📌 1.

Idea of Algorithm – Steps to Solve Logical and Numerical

Problems

An algorithm is a finite, well-defined sequence of steps or

instructions to solve a particular problem. It's the blueprint for
solving logical, mathematical, or real-world problems step-by-
step.

An algorithm is a step by step procedure or set of rules to solve

a specific problem it is well defined sequence of instructions to
perform a task
🔍 Explanation with Key Points:

✅ 1. Understanding the Problem Statement

Before designing an algorithm, read the problem carefully and

understand:

 What inputs are given?

 What output is expected?
 What are the constraints?

🧠 Reasoning: Understanding the scope avoids misinterpretation

and ensures your algorithm solves the right problem.

✅ 2. Identify the Inputs and Outputs

List the inputs (data required) and desired output clearly.

🧠 Reasoning: Helps in planning the structure—what you have
and what you need to derive.

Example:

Input: Two numbers

Output: Their sum

✅ 3. Analyze the Constraints

Check if there are any size/time limits.

 Can numbers be negative?

 Is there a range limit?

🧠 Reasoning: Helps you choose an efficient algorithm (e.g.,

binary search over linear search for large inputs).

✅ 4. Break Down the Problem

Divide the large problem into smaller sub-tasks or modules.

🧠 Reasoning: Easier to understand and solve complex tasks. It
also promotes code reusability.

✅ 5. Develop Logic / Steps

Plan the step-by-step instructions using logic, loops, conditions,

and calculations.

🧠 Reasoning: Forms the core working of the algorithm.

Example:

Step 1: Read two numbers

Step 2: Add them
Step 3: Print the result

✅ 6. Choose the Right Approach

Choose the best method like brute force, greedy, recursion,

dynamic programming, etc.

🧠 Reasoning: Ensures the algorithm is not just correct but also

optimal and fast.

✅ 7. Use Flowchart or Pseudocode for Visualization

It helps in visualizing and validating the logic before writing

actual code.

🧠 Reasoning: Reduces bugs and makes debugging easy.

✅ 8. Test the Algorithm with Examples

Try various inputs—simple, boundary, and edge cases.

🧠 Reasoning: Validates correctness and robustness.

✅ 9. Optimize Your Steps

Check if there are redundant steps or any scope of
optimization.

🧠 Reasoning: Optimized algorithms consume less time and

memory.

✅ 10. Translate into Code (Optional)

After confirming the logic is correct, implement it in

programming language.

🧠 Reasoning: Ensures smooth transition from algorithm to

working program.

✅ 11. Check for Termination and Finiteness

Ensure that your algorithm does not run infinitely and gives the
result in finite time.

🧠 Reasoning: Infinite loops are logically incorrect.

✅ 12. Evaluate Time and Space Complexity

Analyze how efficient your algorithm is.

🧠 Reasoning: Important in real-world apps where performance

matters.

✅ 13. Document the Logic

Write comments or notes explaining the purpose of each step.

🧠 Reasoning: Helps in understanding and maintaining the

algorithm in the future.

✅ 14. Dry Run the Algorithm

Manually simulate the algorithm for sample inputs.

🧠 Reasoning: Great for catching errors and understanding flow.

✅ Example:

Problem: Find the largest of 3 numbers

Steps (Algorithm):

1. Read A, B, C
2. If A > B and A > C → A is largest
3. Else if B > A and B > C → B is largest
4. Else → C is largest
5. Print result

📌 2. Representation of Algorithm: Flowchart and Pseudocode

After designing an algorithm, we need to represent it clearly.

The two most common methods are:
  Flowchart – Visual representation
 Pseudocode – Textual representation resembling code

🔍 Flowchart Representation

A flowchart is a diagram that visually represents the sequence

of steps and decisions in an algorithm.

✅ 1. Start and End Symbols

Start and end are shown using ovals.

🧠 Reasoning: Defines the boundaries of your logic.

✅ 2. Process Symbol

A rectangle represents any process like calculations or variable

updates.

✅ 3. Input/Output Symbol

A parallelogram is used for input/output operations.

🧠 Reasoning: Clarifies where user interaction or result display

happens.

✅ 4. Decision Symbol
A diamond shape is used for decision-making (if/else).

🧠 Reasoning: Represents branching logic.

✅ 5. Flow Lines

Arrows show the direction of flow.

🧠 Reasoning: Helps trace the path of logic.

✅ 6. Loops and Conditions

Loops are shown with arrows going back to a condition check.

🧠 Reasoning: Visualizes repeated steps clearly.

✅ Example Flowchart:

Problem: Add 2 numbers

 Start
 Input A, B
 Sum = A + B
 Output Sum
 End

🔍 Pseudocode Representation
Pseudocode is plain English-like instructions that describe the
steps without worrying about syntax of a programming
language.

✅ 1. Structured Like Code

Write using keywords like Start, If, While, For, End.

🧠 Reasoning: Easier transition from logic to code.

✅ 2. No Syntax Rules

Unlike programming languages, pseudocode is flexible.

🧠 Reasoning: Focus remains on logic, not syntax.

✅ 3. Use Indentation

To show block levels like if-else or loops.

🧠 Reasoning: Increases readability.

✅ 4. Avoid Language-Specific Syntax

Use general terms like “Display”, “Assign”, “Check”.

🧠 Reasoning: Keeps it universal.

✅ 5. Clearly Define Variables

Mention the purpose of variables when used.

🧠 Reasoning: Improves logic clarity.

✅ 6. Handle Inputs and Outputs

Use “Input X” and “Output Result” explicitly.

✅ 7. Keep Steps Simple

Each line should perform one clear action.

🧠 Reasoning: Easier to debug and convert to code.

✅ 8. Write Conditional Statements Clearly

Use IF...THEN...ELSE format.

✅ 9. Use Loops Clearly

Write loops as WHILE condition DO or FOR i = 1 to n.

✅ 10. Use Comments if Needed

Explain tricky steps using // or -- (based on your format)

✅ Example Pseudocode:
Problem: Find the sum of first N numbers

Start
Input N
Sum ← 0
FOR i ← 1 TO N
Sum ← Sum + i
END FOR
Output Sum
End

Feature Flowchart Pseudocode

Representation
Visual diagram Textual, code-like
Type

Yes (ovals, rectangles,

Symbols Used No
diamonds)
Readability Easier for beginners Easier for coders
Modifiability Harder to edit Easy to edit
Can be written
Tool Requirement Needs drawing tools
anywhere
Easy for logic Better for logic
Debugging
visualization validation

🔁 Difference: Flowchart vs Pseudocode

📌 What are Keywords in C?

Keywords are reserved words in the C programming language

that have special meaning to the compiler.
They cannot be used as variable names or identifiers.

✅ Important Properties of Keywords:

Property Description
Reserved You can’t use them as variable names
Predefined Meaning Each has a fixed function in code
Case-sensitive Yes, in C (e.g., int ≠ Int)
Total Count 32 (in ANSI C)

🔖 List of All 32 Keywords in C:

auto break case char const

continue default do double else
enum extern float for goto
if int long register return
short signed sizeof static struct
switch typedef union unsigned void
volatile while

📚 Variables in C (Full Theory)

✨ Definition:

In C programming, a variable is a named memory location

used to store data that can be modified during program
execution.

🧠 Think of a variable as a container or box that stores

information like numbers, characters, etc., which your program
can use and update.

🎯 Why Are Variables Important?

 To store user input

 To manipulate data during program flow
 To perform calculations and comparisons
 To improve code readability and reusability

🖊️Syntax of Variable Declaration:

datatype variable_name;

int age=20;
float price;
char grade;

🧾 Types of Variables in C:
 Type Description
Declared inside a function/block; accessible
Local
only within that scope
Declared outside all functions; accessible
Global
throughout the program
Static Retains value between function calls
Automatic
Default for local variables
(auto)
External
Declared in another file or scope
(extern)
Stored in CPU register for fast access (compiler
Register
may ignore)

🧠 Rules for Naming Variables in C:

1. Must start with a letter (A–Z, a–z) or underscore _

2. Can include letters, digits, and underscore
3. Cannot start with a digit (e.g., 1age ❌)
4. Cannot be a C keyword (e.g., int, float)
5. C is case-sensitive (Age and age are different)

📚 Data Types in C (Full Theory for Exam)

✨ Definition:
In C programming, a data type defines the type of data a
variable can store. It tells the compiler what kind of value (such
as integer, float, character, etc.) the variable will hold and how
much memory to allocate.

Each variable in C must be declared with a data type before

use.

🎯 Purpose of Data Types:

 To allocate appropriate memory size for each variable
 To ensure type safety in operations
 To help compiler in data processing and interpretation
 To improve readability and structure of code

🔰 Categories of Data Types in C:

C data types are mainly divided into three categories:

1️⃣ Basic (or Fundamental) Data Types

2️⃣ Derived Data Types

3️⃣ User-defined Data Types

Let’s explain each in proper detail below.

🔹 1️⃣ BASIC DATA TYPES

These are the primary built-in types that represent simple
values such as numbers and characters.

➤ a) int (Integer):

Used to store whole numbers (positive or negative).

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int age = 21;

 Range: -32,768 to 32,767 (in 16-bit)

 Memory: 2 or 4 bytes (depends on system)

➤ b) float:

Used to store decimal (floating-point) numbers.

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float temperature = 36.5;

 Typically stores up to 6 decimal digits

 Memory: 4 bytes

➤ c) char:

Used to store single characters (in single quotes ' ').

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char grade = 'A';

 Memory: 1 byte
 Stores ASCII value behind the character

➤ d) double:

Used for larger and more precise decimal numbers.

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double pi = 3.14159265359;

 Memory: 8 bytes
 Higher precision than float

🧪 Modifiers with Basic Types:

Modifiers like short, long, signed, unsigned are used to change

the size or range of basic types.

Examples:

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unsigned int count = 10;
long int population = 1000000;

🔸 2️⃣ DERIVED DATA TYPES

Derived from basic types, these are used to group multiple
values or create more complex data handling.

➤ a) Arrays:

An array stores multiple values of the same data type in

contiguous memory.

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int marks[5] = {90, 80, 70, 60, 50};
 Useful for storing list of items, e.g., scores, names
 Index starts from 0

➤ b) Pointers:

A pointer stores the memory address of another variable.

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int x = 10;
int *ptr = &x;

 Used for dynamic memory, functions, and arrays

 Powerful feature of C

➤ c) Functions:

Functions are blocks of code that perform a task and may

return values.
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int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

 Enhances modularity, reusability, and clarity

 Can return any data type

➤ d) Strings (Character Arrays):

Strings are stored as arrays of characters ending with a null
character (\0).

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char name[] = "Nitin";

 Used to store names, messages, inputs

🧩 3️⃣ USER-DEFINED DATA TYPES

These allow the programmer to create custom data types using

C's powerful features.

➤ a) struct (Structure):

A structure groups variables of different data types under one

name.
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struct student {
int roll;
char name[50];
float marks;
};

 Useful for representing real-world entities like employee,

book, etc.
 Accessed using . operator (dot operator)

➤ b) union:

Like structures, but shares memory between all members.

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union data {
int i;
float f;
};

 Memory-efficient when only one member is used at a time

➤ c) enum (Enumeration):

Used to assign names to a set of integer constants for

readability.
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enum week { MON, TUE, WED };

 First value starts from 0 by default

➤ d) typedef:

Used to create aliases for existing data types.

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typedef int marks;
marks m1 = 90;

 Improves readability and consistency

📌 Importance of Understanding Data Types:

 Helps in choosing correct variable types

 Prevents type mismatch errors
 Helps manage memory usage efficiently
 Essential for pointer and structure usage

🧠 Key Points to Write in Exam:

 C provides a variety of data types for flexible programming

 They are classified into basic, derived, and user-defined
 Each data type has a specific purpose and memory size
  Modifiers like long, unsigned enhance basic types
 Structures and unions help in organizing complex data
 Choosing the right data type is critical for efficiency

📚 Type Conversions in C

(Full Theory for Exam)

✨ Definition:

Type Conversion in C refers to the process of changing one

data type into another during computation. It allows variables
of different types to participate in expressions and ensures
correct and meaningful results.

This can happen either automatically by the compiler or

manually by the programmer.

🌸 Why is Type Conversion Needed?

 To perform operations between different data types (e.g.,

int and float)
 To avoid data loss or errors
 To ensure accurate results in calculations
 To match expected types in functions or expressions

🔰 Types of Type Conversions in C:

C supports two main types of type conversions:

1️⃣ Implicit Type Conversion (Automatic Type Conversion)

2️⃣ Explicit Type Conversion (Type Casting)

Let’s explain both in detail below.

1️⃣ Implicit Type Conversion (Automatic)

🔹 This is performed automatically by the compiler.

🔹 It occurs when different data types are mixed in an
expression.
🔹 The compiler converts smaller types to larger types (data
promotion) to avoid data loss.

🔁 Conversion Hierarchy (Promotion Rule):

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char → int → float → double

💡 Example:

int a = 10;
float b = 5.5;
float result = a + b; // a is converted to float automatically

Here, a (int) is promoted to float before addition.

🧠 Key Rules of Implicit Conversion:

  Lower to higher precision (e.g., int to float)
 If any operand is double, others are converted to double
 char and short are always converted to int before
processing

2️⃣ Explicit Type Conversion (Type Casting)

🔹 This is manually done by the programmer

🔹 It is called type casting
🔹 It’s used when you want to forcefully convert a value from
one type to another

🖊️Syntax:

(data_type) expression;

💡 Example:

float result;
int a = 7, b = 2;

result = (float) a / b; // Output: 3.5

Here, a is cast to float, so the division gives a floating-point

result instead of integer division.

🚫 Without Type Casting:

int result = 7 / 2; // Output: 3 (not 3.5)

So, type casting is necessary to get the desired precision.

🌟 Comparison: Implicit vs Explicit Conversion

Feature Implicit Conversion Explicit Conversion

Who performs it? Compiler Programmer
Control Automatic Manual
Syntax No extra syntax Uses (type) before value
Example int + float → float (float) int / int
Risk Safer May cause data loss

⚠️Precautions in Type Conversion:

 Type casting from float to int causes loss of precision

 Type casting from larger to smaller type may cause
overflow or truncation
 Always ensure logical correctness when using type casting

🧠 Important Interview/Exam Points:

1. Type conversion allows mixing of different data types in

expressions.
2. Implicit conversion is done automatically by compiler.
3. Explicit conversion is done using type casting syntax.
4. Type conversion helps in getting accurate results (e.g., in
division).
5. Always follow the promotion rule: char → int → float →
double.
 6. Typecasting can prevent wrong outputs when working
with mixed data types.
7. Useful when calling functions with specific data type
parameters.
8. Can save or waste memory, so use wisely.
9. Helps avoid compiler warnings and logical bugs.
10. Not all type conversions are safe (e.g., double to int
loses data).

📘 Header Files in C

✨ Definition:

A Header File in C is a file with a .h extension that contains

function declarations, macro definitions, and constants that
can be shared and reused across multiple C programs.

Header files help to organize code and make it modular and

readable.

💡 Purpose of Header Files:

1. To reuse code (especially library functions)

2. To provide function prototypes before use
3. To include predefined macros, constants, and data types
4. To avoid rewriting code in every program
5. To allow modular programming using separate files
🧾 How to Include a Header File:

We use the #include preprocessor directive to add header files

in our program.

📌 Syntax:

#include <headerfile.h> // For standard library headers

#include "myheader.h" // For user-defined headers

📂 Types of Header Files in C:

1️⃣ Standard Library Header Files

These are built-in header files provided by the C compiler. They

contain function declarations for input/output, string handling,
memory management, math operations, etc.

✅ Examples:

Header File Use

#include
Input/output functions like printf(), scanf()
<stdio.h>
#include Console I/O functions like getch(), clrscr()
<conio.h> (Turbo C)
#include
General utilities like malloc(), exit()
<stdlib.h>
#include String functions like strlen(), strcpy()
 Header File Use
<string.h>
#include
Math functions like sqrt(), pow()
<math.h>
#include
Character testing like isalpha(), isdigit()
<ctype.h>
#include <time.h>Time-related functions

2️⃣ User-Defined Header Files

These are created by programmers to include custom function

declarations or macros that are reused across multiple source
files.

✅ Example:

1. Create a file myfunctions.h:

void greet(); // function prototype

2. Include it in your C program:

#include "myfunctions.h"

void greet() {
printf("Hello, Nitin!\n");
}

⚙️Working of Header Files:

When the compiler sees #include, it copies the entire content
of the header file into the program before compilation (known
as pre-processing).

🧠 Why Use Header Files?

 Helps in code separation and modularity

 Makes programs easier to maintain
 Reduces errors due to centralized declaration
 Allows you to write once, use many times

🔄 Difference: Standard vs User-Defined Header Files

Feature Standard Header File User-Defined Header File

Provided by Compiler Programmer
File extension .h .h
Accessed using < > ""
Example <stdio.h> "myheader.h"
Contains Built-in functions Custom declarations

📌 Important Points to Remember:

1. Header files have a .h extension

2. Always include necessary header files at the top of the C
program
 3. Avoid multiple inclusions of the same header file using
header guards (#ifndef, #define, #endif)
4. Helps in collaborative projects where code is spread
across files
5. Speeds up development by not writing the same code
repeatedly

📘 Compilation in C Programming

(Complete 15-Mark Theory with All Related Topics)

✨ What is Compilation?

Compilation is the process of converting human-readable C

code (source code) into machine-readable code (object code
or executable file). This process is done by a compiler.

💡 A compiler is a special software that checks your code for

errors and then translates it into something your computer can
understand and execute.

🔁 Full Compilation Process (Step-by-Step Phases)

C programs go through multiple stages during compilation.

Let’s break it down:
1️⃣ Preprocessing

 The preprocessor handles lines starting with #, like

#include and #define.
 It includes header files and replaces macros.

✅ Output: Cleaned source code with all macros replaced.

2️⃣ Compilation

 The compiler checks syntax errors, converts the

preprocessed code into assembly code.

✅ Output: Assembly code (low-level code close to machine

code).

3️⃣ Assembly

 The assembler translates assembly code into object code

(machine language, but not yet executable).

✅ Output: .o or .obj file (object file).

4️⃣ Linking

 The linker combines object files and libraries (like printf()

from stdio.h) into one executable program.

✅ Output: Final .exe (Windows) or binary executable (Linux)

📂 Files Involved During Compilation:

 Stage File Type Description
Source Code .c Your original code
Preprocessed Code .i After handling # directives
Assembly Code .s Low-level version
Object Code .o / .obj Machine code without linking
Final file that can run on
Executable File .exe / out
computer

⚙️Diagram to Show Compilation Process (For Exam)

C Source Code (.c)

↓
Preprocessor → (.i file)
↓
Compiler → (.s file)
↓
Assembler → (.o file)
↓
Linker → Executable (.exe)

✅ Why is Compilation Important?

 It detects syntax errors before running the program.

 Converts your code into a format that the computer can
execute efficiently.
 Links necessary functions from libraries (printf, scanf, etc.).
 Creates a single executable file to run your program.
🚨 Common Compilation Errors:

Error Type Example Reason

Syntax Error Missing ; or {} Wrong C language rules
Undeclared Using a variable not Forgot to declare the
Var declared variable
Type Assigning float to int
Incompatible types
Mismatch wrongly
Missing Using printf() without Compiler doesn't know
Header stdio.h function

🛠️Tools Used for Compilation:

 Turbo C / Turbo C++ (older)

 GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) – very popular
 Code::Blocks, DevC++, Visual Studio – IDEs that include
compilers

 A compiler is different from an interpreter. An interpreter

executes code line-by-line, whereas a compiler translates the
whole program first.

 Compilation is faster at runtime because the code is already

converted to machine language.
 Compilation is platform-specific. An .exe for Windows won't
run on Linux without re-compiling.

📘 Object Code and Executable Code in C Programming

(Full 15-Marks Theory with Diagrams, Definitions & Examples)

🧠 1. What is Object Code?

Object code is the intermediate file generated by the compiler

after converting your C source code (.c) into machine-level
code that your CPU understands — but it’s not yet ready to run
until it’s linked.

📌 Key Points:

 It’s not a complete program yet — it needs linking with

other code (like library functions).
 File extension is usually .obj (Windows) or .o (Linux/GCC).
 It contains binary instructions that correspond to the
original source code.
 Generated after compilation, before linking.

📂 Example:

You write:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello");
 return 0;
}

After compilation:
You get an object file, like main.o — it contains binary code for
the part you wrote, but not for printf().

💻 2. What is Executable Code?

Executable code is the final file that is ready to run on the

computer — created after the linking step where the object
code is combined with required libraries.

📌 Key Points:

 This is the final product of the entire compilation process.

 Includes: Your code + standard library code (printf, scanf,
etc.).
 Extension: .exe (Windows) or no extension (Linux).
 When you double-click or run this file, your program
executes.

🔄 From Source Code to Executable: Flowchart

C Source Code (.c)

↓
Compiler
↓
Object Code (.o / .obj)
 ↓
Linker (adds library code)
↓
Executable File (.exe or binary)

📊 Differences Between Object Code and Executable Code

Feature Object Code Executable Code

Intermediate
File Type Final runnable file
compiled code
.exe or no extension
File Extension .o or .obj
(Linux)
Created By Compiler Linker
Ready to Run? ❌ No ✅ Yes
Includes ✅ Yes, includes libraries
❌ No, only your code
Libraries? like stdio
Not editable (machine
Editable? Not directly editable
format)
Usage Needed for linking Used to run the program

🛠️Why are Object & Executable Code Important?

 Object Code allows modular programming — compile

different files separately.
 Executable Code is the final version that user or system
can run.
  Separating these steps makes large projects manageable
and faster to compile.

🔍 Practical Example (Real-World Analogy):

Let’s say you’re building a pizza 🍕:

 🍅 Ingredients + raw dough = C Source Code

 🔥 Cooking dough in oven = Compiling to Object Code
 🧀 Adding toppings and baking fully = Linking to Executable
Code
 🍽️Ready to serve and eat pizza = Final Executable

🧠 What is an Error in Programming?

An error is any mistake in the program that prevents it from

running correctly or compiling successfully. Errors can occur
due to incorrect syntax, wrong logic, improper input, or
unexpected conditions.

🌟 Main Types of Errors in C:

🔹 1. Syntax Errors

These occur when the programmer breaks the rules of the C

language grammar.

 Detected during compilation.

 The compiler shows error messages with line numbers.
🧾 Examples:

int main() {
printf("Hello World") // Missing semicolon → Syntax error
return 0
}

❌ Common Causes:

 Missing semicolon ;
 Unmatched brackets {}, ()
 Misspelled keywords (pritnf instead of printf)
 Incorrect use of data types

🔹 2. Logical Errors

These errors occur when the program runs without crashing,

but gives wrong output due to a mistake in logic.

 Not detected by compiler.

 You must manually debug or test outputs to find them.

🧾 Example:

int a = 5, b = 10;
printf("Sum = %d", a - b); // Logical error: should be a + b

❗ Logical errors are the hardest to find because the program

looks fine and runs, but does the wrong thing.

🔹 3. Runtime Errors
These happen while the program is running, often due to
illegal operations (like division by zero or invalid memory
access).

 Detected only during execution.

 Can cause the program to crash or behave abnormally.

🧾 Example:

int a = 10, b = 0;
printf("%d", a / b); // Runtime Error: Division by zero

🔹 4. Linker Errors

Occur when the program is compiled but the linker fails to

resolve function names or variables.

 Happens when a function is declared but not defined.

🧾 Example:

void fun(); // Declared

int main() {
fun(); // Called
}
// No definition for fun() → Linker Error

Arithmetic Expressions and Precedence in C Programming

🔹 Definition:
An arithmetic expression in C is a combination of variables,
constants, and operators that results in a numerical value.
These expressions are used to perform basic mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, and modulus.

🔹 Types of Arithmetic Operators in C:

Operator Symbol Example Description

Addition + a+b Adds two operands
Subtracts second operand from
Subtraction - a-b
first
Multiplication * a*b Multiplies both operands
Divides numerator by
Division / a/b
denominator
Returns remainder after
Modulus % a%b
division

🔸 Note: % is only used with integers, not with float or double.

🔹 Example of an Arithmetic Expression:

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int a = 10, b = 5, c = 2;
int result = a + b * c; // result = 10 + (5 * 2) = 20
Precedence and Associativity of Operators

🔹 What is Precedence?

Operator precedence determines which operator is evaluated

first when multiple operators appear in a single expression.

🔹 What is Associativity?

Associativity decides the direction in which operators of the

same precedence level are evaluated.

🔹 Operator Precedence Table (Important):

Precedence Level Operators Associativity

Highest () (parentheses) Left to Right
++, --, +, - (unary) Right to Left
*, /, % Left to Right
+, - Left to Right
= (assignment) Right to Left
Lowest , Left to Right

🔹 Example with Precedence and Associativity:

int result = 10 + 20 * 2;
// According to precedence: 20 * 2 = 40, then 10 + 40 = 50
c
int result = (10 + 20) * 2;
// Parentheses change the order: 30 * 2 = 60

🌟 What is a Preprocessor?

A preprocessor is a program that processes your code before it

is compiled by the compiler.
It handles all the preprocessor directives, which are lines in
your code that start with the # symbol.

➡️Think of it like a “setup phase” before compilation begins.

🔹 Types of Preprocessor Directives in C

1. #define

Used to define constants or macros.

#define PI 3.14159
#define SQUARE(x) ((x)*(x))

2. #include

Tells the compiler to include contents of another file.

#include <stdio.h> // System header file

#include "myfile.h" // User-defined header file
 3. #undef

Undefines a macro.

#undef PI

4. #ifdef, #ifndef, #if, #else, #elif, #endif

Used for conditional compilation.

#define DEBUG

#ifdef DEBUG
printf("Debugging is ON\n");
#endif

📌 Role of the Preprocessor

Before compiling:

 It replaces macros.
 It includes files.
 It removes comments.
 It conditionally compiles code based on defined macros.

🧠 Example: What Preprocessor Does

#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14
#define AREA(r) (PI * r * r)

int main() {
 float area = AREA(5);
printf("Area is: %f\n", area);
return 0;
}

👉 The preprocessor expands this before compiling:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
float area = (3.14 * 5 * 5);
printf("Area is: %f\n", area);
return 0;
}

🎯 Why Use a Preprocessor?

✅ To make code modular and easier to manage

✅ To handle platform-specific or debug-specific code
✅ To create reusable macros
✅ To manage dependencies via header files

🌟 What are Conditional and Branching Statements?

Conditional and Branching Statements are used to make

decisions in a program. They allow the program to choose
different paths of execution based on certain conditions.

📌 In simple words:
“If something is true, do this. Otherwise, do something else.”

🔹 Types of Conditional and Branching Statements

1. if Statement

 The most basic decision-making statement.

 If the condition is true, the block of code is executed.

✅ Syntax:
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if (condition) {
// code to execute if condition is true
}
✅ Example:
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int age = 20;
if (age >= 18) {
printf("You are eligible to vote.\n");
}

2. if-else Statement

 Adds an alternate path when the condition is false.

✅ Syntax:
c
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if (condition) {
// executes if condition is true
} else {
// executes if condition is false
}
✅ Example:
c
int age = 15;
if (age >= 18) {
printf("You are eligible to vote.\n");
} else {
printf("You are NOT eligible to vote.\n");
}

3. if-else if-else Ladder

 Used when you need to test multiple conditions.

✅ Syntax:
if (condition1) {
// code
} else if (condition2) {
// code
} else {
// code
}
✅ Example:
int marks = 75;
if (marks >= 90) {
printf("Grade: A\n");
} else if (marks >= 75) {
printf("Grade: B\n");
} else {
printf("Grade: C\n");
}

4. Nested if Statement

 You can place one if statement inside another.

✅ Example:
int age = 25;
int hasID = 1;

if (age >= 18) {

if (hasID) {
printf("Entry allowed.\n");
} else {
printf("ID required.\n");
}
}

5. switch Statement

 Used to replace multiple if-else-if statements when

checking for equality.

✅ Syntax:
switch (expression) {
case value1:
// code
 break;
case value2:
// code
break;
default:
// code
}
✅ Example:
int day = 3;
switch (day) {
case 1: printf("Monday\n"); break;
case 2: printf("Tuesday\n"); break;
case 3: printf("Wednesday\n"); break;
default: printf("Invalid day\n");
}

🧠 Key Points

Statement Use When

if One condition to check
if-else Two paths (true/false)
if-else if Multiple conditions to check
nested if Check conditions inside another
switch Many values of the same variable

🌟 What are Unconditional Statements?

Unconditional statements are those that allow a program to
jump from one part of the code to another without checking
any condition.

📌 In simple words:

They change the flow of execution directly, without any

condition.

🔹 Types of Unconditional Statements in C:

1. goto Statement
2. break Statement
3. continue Statement
4. return Statement

Some of these (like break, continue, return) are also considered

control flow statements.

🔸 2. break Statement

Used to exit a loop or switch statement immediately.

✅ Example:
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for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
if (i == 3) break;
printf("%d ", i);
}
// Output: 1 2
It jumps out of the loop when i == 3.

🔸 3. continue Statement

Skips the current iteration of a loop and jumps to the next one.

✅ Example:
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for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
if (i == 3) continue;
printf("%d ", i);
}
// Output: 1 2 4 5

🔸 4. return Statement

Used to exit a function and optionally return a value to the

caller.

✅ Example:
c
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#include <stdio.h>
int sum(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}

int main() {
int result = sum(5, 10);
 printf("Sum = %d\n", result);
return 0;
}

🎯 Key Difference: Conditional vs Unconditional

Conditional Unconditional
Feature
Statement Statement
Based on a
Yes (if, switch) No
test
Controls flow Based on logic Direct jump
Use Case Decisions Loops exit, function exit

🌟 What is an Array?

An array is a collection of similar data types stored at

contiguous memory locations.
It allows us to store multiple values in a single variable.

📌 In simple words:

"An array is like a row or table of elements where each value

has a specific position."

🔹 1-D (One-Dimensional) Array

A 1-D array stores a list of values in a single row (linear form).

✅ Declaration:

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data_type array_name[size];

✅ Example:

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int numbers[5]; // stores 5 integers
✅ Initialization:

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int numbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

🔁 Accessing Elements:

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printf("%d", numbers[2]); // Output: 30 (index starts at 0)

🔁 Looping through 1-D array:

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for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", numbers[i]);
}
🔸 Memory Representation of 1-D Array

Let’s say:

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int a[3] = {5, 10, 15};

It will be stored like this:

Index Value
0 5
1 10
2 15

🔹 2-D (Two-Dimensional) Array

A 2-D array stores elements in rows and columns — like a

matrix or table.

✅ Declaration:

c
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data_type array_name[row][column];

✅ Example:

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int matrix[2][3]; // 2 rows, 3 columns

✅ Initialization:
c
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int matrix[2][3] = {
{1, 2, 3},
{4, 5, 6}
};

🔁 Accessing 2-D Array Elements:

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printf("%d", matrix[1][2]); // Output: 6

🔁 Looping through 2-D Array:

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for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
printf("%d ", matrix[i][j]);
}
printf("\n");
}

🔸 Memory Representation of 2-D Array

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int a[2][2] = {
{1, 2},
 {3, 4}
};

Memory layout in row-major order:

Address (Index) Value

a[0][0] 1
a[0][1] 2
a[1][0] 3
a[1][1] 4

🛠️Common Operations on Arrays

Operation Description
Traversal Access each element using a loop
Insertion Add value at specific index
Deletion Remove value (by shifting elements)
Search Find element by value or index
Update Change element’s value at a specific index

🧠 Array Indexing Rules

 Index always starts from 0
 array[n] means it has indexes from 0 to n-1
 Accessing out-of-bound index leads to garbage value or
crash

🔍 Real-Life Examples

1. 1-D Arrays: Store marks of students

c
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int marks[5] = {88, 92, 75, 64, 90};

2. 2-D Arrays: Store timetable, chessboard, matrix operations

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int timetable[7][5]; // 7 days, 5 lectures

✍️Summary Table

Feature 1-D Array 2-D Array

Table / Matrix (rows ×
Shape Linear list
columns)
Syntax a[n] a[m][n]
Access
a[2] a[1][2]
Example
Simple data like marks,
Usage Matrices, tables, grids
prices

🌟 1-D Array Address Calculation

Let’s say:

c
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int a[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

🧮 Formula for 1-D Array Address:

txt
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LOC(a[i]) = Base_Address + i × Size_of_Data_Type

✅ Example:

Assume:

 Base address a[0] = 1000

 Size of int = 4 bytes
 Find the address of a[3]:
txt
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LOC(a[3]) = 1000 + 3 × 4 = 1000 + 12 = 1012

🧠 Output:

 a[0] → 1000
 a[1] → 1004
 a[2] → 1008
 a[3] → 1012
 a[4] → 1016

📌 Each element takes 4 bytes (for int).

🔹 2-D Array Address Calculation

✅ Declaration:

c
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int b[3][4]; // 3 rows and 4 columns

🧮 Formula for 2-D Arrays (Row-Major Order — used in C):

txt
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LOC(b[i][j]) = Base_Address + [i × Number_of_Columns + j] ×
Size_of_Data_Type

✅ Example:

Let:

 Base address b[0][0] = 2000

 int size = 4 bytes
 Find address of b[2][1] in b[3][4]

txt
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LOC(b[2][1]) = 2000 + [(2 × 4) + 1] × 4
= 2000 + [8 + 1] × 4
= 2000 + 9 × 4
= 2000 + 36
= 2036

🧠 Real Layout of b[3][4] (Row-major):

Index Formula Index Address (if base = 2000)

b[0][0] 0 × 4 + 0 = 0 2000
b[0][1] 0 × 4 + 1 = 1 2004
b[0][2] 0 × 4 + 2 = 2 2008
 Index Formula Index Address (if base = 2000)
b[1][0] 1 × 4 + 0 = 4 2016
b[2][1] 2 × 4 + 1 = 9 2036

💡 Bonus: Column-Major (used in Fortran, not C)

In column-major, formula is:

txt
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LOC(b[i][j]) = Base_Address + [j × Number_of_Rows + i] × Size

But in C, we always use row-major 💻

📌 Summary Table

Feature 1-D Array 2-D Array (Row-Major)

Base + [(i × columns) + j] ×
Formula Base + i × size
size
Example a[3] = Base + 3 × b[2][1] = Base + (2×cols + 1)
Addressing 4 ×4
Memory layout Linear Linear (row after row)
Default storage
Row-major Row-major
type

🌟 What is a Character Array?

A character array is a collection of characters stored in
contiguous memory locations — like 'a', 'b', 'c', etc.

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char name[6] = {'N', 'i', 't', 'i', 'n', '\0'};

The last character '\0' is null character, used to indicate the end
of the string.

🌟 What is a String in C?

A string is a character array that ends with '\0' (null character).

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char name[] = "Nitin";

It’s automatically stored as:

arduino
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'N' 'i' 't' 'i' 'n' '\0'

🧠 Key Differences: Character Array vs String

Character Array String

Just an array of characters Character array + '\0' null terminator
No string functions apply Can use string handling functions
 Character Array String
Manual size management Easier with \0 to find end

🧪 Declaring and Initializing Strings

✅ Method 1: Character by Character

c
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char name[6] = {'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0'};
✅ Method 2: String Literal (Preferred)

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char name[] = "Hello";

📥 Taking String Input

✅ Using scanf() (no spaces)

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char str[20];
scanf("%s", str);

⚠️Stops at first space.

✅ Using gets() (allows spaces — NOT SAFE)

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char str[50];
gets(str); // Not recommended in modern C

✅ Using fgets() (safe)

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fgets(str, sizeof(str), stdin);

📤 Printing Strings
✅ Using printf():

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printf("%s", str);

💖 Common String Functions (from <string.h>)

Function Purpose Example

Returns length (excluding
strlen(str) strlen("Hello") → 5
\0)
strcpy(s1, s2) Copies s2 into s1 strcpy(a, "Hi")
strcat(s1, s2) Appends s2 to end of s1 strcat(a, " there")
strcmp("abc", "abc")
strcmp(s1, s2) Compares two strings
→0
strupr() / Converts to Non-standard but
strlwr() upper/lowercase useful
📊 Memory Layout Example

c
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char str[] = "Hi";
Index Value
0 'H'
1 'i'
2 '\0'

📘 Real-life Example

💡 Store and print your name:

c
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main() {
char name[50];
printf("Enter your name: ");
fgets(name, sizeof(name), stdin);
printf("Hello, %s", name);
return 0;
}

📌 Summary Table
 Feature Character Array String
Data Type char char + '\0'
scanf, gets,
Input Same
fgets
Ends With Any character Always ends with '\0'
Use with Fully supported (strlen,
Limited
Functions etc.)
🔶 Q: What happens if malloc(), calloc(), or realloc() fails to
allocate memory? How can you handle such situations?

✅ Introduction to Dynamic Memory Allocation

In C programming, dynamic memory allocation allows a program to request memory from the heap at
runtime using functions like:

 malloc() – Memory Allocation

 calloc() – Contiguous Allocation
 realloc() – Re-allocation
 free() – Deallocation

These functions are declared in the header file:

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#include <stdlib.h>

✅ What Happens When Allocation Fails?

When malloc(), calloc(), or realloc() fails to allocate memory (usually due to insufficient
memory available in the heap), they return a NULL pointer.

🔸 Syntax Example:
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int *ptr;
ptr = (int*) malloc(100 * sizeof(int));

if (ptr == NULL) {
printf("Memory allocation failed!\n");
// Handle error
}
🔸 Similar for calloc():
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ptr = (int*) calloc(100, sizeof(int));
🔸 And realloc():
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int *new_ptr = realloc(ptr, 200 * sizeof(int));
if (new_ptr == NULL) {
// realloc failed
}

✅ Why Memory Allocation Might Fail?

1. 🔹 System has insufficient memory (RAM).

2. 🔹 Heap memory is fragmented.
3. 🔹 Requesting an excessively large amount of memory.
4. 🔹 Program bug causing repeated or unfreed allocations.
5. 🔹 Operating system constraints (e.g., limits on process memory).

✅ How to Handle Such Failures?

✅ 1. Always Check the Returned Pointer

Always verify whether the returned pointer is NULL.

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int *ptr = (int*) malloc(50 * sizeof(int));
if (ptr == NULL) {
 printf("Allocation failed. Exiting safely...\n");
exit(1); // Or return an error
}
✅ 2. Use exit() or Return Gracefully

If memory fails, do not continue using the pointer. Exit or return from the function safely.

✅ 3. Free Unnecessary Memory

Deallocate unused memory using free() before allocating again.

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free(ptr);
✅ 4. Use realloc() with Temporary Pointer

Never assign realloc() result directly to the original pointer—use a temporary pointer.

c
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int *temp = realloc(ptr, new_size);
if (temp != NULL) {
ptr = temp;
} else {
// Handle reallocation failure
}
✅ 5. Log or Notify the User

Inform the user or log the error to help in debugging or recovery.

✅ Example: Handling malloc Failure

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#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main() {
int *arr = (int*) malloc(1000000000 * sizeof(int)); // Large allocation

if (arr == NULL) {
printf("Error: Memory allocation failed!\n");
return 1; // Exit safely
}

// Use the allocated memory

arr[0] = 10;
printf("First element: %d\n", arr[0]);

// Free memory
free(arr);
 return 0;
}

✅ Conclusion

In C programming, failure to allocate memory using malloc(), calloc(), or realloc() results in a

NULL pointer. If not handled properly, this can lead to segmentation faults, crashes, or unpredictable
behavior. Always check for NULL, handle errors gracefully, and free memory when no longer needed.

Handling such scenarios carefully is crucial in system-level and embedded programming, where memory
is limited and program stability is critical.