the metal is heated, there will be slight change in driving force with which the mobility of
atoms increases sharply. At last a temperature is reached where the movement of atoms start
and atoms arrange themselves into non-distorted lattice.
• When metal is plastically deformed, a considerable amount of energy is expanded. Most of this
energy goes into heat but a small fraction of it is stored in the metal. This stored energy gives two
processes Upon heating, "recovery" and recrystallisation.
 Hot Working
• The working of metals above the recrystalline temperature but below the burning point
is termed as hot working.
• Some metals such as lead and tin, have a low recrystalline range so can be hot worked at
room temperature only but most of the metals have high recrystalline temperature.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Since hot working is done above recrystalline • Poor surface finish.
temperature, so refinement of grains occurs. • Tooling and handling costs
• The power required to finish the part is less. are high.
• Due to refinement of grains, mechanical properties • The life of tools are less.
such as toughness, ductility, elongation and • Close tolerances cannot be
reduction in area are improved. maintained.
• The porosity of the metal is largely eliminated.
• Impurities are uniformly distributed throughout the
metal.
Hot Working Process
• The following are the various hot working processes :
a) Hot rolling
b) Hot forging
c) Hot spinning
d) Hot extrusion
e) Hot drawing or cupping
a) Hot Rolling
• Hot rolling is the process of reducing the
thickness of a long workpiece by
compressive force applied through a set
of rolls.
• The desired thickness is obtained by
maintaining the gap between the rolls
• The forming of bars, plates, sheets,
beams and other structural sections are
made by hot rolling.
• In hot rolling mills, ingots are raw
materials, which are casted in moulds.
First ingots are converted into blooms.
Blooms have a square cross-section
ranging from 150 mm square to 300
mm square. The blooms are then
converted into billets. Billet has a
square cross section ranging from 50
mm square to 150 mm square. The
billets are then converted into sheets,
plates, strips or bar.
• Roll force can be reduced by the following means :
• Reducing friction.
• Using smaller diameter rolls, to reduce the contact area.
• Taking smaller reductions per pass.
• Rolling at elevated temperature, to lower the strength of the material.
• The materials commonly hot rolled are aluminium, magnesium, copper etc.
Rolling Defects:
1. Surface Defects:
• Inclusions and impurities in the materials.
• Scale, Rust, Scratches etc.
• Cracks, Pits, Gauges etc.
• Roll Marks.
2. Structure Defects:
• Wavy edges: These are caused by bending of the rolls. The edges elongate more than the
centre and are restrained form expanding freely, so they buckle.
• Edge cracks and zipper cracks: Zipper cracks occur in the centre of the strip and edge cracks
occur at the edges. These occur generally due to low ductility.
• Alligatoring: These occur due to inhomogeneous deformation of the material during rolling.
b) Hot Forging
• Forging is the controlled plastic deformation of metals at elevated temperature
by using the external pressure.
• The pressure may be applied by hand hammers or power hammers.
• So in this, pressure applied is not continuous but intermittent but in press forging
pressure applied is continuous.
1. Hammer or Smith Forging: It is also known as open die forging means there
is no constraint on the spread of the metal.
• In this process, the metal is heated to the proper forging temperature with
the help of gas, oil or electric furnace. Then the heated metal is placed on
the anvil. After that it is hammered either by a hand hammer or
mechanical hammer to obtain the desired shape.
• Skilled workers are required in this forging method.
2. Drop or Die Forging: The difference
between drop forging and smith forging is
that in drop forging closed impression dies
are used whereas open lies are used in
smith forging.
• In drop or die forging, closed impression
dies compress the metal. The die is made
in two blocks. One block is fastened to the
ram and other is fastened to the anvil.
Metal piece is placed between these two
blocks. Ram produces the hammering
effect. When these two die block mates
together, complete shape is formed.
 • Impression dies (closed die) have the following
characteristics :
• Do not require highly skilled workers.
• Complicated shapes can be made.
• Rapid production rate.
• More dimensional accuracy.
• Cost of tooling is high, therefore suitable only for large
production rate.
3. Press forging: Like drop forging, press forging also
uses the impression dies but plastic deformation of
metal is done by a slow squeezing action.
• The presses used for press forging are: Mechanical press
(crank, eccentric, knuckle) and hydraulic press.
• Advantages of press forging over drop forging:
• Press forging is faster and quieter because only one squeeze is needed.
• Quality of products is better because more penetration can be obtained, also
there is improved grain blow.
• Die forging presses are safer than forging hammers.
• Large and heavy work can be done easily.
4. Upset Forging: Like press forging, in upset
forging also the material is plastically
deformed by squeeze pressure. But unlike
press forging it operates in horizontal
direction.
• In upset forging the bar of stock is placed between
two halves of a die. Then pressure is applied with
the help of a punch on the one side of the bar.
• This process is used to form heads on bolts, rivets,
valves etc.
• Some of the upset forging can be completed in one
single impression (one step) whereas some need
two or more forging positions or impression (i.e.
two or more steps).
• Advantages:
• Quality of forging is better.
• Higher productivity.
• Forging is accompanied by little or no flash.
• Disadvantages
• It is not suitable for heavier jobs.
• The maximum diameter of the stock which can be upset is limited (max.
about 25 cm)
5. Roll Forging:
• In this forging method, rolls are used which are not
completely cylindrical These roll segments have one
or more set of grooves to impart a desired shape to
the piece being forged.
• Initially the rolls are in open position, the heated
piece (stock) is placed between the rolls and rolls are
pressed against this heated stock (workpiece). After
that rolls rotate and roll down the stock. Then the
stock is transferred to a second set of grooves. The
roll turn again and so on until the piece is finished.
So, we can increase the length, reduce the diameter
and change the section as desired. This method is
used for the production of levers, leaf springs, axles,
scissors and knife blades etc.
6. Swaging:
• In this process of hot forging, rods or tubes are
reduced in size by the repeated blows of opposite
hammers.
• The repeated blows cause the metal to flow inward
and take the shape of a die.
c) Hot Spinning
• Hot spinning process set up consists of a machine
similar to a centre lathe.
• In the head stock of the spinning machine, a form
block is fixed which is having the same shape as that
of the desired workpiece. The form block is made up
of plaster or metal. The heated blank of sheet metal is
tightly held against the form block by means of the
rotating wooden block from the tail stock.
• After proper clamping, the blank is rotated to its
operating speed. The spindle speed depends on the
blank material, thickness and complexity of the
desired cup.
• Then the hard wood or roller type metallic tool or
blunt tool is pressed and moved gradually on the
blank so that it takes the shape of the form block.
• The tool is moved back and forth on the blank so that
no thinning takes place.
• During the operation a considerable friction heat is generated, which
keeps the already hot blank in the plastic state.
• The parts of circular cross-section, which are symmetrical about the
axis of rotation, are made by this process.
• If large parts are made from this metal, spinning is performed without
the aid of a form block. A hard wooden bar is commonly used as a
back at the outer edge.
• Compared to drawing, spinning uses the simple and easily available
(versatile) tool but the time and skill required is more.
Advantage of Spinning:
i. Equipment cost is low.
ii. Tool cost is low (needs form block which may be made from wood, plaster or
metal).
iii. Some complex shapes such as pitchers, kettles etc., can be produced economically
Limitations of Spinning:
i. Close tolerances cannot be obtained.
ii. Operator skill is required.
Applications of Spinning :
i. Funnels and processing kettles
ii. Reflectors
iii. Rocket motor cases
iv. Kitchen ware
v. Bells or musical instruments.
d) Hot Extrusion
• Extrusion is a process in which a heated billet or slug of metal is forced by high
pressure through an orifice provided into a die.
• Orifice is used to provide the desired form (shape) to the finished part.
• This process is similar to the squeezing of toothpaste from a collapsible tube.
• In order to avoid the formation of oxide film on the hot extruded product, the
dummy block is placed ahead of the ram and is made little smaller in diameter
than a container. As a result, a thin cylindrical shell, consisting mainly of the
oxidized layer is left in the container and is later removed from the chamber.
• Dies for hot extrusion are generally made with hot work die steels. Coatings such
as zirconia may be applied to the dies to extend their life.
• Lubrication is important in extrusion. Vegetable oils and petroleum oils are used
for this purpose. Glass is used for the extrusion of steel, which acts as a lubricant.
Advantages:
1. Shapes created by extrusion are economical as compared to other methods of
fabrication.
2. Thinner walls can be easily obtained by increasing the forming pressure.
3. The dimensional tolerances of extrusions are very good.
4. The metal flow has excellent transverse flow lines imparting more strength to the
components and secondary operations become easier.
5. Sharp corners, not practicable by other processes can easily obtained by extrusion.
6. It is an economical process for obtaining rods from metal having poor ductility.
7. Process redesign of extrusion is less costly.
8. The extrusion dies are less expensive as compared to other methods so moderate,
short runs are practical and economical by this process .
Limitations of Extrusion:
1. Extruding speed is low as compared to roll forming.
2. High tooling cost.
3. Process waste is higher as compared to rolling.
4. Extrusion has lower productivity as compared to rolling.
5. The size of dies and pressure that can be economically built is a limiting factor.
Applications of Extrusion:
1. Parts require high dimensional accuracy.
2. Medium and small batch production.
3. Commercial metals and alloys such as steel, copper, aluminium, nickel and
magnesium.
4. Products e.g., sliding doors, window frames, structural-shapes, rods, tubes, year
blanks etc.
The various methods of hot extrusion are as follows :
1. Direct/Forward Extrusion:
• Hot metal is pushed through an orifice. Dummy block is placed between the ram and the
heated metal. Pressure is applied with the help of ram.
• The metal first plastically fills the container and then forced out through the die opening
called orifice until a small amount remains in the container. It is then sawed off next to
the die.
2. Indirect/Backward Extrusion:
• It is similar to direct extrusion except that the extruded part is forced through the hollow
ram.
• In this method, less force is-required because there is no frictional force between the
metal billet and the container walls. But in this case ram becomes weak.
• Also, the equipment used is more complicated and more costly. (The scrap or process
waste is only 5 to 6% of billet weight in backward extrusion as compared to 18 to 20%
of billet weight in forward extrusion.)
3. Tube Extrusion:
• It is a form of direct
extrusion but uses a
mandrel to shape the
inside of the tube. The
mandrel is fastened to
the ram.
• The heated metal is put
into the cylinder then
the pressure is applied
with the help of ram
containing the mandrel.
So, the tubes are formed
e) Hot Drawing or Cupping
• Drawing is defined as a process of making cup shaped parts from sheet
metal blank (heated) by putting it into die with the help of punch.
• The set up for drawing is similar to blanking except that the punch and die
are provided with the necessary rounding at the corners to allow for
smooth flow of metal during drawing.
• When the cup height is more than half the diameter it is termed as deep
drawing. In deep drawing blank holder is normally provided to prevent
excess wrinkling of the edges.
• For long thinned cylinders or tubes, repeated heating and drawing
operations are carried out. Drawing operation Is performed in various
stages, and die material for drawing Is usually tool steels and carbides.
• Proper lubrication is necessary in order to improve die life, reduce
drawing force and to improve surface finish.
• Various lubricants used are oils, soap or sometimes coating of soft metals.
Cold Working
• The working of metal below the recrystallisation temperature is
known as cold working.
• In this working, the deformation of metals is brought by the process
of slip of planes.
• Force required in cold working is also more as compared to hot
working.
• During cold working, strength and hardness of metal is increased but
stresses are set up. Further working is possible only after it is
annealed to remove the hardness and the residual stresses as
otherwise large amount of force would be needed to work the metal
further.
• Advantages:
• Good surface finish is obtained
• Close dimensional tolerance can be obtained.
• The strength and hardness of metal are increased.
• It is also used to produce residual stress into certain metals in order to have
improved fatigue life e.g. shot penning in case leaf springs.
• Limitations:
• Only small sized components can be easliy cold worked as greater forces are required
for large sections.
• The grain structure is not refined.
• Tooling costs are high.
• Reduction in ductility.
• Work hardening takes place, which creates problems in further working.
a) Cold Rolling
• The rolling mills are similar to that used in hot rolling.
• If the rolling of metal is done below recrystallisation temperature (or at room
temp.) that is known as cold rolling.
• Cold rolling is done to provide smooth surfaces and close tolerances. Sometimes
hot rol!ed products are also cold rolled to improve the surface finish and
dimensional tolerances.
• But before cold rolling pickling of hot rolled products are done. For this hot rolled
products are immersed in a weak solution of dilute sulphuric acid to remove the
scale and then washed with water, and then dried.
• In cold rolling, more forces are needed because rolling is done at room
temperature. Roll forces also tend to flatten the rolls elastically, producing an
effect much like the flattening of automobile tyres. This flattening of rolls is
undesirable because this increases the surface area hence increases the roll
force.
• Cold rolling is carried out with water soluble oils or low viscosity
lubricants such as mineral oils, emulsions, paraffins and fatty oils etc.
to reduce the force needed.
• Rolls made for cold rolling should not be used for hot rolling as they
may crack because of high temperature.
• Smaller diameter rolls are used for cold rolling in order to reduce the
required rolling force so backed roles are used to provide the strength
to these rolls as in four high rolling mill and cluster mill (sendzimir
mill) which are mostly used in cold rolling.
b) Cold Forging
• Cold Heading: It is used for the manufacture of
bolts, rivets, screws and similar headed items.
• A ductile material is fed to the machine, where
it is cut In standard length as shown in Fig.
• It is then transferred to a holder ejector
assembly.
• Heading punches then strike one or more blows
on the exposed end to perform the upsetting.
Sometimes heading is performed in more than
one stages then the piece is transferred from
one station to another sequentially.
• When the heading is completed, the ejector
advances to expel the product.
c) Cold Spinning
• The process of cold spinning is similar to hot spinning except that the
metal is worked at room temperature.
• This method Is used to produce kettles, cooking utensils, liquid
containers and liquid reflectors etc.
• The parts that are produces by cold spinning have good surface finish
but the force required is more as compared to hot spinning.
d) Cold Extrusion
The principal of cold extrusion is exactly similar to hot extrusion. Mainly, it is
of two types :
1. Impact Extrusion
2. Hydrostatic Extrusion

1. Impact Extrusion: Metal (blank or slug) is placed in the die cavity.

• There is clearance between the punch and die. This clearance depends
upon the thickness of the product required.
• When the punch descends rapidly on the blank (slug), the metal flows up
along the surface of punch forming a cup shaped component generally.
• This process is used for low strength metals such as lead, tin, zinc and
aluminium to produce such items as collapsible tubes for toothpaste,
various creams, medications, small cans for shielding electronic
components, cans for food and beverages etc.
2. Hydrostatic Extrusion:
• Hydrostatic extrusion is similar to direct extrusion and is carried
out at room temperature.
• Here high pressure fluid (particularly castor oil, because it is a
good lubricant and its viscosity is not influenced significantly by
pressure) applies the force necessary to extrude the workpiece
through a die.
• By using the fluid, the friction between the billet and chamber is
eliminated and also it acts as a lubricant.
• Brittle materials can also be extruded successfully by this
method because the hydrostatic pressure increases the ductility
of the material.
• However hydrostatic extrusion has limited industrial
applications because of the complex nature of tooling,
experience needed with high pressures and long cycle times
required.
Cold extrusion has the following advantages over hot extrusion :
• Improved mechanical properties resulting from work-hardening.
• Good control of dimensional tolerances, reducing the need for further
machining or finishing operations.
• Improved surface finish, due partly to lack of an oxide film, provided that
lubrication is effective.
• No billet heating is required.
• Production rates and costs are competitive.
e) Cold Drawing
• Cold drawing is a process of finishing hot rolled bars, by forcing them under
tension through hardened dies. It is also used for the finishing (or reduction
in diameter) of wires and tubes.
1. Bar Drawing: A draw bench is employed for bar drawing.
• The roller bars obtained from hot rolling mills are first placed in the bath of dilute
sulphuric acid (pickling) and then washed and dried.
• Then one end of the bar is reduced in diameter or made pointed, so that it can pass
through die of somewhat smaller cross-section mounted on the draw bench.
• After passing this end through the die, it is then placed in grips or jaws from where
the bar is pulled with the help of carriage, hook and chain drive.
• The length of the bars, which can be drawn, is limited by the maximum travel of the
carriage, which may be from 15 m to 25 m.
• Wire Drawing:
• The wires obtained from the rolling mills are first pickled, washed and then dried.
• The end of the wire is then reduced in diameter (swaging) and passed through the
die opening.
• Then this end is attached to the draw block, which pulls the wire.
• The contact region of the die is generally made up of wear resistant tungsten carbide
or polycrystalline or manufactured diamond.
• Lubrication is also done to reduce the friction and to prevent the wear of the die
f) Cold Bending
• Bending is the plastic deformation of metals about a linear
axis with little or no change in the surface area.
• The bars, rods, wires, tubes and sheet metal may be bent
to many shapes in the cold condition with the help of dies.
• When the metal is bent beyond the elastic limit, the metal
on the outside is stretched (tensile stress) while that on
the inside is compressed.
• The location that is neither stretched nor compressed is
known as the neutral axis of the bend.
• The neutral axis generally locates between one third or
one half of the way from the inner surface, depending on
the bend radius and the material being bent.
Sheet Metal Operations
1. Measuring and Marking:
• In order to cut the required sheet from the standard sheet (available in
market).
• First measuring and marking is done i.e. how much sheet is required, it is
marked.
• Measuring is done with the help of steel rule, steel tape, folding rule, steel
circumference rule etc.
• After measuring the various dimensions, marking is done with the help of
scribers, punches etc.
• While doing the marking, little allowance for cutting is always added to the
overall size.
• Sometimes, the sheets are coated with a coloring media, so that the scribed
lines are clearly visible.
• The procedure for marking straight lines, curved lines, indentation marks and transferring a
pattern is as follows:
a) Marking straight lines: The straight edge or steel square is used to draw straight lines as
discussed below.
• When straight edge or steel square is used, a sharp pointed scriber is held in one hand at
an angle against the edge of the striaght edge or steel square, then the lines are drawn
by applying a little pressure to the scriber.
b) Marking circles and arcs: The circles and arcs are marked on the surface of a sheet metal
with the help of a divider or a trammel point.
• One leg of the divider is placed at the centre of a circle or arc, the other end is moved
with a little pressure on the divider to mark the circle or arc.
• In order to prevent slipping, the divider is inclined in the direction in which the circle or
arc is drawn.
c) Marking irregular curves: Curves are drawn with the help of a French curve.
• The French curve is set in such a way that at least three points coincide with the curve; it
is then moved to coincide next three points. This process is repeated till the whole curve
is marked. The irregular curves may also be drawn by a flexible rule made of spring steel.
d) Marking indentation marks: The indentation marks for drilling are made
with a centre punch, whereas marks for centres for dividers or for
transferring a pattern etc. are made with a prick punch.
• While using punches, first the location of punch is marked with two
intersecting lines, then the punch is held at that point and head of the
punch is given a light blow with the hammer.
e) Transferring a pattern: While transferring a pattern, the ends of the lines
are marked by a prick punch and then remove the pattern and join the lines
by a scriber in proper manner.
• Sometimes a sharp pointed pencil is used to draw the outline of the paper
pattern on a sheet or scriber is used for metal pattern.
2. Cleaning: Sometimes, the blank surfaces need proper cleaning
before being processed.
• For cleaning, pickling process is used. In this process, sheets are immersed in
a hot bath of 1 part dilute sulphuric acid and 20 parts water.
• After allowing sufficient time for pickling, the blanks are thoroughly washed in
a stream of water and then allowed to dry
3. Laying out: While doing the marking of development of the surface
of the component on the sheet, certain material for various
allowances (such as overlapping, cutting, bending etc.) are added.
Such a layout when made on the sheet is called laying out process.
4. Cutting and Shearing:
• The word cutting is normally used when the sheet metal is cut by means of a
chisel and a hammer manually.
• The term shearing means cutting of sheet metal by two parallel cutting edges
moving in opposite directions manually.
• Shearing is done by hand shears or snips or by means of machines.
• Shearing action has three basic stages : Plastic deformation, fracture and
shear.
• When the metal is placed between the upper and lower blades of the shear
and pressure is applied, first plastic deformation takes place.
• Then there is fracture and ultimately shearing takes place when further
pressure is applied.
General shearing (or cutting) process by hand shear is described below:
• Hold the snip in one hand and sheet in the other hand.
• Place the upper blade on the line of cut to be followed.
• Start the cut by exerting pressure on handles of snips.
• After cutting about 15 mm, open the blades again and push the snip forward.
Repeat this until cut is completed.
• In order to maintain proper space for snip, curl the sheet.
• The inside curves such as circular holes (manually) are cut with curved snips.
• The holes are first cut roughly with a cold chisel and hammer.
• Then it is trimmed to the required size by the curved snip.
• If punch and die setup is used for shearing
operation, then the punch is of the same shape
as that of die opening except that it is smaller on
each side by an amount known as clearance.
• When the punch travels downward it pushes the
material into die opening causing tensile and
compressive stresses in the workpiece.
• When the stress reaches upto breaking point,
shearing takes place.
• Stresses in shearing operation are shown in
figure.
• Deformation of workpiece with punch
travel is shown in Figure.
• When the strain in the workpiece along
AB reaches upto limiting value, the fibre
of the workpiece material ruptures.
• After this, further movement of the
punch causes the fracture along BC.
• A similar crack also propagates from the
die corner DC.
• Clearance between punch and die plays an important role in shearing
operation.
• If the clearance is too small then the fracture lines do not meet and
secondary deformation taken place causing an unclean edge.
• If the clearance is too large fracture line do not meet and material is
being dragged in the space between the punch and die.
• The basic shearing operations are as follows:
a) Punching: Punching is the operation of producing circular holes on a sheet
metal by a punch and die.
• The material punched out (small circular sheet) is removed as waste and
the sheet, which is having holes, is our objective or our requirement.
• In punching operation, clearance is given to the die and punch size equals
the size of the hole.
b) Blanking: This means cutting a whole piece from sheet metal. Around this
piece, there is enough scrap left all around this piece.
• The piece which is cut from the sheet metal is our useful.
• The size of the blank (cutting part) is our requirement and the remaining
sheet is scrap.
• Blank is then further processed to produce desired part.
• In blanking operation clearance is given to the punch whereas die opening
size equals the blank size.
c) Piercing: Piercing is similar to punching but in punching, circular
holes are produced in a sheet where as in piercing, holes other than
circular are produced in a sheet.
• The sheet, which is having the holes of desired shape, is our requirement.
Forming operation
a) Deep Drawing:
• In sheet metal, drawing is a process by which
hollow shapes are formed from the sheet metal.
• Die and punch is used in drawing operation. But in
this case the die and punch corners are round and
also there is large clearance between punch and
die as compared to sheering.
• If the depth is one or more times the diameter,
the process is called deep drawing. In deep
drawing, a parallel walled cup is created from a
flat blank.
• The blank may be circular, rectangular or of a
more complex outline.
• Lubricants will be used to reduce the friction
between the metal and die.
Forming operation
b) Bending: Bending is the operation of deforming a sheet around a
straight axis. The neutral plane lies on this straight axis.
• In bending all sheet material are stressed beyond the elastic limit in tension
on the outside and in compression on the inside of the bend.
• There is only one line, the natural line that retains its original length. The
neutral axis lies at a distance of 30 to 50% of thickness of the sheet from the
inside of the bend.
• Stretching of the sheet metal on the outside makes the stock thinner.
• Bending is sometimes called as forming, which involves angle bending, roll
bending, roll forming, seaming and spinning.
Joining
• Riveting: It is a process of joining the two pieces of sheet metal permanently by
means of rivets. These rivets are made of soft iron and are usually coated with
tin.
• In order to join the two pieces of sheet metal, first a hole is drilled in the
pieces.
• The hole should be of correct size.
• Then the rivet will be inserted in the hole.
• After that the rivet head will be placed on some metal bar or stake.
• Joint will be produced by hammering the shank of the rivet i.e. head is also
formed on the other side.
• In this way riveting operation is performed.
Carpentry Shop
CARPENTRY
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components.
Carpentry deals with the construction of work such as making roofs, floors
portions etc. of a building , doors, windows, trusses, workbenches, house
hold furniture and many other useful articles by means of suitable wood.
It starts from a marketable form of wood and ends with a finished product.
It deals with building work, furniture , cabinet making etc.
Joinery, i.e. preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all
wood-works. It deals with specific work of a carpenter like making different
types of joints to form a finished product. The term joinery is used for
connecting the wooden parts with the different joints such as making
doors, stairs, furniture and many other articles.
The timber is the material used for carpentry and joinery work.
Working with wood for various applications.
Types of wood
Types of Wood & their characteristics
Properties and uses
of wood
 Properties of wood
Properties Characteristics
Hardness Wood should be hard, but easy to be penetrated by screws and nails
Strength Wood should have good mechanical strength in order to resist forces
viz. tension, compression and bending
Density Wood has less density than water. Most wood have density ranging
from 0.3-0.9 g/cm3
Porosity Wood are porous in nature and hence absorb or emit liquids or gases
in/from tiny holes called as pores.
Colour and grains Woods has aesthetic (good looking) qualities in terms of variety of
colours and grains
Machinability Wood should have good machinability for ease in shaping.
Thermal Insulation Wood has good thermal insulation but burns easily.
Electrical Insulation Dry wood has good electrical insulation properties.
How to process with wood
Tools used in carpentry
Classification of Carpentry Tools
1. Marking and setting out
2. Cutting
3. Boring
4. Planning tools
5. Hammers and screw Drivers
6. Clamping and holding devices
7. Miscellaneous
Marking and Measuring Tools

• Rule
• Try Square
• Combination set
• Bevel Gauge
• Marking Gauge
• Cutting Gauge
• Mortise Gauge
Try Square: It consists of a steel Blade fitting into a wooden or
metallic stock at right angle to it. It is used for
measuring and setting out dimensions,
testing the finish of a planed surfaces,
draw parallel lines at right angles (90°) to plane surfaces,
draw mutually perpendicular lines over a plane surface, and
test the squareness to two adjacent surfaces.
Mitre Square: measure and mark angle at 45°.
Bevel Square: measure 0 to 180 degree angle.
Marking Knife or Scriber: It has sharp conical edges used to mark on
even hard surfaces. The front edge is hardened so as to resist wear and
tear. It is made up of carbon steel. It is used for measuring and marking
the points and lines on wooden stock before processing.
Marking Gauge: It is used to draw parallel lines. The movable portion
of the gauge is adjustable to suitable position and is tightened on the
stem. The piece which slides is called as stock and scribing pin is fixed.
Mortise Gauge: It is used to draw two parallel lines. Its working is
similar to marking gauge except it has two sharp edges. One fixed and
second adjustable or fixed.
Holding And Supporting Tools
• Work Bench/Carpenter’s bench/bench hook
• Carpenter’s Vice
• Clamp (T-Clamp/ Bar, C-Clamp)
• Hand Screw
• Carpenter’s bench and bench Hook:- It is table of rigid construction
made of hard wood about 180cmx120cmx90cm(H) size. Four
carpenter vice are fitted on opposite sides of bench to hold the jobs
during operation.
• Carpenter’s Vice: It is mostly used for holding and supporting
wooden piece. Its one jaw is fixed to the side of the table while the
other is kept movable means of screw and handle.
• Clamps and screws: These are used by carpenters for holding and
supporting wood pieces in position for carrying out different
operations.
Cutting Tools
Cutting tools may classified as follows:-
• Saws
• Chisels
• Axe
Saws
Sawing means cutting woods along the grains. The main parts of a saw are
blade and handle. The size of a saw is the length of the blade in mm. the
tooth is specified by its pitch and the angle. The teeth are bent slightly by its
pitch and the angle.
Common type of Saws:
Rip saw
Cross-cut saw
Panel saw
Tenon saw (or back saw)
Dovetail saw
Compass or turning saw
Keyhole saw
Important types of saws
Chisels
In the wood work a large number of chisels are used for cutting the
wood in different manners to produce desired shapes and verities.
Firmer chisel
Bevelled edge firmer chisel
Parting chisel
Mortise Chisel
Socket chisel
Gauge chisel
Axes
This cutting tool is made of carbon steel. The cutting edge is formed by
beveling both sides of the axe. It is employed for splitting wood along
the grains for rough work.
Axe
Side axe
Adze
Planning Tools

The planning tools are used for shaving or smoothing plane surfaces. A plane
may be described as a chisel fastened to a metallic or wooden block called
body.
• The Chisel fastened to the body at an angle of 25°-35° respectively.
• Another Blade called Cap Iron is used for stiffening the cutting blade,
prevents chattering and helps in cutting and curling of shavings.
• The Cap iron should be 1.5mm above the cutting edge.
Wooden Jack Plane
Iron Jack Plane
Smoothing Plane
Boring and Drilling Tools
Boring and Drilling Tools produces holes in wood.
• Auger
• Gimlet
• Bradwal
• Brace and Bits
• Hand Drill
Striking Tools
Miscellaneous Tools
Wood Working Processes
1. Marking and Laying out
2. Sawing
3. Planning
4. Mortising and Tenoning
5. Boring
6. Grooving and Tonguing
7. Molding
8. Rebating
9. Recessing
Carpentry Joints