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ALPHA
A member of Penguin Group (USA) Inc.
ALPHA BOOKS
Published by the Penguin Group
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Copyright © 2006 by W. Michael Kelley

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B4E
31 430N9UAA
515.276 Kelley
. 7
Kelley, W- Michael
s book ©
The humongou :
lus probie
for peop te who
Ce atabed
don’t speak math
Contents

Introduction ix

Chapter 1: Linear Equations and Inequalities Pveblems containing x to the fivst power J
Linear Geometry ....c.c.00004: Creating, graphing, ana measuring lines and line segments oo. 2
Linear Inequalities and Interval Notation ...S°°Ab Ye£44 sign, hello paveutheses and brackets, 5
Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities ............ Solve two things for the price of one 8
Systems of Equations and Inequalities........... EA. crcovaunce SOIMTON. eee We ee ee oe i

Chapter 2: Polynomials Because you can't have exponents of | fovever 15

Exponential and Radical Expressions ..... POWEYS AMA, SAWAVE VOOKS a csescseseseseeees 16
Operations on Polynomial Expressions ...AAA, Swotract, multifly, ama divide polynomials 18
Factoring Polynomials .......0.00++. Reverse the multiplication
process oo ssssessseussoeens 21
Solving Quadratic Equations ......Eauations that havea highest exponent
of2, 23

Chapter 3: Rational Expressions Fractions, fractions, and move fractions 27

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions .Remewiver the least common Aenominator? 98
Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions.. Multiplying= easy, aividing = almost as easy 30)
Solving Rational Equations ....1EX€ COMES <voss,PAA ARS Oe eee ates: 33
Polynomial and Rational Inequalities.. Critical numbers break wp your mumiber Time, ao

Chapter 4: Functions Now you'll stavt seeing f(x) all over the place 41
Combining Functions........09 the vsual 7 7.2),7).0r plug ew inte each other 42
Graphing Function Transformations ...... Stretches, squishes, lips, ana sliAes ae 45
aera FaarotaatNttas nes CM SEENS ENA RANGE! Ob UNG EGS CON 8 pnnsncvinn
ovnce50
Asymptotes of Rational Functions....Eavations.of
theuntouchable Aoktea Mime ee 53

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Table of Contents
pe

Chapter 5: Logarithmic and Exponential Functions Functions like log, x In x, 4, ana e° 57

Exploring Exponential and Logarithmic Functions....... Hawness alllHares] POWENS..... eee I8
Natural Exponential and Logarithmic Functions .Bases of. 2,.ana change. of.pase. formula. 62
Properties of Logarithms .......... Expanding ama sauishing log. exer esstous. 0. cccceeeeseeeeeeeeees 63
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations .Exronents. ana legs. cancel each other. cub... 66

Chapter 6: Conic Sections Pavalbolas, civcles, ellipses, anA hyperbolas 69

Parabolas ....... QYARWS. OF. AUAAVAHIC. CAWUATIONS. cece ceccceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees coe aiiet see
ed Gan 70
CUALES omar Center. t.YAAIUs.= volund. shapes. aud. carsy pyalews 00... ceeeeessseeceseseeeeeeeee
ees 76
Ellipses ....c.000.. FAWN Word For LOVAIS | oo SY 2 Mo cca stth ck chess acl Rear eee ee 79
Hyperbolas...... Tweranwned. panaodlarlacking AWings......ccccccceccceeeeeseeeees Bie orcndc wes cea hee 85

Chapter 7: Fundamentals of Trigonometry !ject sive, cosine, and tangent inte the mix — 9]
Measuring Angles..... RAMANS, ASGveeS, AMA VEVNATIOMS osc cceccceeeseneeseeeseeseaeereneesees 92
Angle Relationships .......Cokerminal, complementary, ana supplementary angles oo... 93
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions......... Right triangle trig, ana vefevence angles... 9
Inverse Trigonometric Functions ...... {Meat a wamioer and ourpur an, angle fora change... 102

: : Se : i tous ana identity proots

Chapter 8: Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations pe 105
Graphing Trigonometric Transformations........ Stretch and Shith wavy gees. oe. 106
Applying Trigonometric Identities ..... Simply expressions
ana prove iAentities a, 110
Solving Trigonometric Equations ............ solve for Oiuskeaia
ob2° 0 v. aey.2 ol vipa i>

Chapter 9: Investigating Limits What height does the function INTEND to veach? 123
Evaluating One-Sided and General Limits Graphically ....£'%A Nwaits on a function graph 124
Limits and Infinity ...c.c.c.0 what: happenswhen xov £00) gets Wugel’: Oe ae... 129
Formal Definition of the Limit ....EpsiowAelta problems ave no Pun ata ee 134

Chapter 10: Evaluating Limits Calculate limits without a graph of the function 137
Substitution Method.......... AS GASy a8: PIMGAING IA TONS crt ee} RE 138
Factoring Method .......... The sivst thing to try if substitution Ageswt work ie 141
Conjugate Method.......... Break this out to Aeal with troublesome radicals a. 146
Special Limit Theorems .... Limit Bormulas you should mewovit’ a sceageeaeeresen 149

iv The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Table of Contents
II aeSea ee

Chapter 11: Continuity and the Difference Quotient — \*’”eakable graphs 151
Continuity
mit
..........
exists +function ACHMeA
.. = COMMIOUS a csceeseeee ie
Types of Discontinuity...
elesvs: breaks, remoyaiole vs. monremovannle 153
The Difference Quotient .......0A€, longway’ to Find the derivative 163
exis
Differentiability ........... Pen esAudeyNatiN e ony Math cn166
|p munleAmann,
Chapter 12: Basic Differentiation Methods he four heavy hitters for finding Aevivatives 169

FOES Reem eee Hee Meee EEE HEHEHE THEE EEE EE EEE EEE EEEEES EEE EHHE APOE EH Hee EEE EE EEEEEEEEEEE EE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEES

SOPHO EHH HEHEHE EEE HEE EEE EE EEEH EHH EES EHH OEE EE HD OH EHH EE EEE SHEE EEE EEE HEED

See HHT HHT OHHH EHH HEHE E EEE HSEEEE SESE HEHEHE SHETHMYRA THESE HH ET EEESH HET HEHE DOSES EEEE SESE EEE E EES

Critical Numbers .....0.000000: Numbers hak break

upwiggle QraPls oo scscsssssssccnseeeeeees 188
Signs of the First Derivative........ Use. wiggle, graphs bo, Aekermine, function Aivection....... 191
Signs of the Second Derivative ..........! Points. of inflection AMA. CONCAMILY. ...cecececeteeteteeees 197
Function and Derivative Graphs...... How. ave. Ee gvarhs of £.F,.and 2) velakeae cee. 202

Chapter 14: Basic Applications of Differentiation Put your Aevivatives skills touse 205
Equations of Tangent Lines..Peint.of. kangency.t Aevivative = equation of tangewk eee 206
The Extreme Value Theorem .......... Every function has its highs ana lows oo eee 211
Newton’s Method ....Sivple. Aevivatives. caw agproximate the zevoes of a function oo... 214
LH6pital’s Rule........ Fa Nits thak used bo. we impossiple. oc eceseeseeeeeeeseeeeseeeeeeees 218

Chapter 15: Advanced Applications of Differentiation ricky put mterest™9 uses Pov aa 3-
The Mean Value and Rolle’s Theorems...... Average slopes. =. instant. slopes... ccccccceeeeeeeeees 224
Rectilinear Motion.......! Position, velocity, and accelevartion PUMCHONS ooo cc ceeeeeeeees 229
Related Rates......Figuye out how quickly the yawiables change imaFunction oo ee 233
Optimization. ...........£MA the biggest ov smallest values of 1 PUMC HOM a eeeeeeee 240

Implicit Differentiation ........... Essential when you cant solve a function for yi. 248
Logarithmic Differentiation Use leg properties to make complex Aevivatives easier 255
Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions Cause the derivative of tan! x aint sec’ x... 260
Differentiating Inverse Functions........... Without even knowing what they ave! 262

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Table of Contents
pa

Chapter 17: Approximating Area Estimate the area between a curve and the xaxis 269
Informal Riemann Sums..........++ Left, vight, midpoint; upper, ana lower SUMS eee 270
Trapezoidal Rule ........: Similay to Riemann sums uk manch move ACCWATE oe eeeeeesees 281
Simpson’s Rule .........+. Apevoximat es curvy functions reallly well
avea beneath 289
Formal Riemann Sums........+: Youll weaktepoles volunUs OOS iiss, anasto ereeeteeredteet 291
Chapter 18: Integration Now the devivative’s not the answer, it’s the question 297
Power Rule for Integration ...AAA.|.ke.the, exronent and Aivide by the new. power. ............ 298
Trig integrals lock nothing like trig Aevivatives
Integrating Trigonometric and Exponential FUNCTIONS... ......cccccccssnseseenececeensseenecseeeenuneeseess 301
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus......lwregration.ana aren ave clesely.velated........ 303
Substitution of Variables ......... Usually called Usupstitution. eens CEAah 313
)
Chapter 19: Applications of the Fundamental Theorem Things to Ao with Aefinite mtedSrg
Calculating the Area Between Two Curves ......\astead,of just.a Eunction ana the xaxis... 320
The Mean Value Theorem for Integration Rectanaular avea matches the aven peneath a curve 326
Accumulation Functions and Accumulated Change ..keava's withx Nuits ana Tveal life!uses, 334

Chapter 20: Integrating Rational Expressions — Fractions inside the integral 343
Separation ........ Make one big ugly fraction into, smalley less Ugly Mes. oo ccceseseeeeeees 344
Long Division ........00004 Divide petore you lnkeguake (ee een ee ee 347
Applying Inverse Trigonometric Functions ..Nexy, useful, ut only, in certain civcumstances 350)
Completing the Square.... Fox quadvatics, Aown pelow, ana no vawiadlles
We oP... cceesceeees 353
Partial Fractions......... Afancy way to break Aown Wig, EYACHOMS oo cccccececssseeseseeeeees JF

Chapter 21: Advanced Integration Techniques Even move ways to find integrals 363
Integration by Parts ........ It'slikethe product
vule, putfov inkegvas a ceeeeees 364
Trigonometric Substitution ....VSing iAentities ana little vight tviangle Aiagrams 368
Improper Integrals ..... wtegrating Aespite asymptotes ana infinite poundawies 383

Chapter 22: Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume 7° P* % Yeu 3-D glasses at this rw". 99
Volume of a Solid with Known Cross-Sections
Cut. the selia inte rieces and measure these instead. 390
Disc Method......Gwsles. ane, the, easiest possible
VossSECHONS oc cccecsecseeneesessseseens oo)
Washer Method ........Fiad volumes even if the ‘soli! ave $l cccessesesseeeeees 406
Shell Method........ Something te Fallpack on when the washer methoa Pails i... 417

vi
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Table of Contents

Chapter 23: Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals Pere Rovded iteara provlevtss
Arc Length... How Sacisiertei pebinel KegeinBinlong a curvy TOMAT 9 sulk, 424
the ‘skin’ of oxvokationall SMA cesscecsssececevsecececeeeenens 427
Surface Area ....Measuve
Centroids.............EMA the, center of gravity Pov a two-Aimensional Ware oc ceceeeees 432

Chapter 24: Parametric and Polar Equations Writing equations without x and y 443

Parametric Equations...... ike veyolutionavies im Boston Hawlpoy,

just AAA Koo cesses 444
Polar Coordinates .......+... eer romeltey) Fo le 0)and Vice Versa) oe ye ne 448
Graphing Polar Curves............ YARN With
vand 8 inskead oF KAMA Yl ceueeee
SHORT EHH EE HEHEHE HEHEHE ETH HEEEEHEHE EEE HH ESEEHEEEEES

eee reer seseslieseeseeeeeresseeee

Chapter 25: Differential Equations Equations that contain a Aevivative 467

Separation of Variables ............ Separate the y's and ay's from thex's amd Axs a, 468
Exponential Growth and Decay... Shen. a populations change isproportional to its size 473
Linear Approximations........ A.NAPM.ana its tangent line sometimes look alot alike 480
Slope Fields.......0.00++. They lock like wind patterns ona weather Wane eas 482
Fuiler’s Method ......... «06 bavy steps te Hind the differential equations solution 200. 488
What's uglier than one fraction? Infinitely Many
Chapter 26: Basic Sequences and Series 495
Sequences and Convergence........00 'sts,of numbers know where They're. gcngt see. 496
Series and Basic Convergence Tests.. Sia notation and the uth term divergence test 498
Telescoping Series and p-Series ....How, fo handle these easy-to-spot sevies eee 502
Reprnemner ee A POA Sy Converge
na iE 80,brat
’sTne Sauls ee eat toe aes 505
The Integral Test ........\fuite series ama improper integrals ave velabed a cassesaees 507
Aes
Chapter 27: Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests For use with uglier intnite e511
Comparison Test. Cove Sones
avebigger Kian big and smaller than smalls oA... 512
Limit Comparison Test ....... 3EFe8 thak converge ov AWErIe DY ASSOCIATE nc seae514
tee oes eC CNUGL NSIS GF SECS he ee ee 517
ae ee Cae hare Ce Oc. tity Shela oR RPO 520
Alternating Series Test and Absolute Convergence... Whar if.senes hewe negative berms! 594

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

vii
 Chapter 28: Advanced Infinite Series S¢vles that contain x's
Coe eee eeesreesere fo POC oe HECHT OEE E EEE HEHEHE HME EEO OE ESE HESS HES E SEES EEE SHEESH SHEE HEE E SESE HEE SETHE EOEEE

Appendix A: Important Graphs to memorize and Graph transformations

Appendix B: The Unit Civcle ss|

Appendix C: Trigonometvic lAentities
Soo

APPEMAIx D: Devivative Fovmulas so:

Appendix E: Anti-Devivative Formulas SS7

Index 559

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

Viii
 lutvoAuction
Ave you in a calculus class? Yes? Then you NEED this book. Heve’s why:
Fact #|: The best way to leavn calculus is by working out calculus problems.
Theve’s no Aenying it. If you could figure this class out just by veading the textbook
ov taking good notes im class, everybody would pass with flying colovs. Unfortunately,
the harsh truth is that you have to buckle Aown and work problems out until your
fingers ave numb.
Fact #2: Most textbooks only tell you WHAT the answers to theiv practice problems
ave but not HOW to Ao them!
Suve your textbook may have 175 problems for every topic, but most of them only
give you the answers. That meaus if you Aont get the answer vight youve totally
screwed! Knowing youve wrong is no help at all if you Aon't know WHY youve wrong.
Math textbooks sit on a huge thvone like the Great and Tevvible Oz and say,
“Nope, try again,” and we Ao. Over and over. AnA we keep getting the problem
wrong. What a delightful way to leavu! (Let's not even get into why they ouly tell
you the answers to the odd problems. Does that mean the book's actual AUTHOR
didnt even feel like working out the even ones?)
Fact #3: Even when math books try to show you the steps for a problem, they doa
lousy job.
Math people love to skip steps. You'll be following along tine with an explanation
and then all of a sudden BAM, youve lest. You'll think to yourself, “How Aida they
Ao that?” ov “Wheve the heck Aid that 42 come from? It wasn't theve in the last
step!” Why Ao almost all of these books assume that in ovAer to wovk out a problem
on page 200, youd better know pages | through 117 like the back of your hand?
You Aowt want to spend the vest of your life on homework! You just want to know
why you keep getting a negative number when youve calculating the minimum
cost of puilding a pool whose length is four Hmes the sum of its Aepth plus the
vate at which the water is leaking out of a train that left Chicago at 4:00
a.m. traveling Aue west at the same speed cawvipon is Aecaying.
Fact #4: Reading lists of facts is fun for a while, but then it gets old. Let's cut to
the chase.
Just about every single kind of calculus problem you Could possibly vun into is in
heve—after all, this book is HHMONGOUS! If a thousand problems aven't enough,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Introduction

then youve got some kind of crazy math hunger, my friend, and VA All of wy notes
seek professional help. This practice book was good at ivst, but to 1 Ae off to the side
lke this and point to
make it GREAT, | went through and worked out all the problems ana ihetying
Parts toof the book
l'w explain,
took notes in the margins when | thought something was confusing
ov needed a little move explanation. | also Avew little skulls next to
the havdest problems, so your know not to freak out if they were too
challenging. After alll, iP youve working on a problem and youve totally
stumped, isw't it better to know that the problem is SUPPOSED to be
hava? It’s veassuving, at least for me.
I think you'll be pleasantly surprised by how Aetailea the answer
explanations ave, and | hope you'll find wy little notes helpful along the
way. Call me crazy, but | think that people who WANT to learn calculus
and ave willing to spend the time avilling their way through practice
problems shoula actually be able to figure the problems out and learn
as they go, but that’s just wy 2¢.
Good luck and make suve to come visit my website at www.calculus-help.com.
I? you feel so inclined, Avop me an email ana give me your 2¢. (Not literally,
though—veal pennies clog up the Internet pipes.)
—Mike Kelley

Dedication
This book is Pov my family, whoa love and support me whether | wrote vidiculously
long math books ov not. For my wite, Lisa, whose grip on sanity is fivm when mine
stavts to buckle, | coulant possibly love you move thaw | Ao. For my swashbuckling
pivate son, Nick, who | hope will continue to ena the majovity of his sentences with
“me havdies” even when he’s not3 anymove. And for my beautiful twin givls Evin and
Sava, who just said theiv fivst wova: “shoes.” | have a sinking feeling I'll pe heaving
that wova a lot in the not-too-Aistant futuve.
Special thanks to Mike Sanders, who helped turn my idea about a mavkead-up book
of calculus problems into a veality, and to wy editovs Sue Stvicklanda and Ginny
Munvoe, who work hava to keep me from looking silly.
This ook is in memory of Joe, who passed from us in 2006. Back when | wrote
The Complete laiot’s Guide to Calculus, Joe tolaA me (in a thick Long Island fovmer
trucker accent) that itA be a “home vun.” with sincerity unmatched by anyone
| have evev met, his simple wovds of encouragement meant so much to me as a
struggling new author. Thanks, Joe. You weve vight.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 C h a p ter |
LINEAR EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

co nt ai ni ng x to th e Fivst POWeY
Problems
A proper and rigorous understanding of linear equations and their standard
forms, linear segments and the associated algorithms, systems of multiple
linear equations, and linear inequalities is an essential prerequisite for the
study of calculus. Though the majority of calculus students are familiar with
the topics in this chapter, mere familiarity is insufficient. In order to succeed
in the more advanced topics of the chapters that follow, student mastery of
these foundational skills and concepts must be ensured.

youll
st pasic geometric concepts, S°
i a \wes ave the wo be fore you can MOVE
ON
th ey av e ve la t ca
ede
nep understrana how
tos ull need to know
how to
aphs. Yo
Pu nc tions an A theiv gr a even
Lo mo re co mp le x
P lr li ne s iw th e co ordinate plane, an
s of lines, IV se ne eda to
create equation ll ale
You'e
e ee
nts of lin e ar o
Sua the lengths ana midpoi
race Ww hat to Ao with expressions containing <, 7) = lutions Fo syste“s
, cn ap Aown Pat, youll review how to fn soaah wove than one

working Wt
oraie : ons and mequailities (where youve
SQUart ).
lity ar a time
equation ov inequa
 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

Linear Geometry :
Creating, graphing, and measuring lines and line segments

1.1 Solve the equation: 3x —(x —7) = 4x —5.

Distribute -1 through the parentheses and combine like terms.

38x —x+7=4x—-—5
2x+7=4x—-—5

Subtract 4x and 7 from both sides of the equation to separate the variable and
constant terms.
Qx + 7 4x - 5
-4x - 7 —4x - 7
—2% = —- 12
Divide both sides by —2 to get the solution.
ae rlZ
=? —2
x=6

1.2 Calculate the slope, m, of the line 4x — 3y= 9.

Slope- Solve the equation for y in order to rewrite it in slope-intercept form.

intevcept form of a
line is y = mx
+ b, where ME Se
m is the slope of the lin =5F-3
e
and » is the y-tutevcept, a 4
The slope of the line is the coefficient of x: m= -

1.3. Prove that the slope of a line in standard form, Ax + By = C,is -<
The equatiow’s in
StomdAoava fovin if it Write the equation in slope-intercept form by solving it for y.

nee(l) No gece (2) Ax + By=C

yx and y-tevms on
the left side (3) Just By=—Ax+
s a :
the coustant on the i rak + ‘-
vight side, ana (4
)A
Positive x-coeffici
ent The coefficient of x is the slope of the line: m = ae

4 “
1.4 Rewrite the linear equation 3x —als= ;7= 5 x= (7y+ 3) in standard form.

Distribute the constants and combine like terms.

8 4
3x —4x+—y=—x—-—Ty—-3
x 3 y 5 cry

kOe
oe eee
7y-3
3°

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

Multiply by 15, the least common denominator, to eliminate fractions.

-15x+ 40y= 12x- 105y - 45
Multiply the
Separate the variable and constant terms.
entive equation
—27x+145y =—45 by —| so that
27x —145y
=45 the x-coefficient
is positive. (It’s a
vequivement of
1.5 Write the equation of the line passing through the points (-3,-8) and (-6,2) in stomdaava form,
slope-intercept form.

Calculate the slope of the line.

ey = 2-(-8) 10 10
x,—x, —6-(-3) -3 3
Substitute the slope into the slope-intercept formula (y= mx + b) for m, replace x
Think of the point
and y using one of the coordinate pairs, and solve for 0.
(3-8) as (x,y,) ana
y=mx +b ; (CE,2) as (x,,y,), $0 %\ =
ee
5-3)
ois aamcwcaeh Oe a
Pye -§, x, = —6, ana
Yip eake
—8=10+0
b=-18
Substitute mand b into the slope-intercept formula.

y=mxtb
10
y =—-—x-18
g

1.6. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts of 3x - 4y = -6 and use them to graph the line.

To calculate the x-intercept, substitute 0 for y and solve for x. Similarly, substitute
0 for x to calculate the y-intercept.

3(0)-—4y =—6 3x —-4(0)=—-6

—4y=-6 3x =—-6
x=—-2
bias

|
NO
09

Therefore, the graph of 3x — 4y = —6 intersects the x-axis at (-2,0) and the y-axis at
05 , as illustrated by Figure 1-1.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One LinearEquetionsandIneqielees
hapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

Figure 1-1
The graph of 3x - 4y = —6 with its x- and
y-intercepts identified.

The Assume that line p contains the point (-3,1) and isparallel to x- 4y= 1. Write
Point-slope the equation of pin slope-intercept form.
formula creates
AM equation basea Calculate the slope of x — 4y= 1 using the method of Problem 1.3.
on the slope of the 1
ME, MW, ANA a point
on the line (x,y). Dow
Plug anything in Por the Plug this slope and the coordinates (x,,y,) = (-3,1) into the point-slope formula.

KAMA y that Aow't have y— 9, =m(x—x,)

ittle humbervs next to
them, y-1=4(x-(3))
oa]
1 3
eee
Solve for y to express the equation in slope-intercept form.
Ls
=—-x+—
pas
4

According to a basic Euclidean geometry theorem, the diagonals of a

parallelogram bisect each other. Demonstrate this theorem for parallelogram
or A \ime
ABCD.
+ wit
Seo a
enaponrs (x0) a D= (6,4) C= (11,4) :
es rh »ae
(x, 5) is (=—
1 sod,

:Parallelogram ABCD.

Calculate the midpoints of AC and BD; the diagonals bisect one another if and
only if those midpoints are equal.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities
= eee

Midpoint of AC: Midpoint of BD:

Po *4)-(2 3] oS =4).(8 >)
Reeth 2 24,9 Fiat wiley ee

Note: Problems 1.8 - 1.10 refer to parallelogram ABCD in Figure 1-2.

1.9 Prove that ABCD is a rhombus by verifying that its sides are congruent. The
Aistance
between the
Apply the distance formula four times, once for each side. Points (x,,y,) aAnA
(x,y,) is
AB=,(7-2)'+(1-1)> = BC =,/(11-7)? +(4-1)°
(x, - x) + (y,a.
= 725+0 = v16+9
=5 =5
CD = (6-11) +(4-4) AD=,(6-2)'
+(4-1)
= /25+0 = J16+9
=5 =5

Note: Problems 1.8 - 1.10 refer to parallelogram ABCD in Figure 1-2.

1.10 Prove that ABCD is a rhombus by verifying that its diagonals are perpendicular
to one another.

Calculate the slopes of the diagonals using the slope formula from Problem 1.5.

— 4—1 — =
Slope of AC: m, = aT 5 Slope of BD: =m, = = Pavallel
e2 a lines have equal
m, = z m, = c= slopes. The slopes
of perpendicular
lines ave veciprocal
The diagonals are negative reciprocals, so the line segments are perpendicular. s
of one another ana
have opposite signs,

Linear Inequalities and Interval Notation

Goodbye equal sign, hello paventheses and brackets

1.11 Write the expression x 2 —4 using interval notation.

Always use
An interval is defined by the two values that bound an inequality statement, paventheses next
the lower followed by the upper bound. You must indicate whether or not each to oo when wviting
endpoint is included in the interval. (A bracket next to an endpoint signifies intervals. You
inclusion, and a parenthesis indicates exclusion.) cant “include”
Any number greater than or equal to —-4 makes this statement true; —4 is the lower something that’s
bound and must be included. The upper bound is infinity. Therefore, x = —4 is not a finite, veal
written [—4,0). number,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

1.12 Write the expression x < 10 using interval notation.

The upper bound is 10 and should be excluded (since 10 is not less than 10).
sv Any number less than 10 makes this statement true; there are infinitely many
><T7\ such values in the negative direction, so the lower bound is —%. Therefore, the
RULEoFTHUNT: inequality statement is written (-~%,10).
Use a prac er t
the mequaliry 1.13 Write the expression 6 = x>~-1 using interval notation.
symiool next ee
the number is £ ov
The lower bound must always precede the upper bound, regardless of how the
>—otherwise use a
expression is written: (—1,6].
parenthesis. Always
use paventheses
next bo 0 ana —%. 1.14 Write the solution to the inequality using interval notation: 4x— 2 > x + 13.

Separate variables and constants, then divide by the coefficient of x.

Ae edd
DN LD
co 5
Write the solution in interval notation: (5,0).

1.15 Write the solution to the inequality using interval notation:

3(2x= 1) —5 = 10x+ 19.

Distribute the constant, combine like terms, and isolate x on the left side of the
IF you multiply ov equation.
Aivide both sides of an 6x -—-3-—5<510x+19
inequality by a negative 6x —8 =10x+19
numbey, veverse the —4x <27
inequality sign. In this
case, < becomes >.
Dividing by a negative constant fundamentally changes the inequality: x =
27
Write the solution in interval notation: |-2.«)

1.16 Graph the inequality: -2 S$ x< 3.

Rewrite the inequality as an interval: [-2,3). To graph the interval on a number

Some texthooks line, place a dot at each boundary (closed dots for included boundaries and open
use brackets dots for excluded boundaries). All values between those boundaries belong to the
instead of interval, so darken the number line between the dots, as illustrated by Figure 1-3.
closea Acts ana
paventheses 7 l Nl jen eeeeenlereeebemman
fener yee Nl l V5
\ustead of open -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Aots on the
number line, Figure 1-3. The graph of -2 S x < 3 includes the interval boundary x = -2,
but excludes x = 3.

6 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

were
hive Graph the inequality: x>-l.
There is no upper bound for the interval (—1,), but all values greater than
—I satisfy the inequality. Therefore, shade all numbers greater than -1 on the
number line, as illustrated in Figure 1-4.

SOTTO
-2 -l 0 1 2

Figure 1-4 — The graph of x > -1 excludes the lower boundary; x = =1.

1.18 Solve and graph the inequality: -7 < 1 - 2x< 11.

Isolate -2x in the middle of the compound inequality by subtracting 1 from each
expression. Next, divide each expression by —2 to isolate x, reversing the inequality
signs as you do.
yd =2 1

-2°> -2° -%
4=>x>-5

The graph of the solution, (—5,4], is illustrated in Figure 1-5.

<<} en ft
—7 -6 -5 —-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 a

Figure 1-5 The graph of -7 < 1 - 2x < 11 includes x = 4 and excludes x = —5.

1.19 Graph the inequality: ¥<~ 3% + 2.

This inequality contains two variables, x and y, so it must be graphed on the

coordinate plane. Note that the inequality is solved for y and (apart from the Stick
inequality sign) looks like a linear equation in slope-intercept form. The linear the negative sign
inequality has y-intercept (0,2) and slope a on top: = - Starting at
the y-intercept, go Aown |
unit, vight3 units, anda mavk
the point. Connect the Aots
Figure 1-6 to gvaph the line.
id
The graph of )<—3* +7? is dotted rather than
solid, because it is excluded from the solution
(like an open dot indicates exclusion from an

inequality graph on a number line).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

The dotted graph separates the coordinate plane into two regions (one above and
By shading one below the line). To determine which region represents the solution, choose a
point (x,y) from one of the regions and substitute the values into the inequality. If
the vegion, youve the resulting statement is true, shade the region that contains that point. If not,
saying, “All of these
shade the other region.
points, not just the one
| tested, make the
inequality true.” 1.20 Solve the equation: 2x- y < 4.

Solve the inequality for y.

= Si 2h
Wa 2k ae

This graph is solid (not dotted) because the line itself belongs to the solution.
If you Aowt feel
Shade the region above the line, as illustrated in Figure 1-7.
like testing points
to Figure out where
to shade, solve the
equation For y ana
use this vule of
thumbs: Shade above
the line for “greater
thaw’ ana below the
ae
ileala Figure 1-7
All of the ordered pairs above the line are valid
Vine Por “less thaw.’
solutions to the inequality 2x — y S 4.

Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities

Solve two things fov the price of one
1.21 Solve the equation: |3x —7|= 8.

In order for this statement to be valid, the absolute value expression must either
equal 8 (since |8| = 8) or -8 (since |-8| = 8).

3x-7=8 3x—-7=-8
3x =15 3x =-]
x=5 1
x=-—
3
The solution is x = ne or x=5.

1.22 Solve the equation: 1-2|x+6|=-4.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

Isolate the absolute value expression on the left side of the equation.
—2|x+6|=—5
5
|x+6] =— Remove the
im
absolute value
Apply the technique described in Problem 1.21. bavs and create
5 two equations—one
x+6=— +6
5 2. 12 : 5 19
with a positive vight
Side and one with a
ee eae: “53% negative vight side,
aan eT
x= 9 a eae

1.23 Solve the equation: 9— 3|x+2|=15.

Absolute values
Isolate the absolute value expression on the left side of the equation. always proAuce
—3|x +2|=6 a positive number, so
theve’s no way something
|x+2|=-2
in absolute values can
This equation has no solution. equal -2.

1.24 Solve the inequality: |x—5|<1. -

The solution to the absolute value inequality |x + a] <b, where aand bare real
numbers (and 6> 0), is equivalent to the solution of the compound inequality
-b< x+a< 6b.
—-l1<x-5<
Dvop the
Solve the inequality using the method described in Problem 1.18.
inequality bevws,
—1+5<x<1+5 stick a matching
4<x<6 inequality sign on the
The solution, in interval notation, is (4,6).
left, and then put the
opposite of the vight
side on the left
1.25 Graph the solution to the inequality: 2|x —7|-5<—1. side.

Isolate the absolute value expression on the left side of the inequality.
2\x-—7|<5-14+5
2\x-7|
—————-—-
4
2 z
|x -—7|<2

Create a compound inequality (as explained in Problem 1.24) and solve.

=2 =) ae
oa] Sk S24
5 men =)
The solution, [5,9], is graphed in Figure 1-8.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities
ee eed

<Q $$} $9 arr

3 4 5 6 fl 8 9 10 11

The solution graph of 2\x —7|— 5 S—1 is a closed interval

Figure 1-8 because both endpoints (x = 5 and x = 9) are included.

1.26 Solve the inequality: |2x+5|=3. —

Rewrite an inequality of form lax + b| = as two new inequalities, ax+ b= cand
ax + b S -c, and solve. The union of the solutions is equivalent to the solution of
the original inequality.
2x+5 23 2x+5<-3
2 Or 2x<=-8
x=-] x=<-4

The solution, in interval notation, is (%,—4] or [-1,0). The word “or” does not
imply that either interval by itself is an acceptable answer, but rather that both
intervals together (and therefore all values from both intervals) constitute the
solution.

_ 1.27. Solve the inequality and graph the solution: 2—3|x+1|<—5.

to solve a Isolate the absolute value expression on the left side of the inequality.
> ov & arsolure —3|x+1|<-7
value inequality, —
7
set up two inequalities |x +1|>—
3
ue
without arssolute yal Dividing by —3 reverses the inequality sign; apply the solution method outlined in
h
yas. One will matc Problem 1.26.
the oviginal inequality. otal shocks
:
the other looks the : cs
same on the left side, G 4 s a
the
jut the number on
vight is negative and
the inequality sign \s : : 10 4
veversea. The solution is(-od or (=) Graph both intervals on the same number line to

generate the graph of 2 — 3|x + 1|<—5, as illustrated by Figure 1-9.

10 A
5

<——O-+--
YA tt
4 3 —-2 -] 0 1 2 3 4

All real numbers satisfy the inequality 2 — 3|x + 1|<—5, except

Figure 1-9 AQ)<i
those on the interval |:

IK

10 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

Systems of Equations and Inequalities

Find a common solution shaved by multiple equations ov inequalities
1.28 Solve the following system of equations using the substitution method.
—8x+2y=—5
2x—-y=1

Solve the second equation for y and substitute its value into the first equation.

—8x+2(2x—-1)=—-5 Solving 2x
— y= | fovy
is
gives you y = 2x — |. Th
eauis enna e y ™
allows you to veplac
ee with
the other equation
S
2x |,
a4
Substitute this x-value into the equation solved for y at the start of the problem.

3 6 1
3 2x -1= 2(3]eds 4 ele 9 (3-3) is also the point where
the graphs of the lines
The coordinate pair (x,y) is the solution: (7.3} 8x +2y=-S ana
2x — y = | intersect.
1.29 Solve the following system of equations using the elimination method.
2x—-by=—11
3x+13y=4

To eliminate x from the system, multiply the first equation by —3, multiply the
second equation by 2, and then add the equations together.
—6x +15y = 33 avolmaeeme
ah eee ae is to eliminate y by
A See multiplying the top equation
eerie by |3 ana the bottom
; ig ; uation by S.
Substitute y= 1 into either of the original equations and solve for x. ee: bs
A= Sy =—Th
2x—-5(1)=-11
2x=—11+5

pane aes
"4
The point (-3,1) is the solution to the system of equations.

1.30 Solve the system of equations: 4 ]

os 2y=8

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities
OO

Use the substitution technique, as the first equation is easily solved for x:
x= 6y + 24.
” 1
is “sasily solveA oe * 3 (6y ss24) —2y9=8
the coefficient
na to
ite
2y+8—2y=8
pecause
of xis 1. Nok coekci
ne anNg ent 8=8
divide bY AWE Ryaction to
means one less The end result is a true statement (8 = 8), but no variables remain. This indicates
aeal with. that the equations of the system are multiples of each other (dividing the first
equation by 2 results in the second equation); the system is therefore dependent
and possesses infinitely many solutions.

Even though 1.31 Determine the real number value of k in the system of equations below that
the equations makes the system indeterminate.
“Yependent” systems x—6y=—-13
look aiffevent, theiv
4x —ky=1
gvaphs ave exactly
the some. No matter
what x you plug into An indeterminate system of equations has no solution. Consider this geometric
the equations, youll
explanation:
Pp If the solution to a system
yy of equations
q is the Pppoint(s) at which the
ger the same y, So
graphs of its equations intersect, then an indeterminate system has no solution
they intersect at
infinitely many because the graphs of the linear equations do not intersect. The slope of the first
3 : 1 1 Z - 4 4
points ana have line is ogee and the slope of the second line is ee Set the slopes equal to
infinitely many create parallel lines, and solve for k.
common solutions.
ape
k 6
a Cross multiply to solve the proportion.
This is the slope shortcut
Formula from problem 1.3, 4°6=k-1
24=k
1.32 Graph the solution to the below system of inequalities.
y<3
x2—4

y>ix-l

Graph the inequalities on the same coordinate plane, as illustrated by Figure 1-10.
The region of the plane upon which the shaded solutions of all three inequality
graphs overlap is the solution to the system.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

12
 Chapter One — Linear Equations and Inequalities

Figure 1-10
The solution to a system of inequalities is a
two-dimensional shaded region. Note that
y = 31s a horizontal line 3 units above the
x-axis and x = -4 is a vertical line four
units left of the y-axis.

1.33 Solve the following system of equations. \

3x+2y—z=0 =o
5x— y—-8z=9 or (MS
x¥4y— 32 =~22
Solve the first equation for z: z= 3x + 2y. Use this expression to replace zin the
other two equations of the system.
x+4y—3z=—22
5x — y= 8z=9
x+4y—3(3x+2y)
=—22
5x — y—8(3x+2y)=9
x+4y—9x
—6y =—22
5x — y— 24x —-16y=9
—8x —2y=—22 You
-19x—-17y=9
—4x—-—y=-11 CAN Aivide
You're left with a system of two equations in two variables:
any
; humbey e
XCept
-19x -17y=9 0 without affecting
—4x-y=-11 Es Solution, To make
hings a little e aster
Solve this system using substitution. (Solve the second equation for y to get You shoula ae ;
y=-—4x+ 11 and substitute that expression into the other equation.) eVerything in e

—19x -17(—4x +11) =9 , this equation

—19x + 68x —187=9 by 2.
49x =196
x=4

Plug x = 4 into the equation you previously solved for y.

y=—-4x4+11
y=-4(4)4+11 /

=e 4
Plug x = 4 and y=-5 into the equation previously solved for z.
z=3x+2y
z= 3(4)+2(—-5)
z=2

The solution to the system of equations is (x,y,z) =(4,-5,2).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

13
 i
ms

Himes oF
oan i,
WG 4 aes
oe
 Chapter 2
P
Because
ges you cawt vec Ponents
eree of | Loveyoy

The usefulness of the exponential properties and algorithms taught in an

elementary algebra course does not expire at the final exam. In fact, they are
essential to the study of polynomials, one of the building blocks of calculus.
Polynomials, though simple in structure, can possess quite complex graphs,
and are so versatile that even the most fundamental differentiation and
integration techniques (the power rules for differentiation and integration)
are defined in terms of polynomials. This chapter affords you the opportunity
to review polynomials and properties of the exponents they contain.

Exponents will play a key vole later in

calculu s. I? you've skeptical,
considey this: The two most (mpovtant cal
c ulus topics (Aevivatives ana
integrals) ave actually tied to expone
nts. T he Aevivative of a Polynomia
always one Aegree (exponent) low l is
er than th 2 polynomial you starte
It works the other way as well—the d with.
exponen ts of an integral ave always
one greater than the oviginal polynomia
l, <i AcE exponents and polynomials
Play such an import
ant vole in the Upcoming chapters,
how to manipulate them by working make sure you know
through all the problems heve.
 Chapter Two — Polynomials
[ap

Exponential and Radical Expressions

Powers and square voors
The commutative
property is just a
fancy way to say 2.1 Simplify the expression: x*y*x*y°x?y?*.
that you can add ov
multiply things in any Apply the commutative property of multiplication to rewrite the expression by
ovdey, anA it wowt grouping like variables together.
XA ey ye
chawge the vesult, so
A+S=S+4= 4 ANG
Recall the algebraic axiom concerning the product of exponential expressions
with equivalent bases: x*x’ = x**’.
(2)(1) = (A(2) = 18. nee a xe

5 ue " : we x® yz

implify
Pee). the expression:
P —3-7-4-4,..
wet yz

If the product of two exponential expressions with the same base requires you to
add the exponents (as demonstrated in Problem 2.1), then the quotient is equal to
the difference of the exponents
w-2 wee oe 10 Wiey Ze

Rewrite the expression to eliminate the negative exponents.

eee

Simplify the expression: (+5) :

7°

The entire rational expression is raised to a negative exponent, so take the

omething to a reciprocal of the fraction.
3 \2
negative power
(
should be movea Fo 4%,
the opposite pavt of
the fraction. Once Square each factor. If a factor is already raised to a power, such as y’, multiply that
it’s moved, change power by 2.
75499
the power back to ae : ao
positive.

=o 6 3

2.4 Simplify the expression: oe

(3xy"°)
Raise the numerator to the third power and the denominator to the -2 power.
x28) yo) “7 ys
3-2 2 (5-2) na 3-2 y-2 10
Nay Nip)
Eliminate the negative exponents.
32 x? 9x? y'*

xeyl? me hy

Simplify using the method outlined in Problem 2.2.

9 8
Qx2F
yl = gymy® = “a

16 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Two — Polynomials
eeeene er anne Te tia

2.5 Prove that x° = 1.

The multiplicative inverse property of algebra states that any nonzero real
number times its reciprocal equals 1. Therefore, if x‘ is a real number and is
multiplied by its reciprocal, the result must be 1.
For instance, a(2) =
ana -o(-2)= as 4)
Rewrite the fraction using a negative exponent.

(x*)(x*) = 1
The expressions have the same base, so calculate the product by adding the
exponents.

A perfect sauave is
2.6 Simplify the expression: 72x9° Made up of somethin
multiplied by itself.
That Meons 36, x Ana
Because the expression is a square root (with an unwritten, implied index of 2),
y’ ave perfect Squaves
rewrite the factors in terms of perfect squares.
because ¢? = 36,
[36-2+x? «x? + x+y +9! “s 6° -2-(x?) -x-(y*)

Each perfect square can be removed from the radical: 6x” y" V2x.

2.7. Explain why the expression ./x’y should be simplified as |x|,/y, rather than x/y.

Consider the effect of these values in the original expression: x = -2, y= 5.

fx*y = V(-2)" (©) = V20

Simplify the result. \S IS
an important
J20
= V4-5 = V2? -5 = 25 vule: If youve got
Now test the expressions |x|Vy and x/y by substituting x = —-2 and y= 5. Ve" and wis even,
x/y =-2V5 |x| [9 =|-2|
V5= 2V5 simplify it as Ix|_, not
Notice that only |x|Vy gives the correct result. just x. Fov instance,
Vw = || ana

2.8 Simplify the expression: 3/-8x’ yz’. Mersy =|x+5|-

The index of the radical is 3, so rewrite the factors of the radicand as perfect
cubes and remove those perfect cubes from beneath the radical sign.

The
1(—2)° « (x2) -x-(y) +9? 2? =(—2x?9) Say?” vadicana
There’s no need to include absolute value bars (as discussed in Problem 2.7) is what you
because the index of the expression is odd. call what’s
underneath the
vadicail.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

17
 Chapter Two — Polynomials

2.9 Simplify the expression: /112xy — (28xy.

So you
Although 112xy— 28xy = 84xy, the answer is not ./84xy; such an answer violates
cant simplify numerous arithmetic rules. Terms containing radicals may be combined only via
Bax +8Vy,Dut you addition or subtraction if the corresponding radicands match exactly. Notice that
ae simplify 2Vy- SVY the expression produces such radicands.
simplifying the individual radicals in
to get -3Vy . J112xy — J28xy = {16-7 - xy — 4° 7° xy
a [42.7. a [2? -'7+ xy

= 4,/Txy — 2]7xy
= 2,/7xy

2.10 Rewrite 250% as a radical expression and simplify.

A quantity raised to a rational exponent can be rewritten as a radical expression:

xt! = (fx)
250°/* = (3/250) =(¥125-2) =(%/5*-2) =(5¥2) = 2597/4
2

Operations on Polynomial Expressions

How to + - x, and + polynomials

2.11 Simplify the expression: 3(x* — 5xy + 6y’) — 5(x? + Any — Di

Distribute 3 through the first set of parentheses and —5 through the second set.
the 3x? — 15xy + 18y? — 5x? — 20xy+ 5
bev —9SKY Combine like terms to simplify.
ev 0
aaa te £ its (3x° — 5x?) + 18? + (-15xy— 20xy) + 5 =-2x* — 35xy + 18y? + 5
2 since oth o -
‘
ove Vvaise Convention dictates that variables should be written in decreasing order of
yaviales
power. Sena power. If two terms have the same power (in the above expression,
to the fst e
re than on *, and_xy are raised to the second power), write the variables in alphabetical
2

there's wo
the rer, eee
yawialole
wers
aaa rhev po 2.12 Simplify the following expression.
together. —2x?(y— 4) + x(x+ 6) —4(3x—y) + 7y?(x+t 1) + 6y(y—9)— 3(y + 5x)

Distribute the constants.

—2x°y+ 8x? + x? + Ox— 12x+4 4y+ Txy? + Ty? + Gy? - 54y— 3y— 15x
Combine like terms.
—2x?y + Txy? + 9x? + 13y? — 21x— 53y

2.13 Find the product and simplify: (y— 1)(2y+ 3).

Use the FOIL method to multiply pairs of binomials. “FOIL” is a technique

requiring you to multiply pairs of terms and add all of the results; its name is an

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

18
 Chapter Two — Polynomials
ie

acronym deseribing those pairs: first (the first terms in each binomial, in this
example, y and 2y), outside (the terms at the outer edges of the product, y and 3),
inside (the terms in the middle of the product, -1 and 2y), and last (the last term
in each binomial, —-1 and 3).

y(29) + (3) + (— 1) (29) + (— 1) (3)

2y° + 3y—-Qy-3
2y° + oid

2.14 Find the product and simplify: (a— 30)’. xryy. You
ee bo use Khe as just
—Aow
Rewrite the squared binomial as a product and multiply using the FOIL method. wrethor tevms
square THe
_(a — 3b) (a — 3b) wyaiviaually-
=a-ata(—3b) + (—3b) (a) + (—3b) (—3d)
=a —3ab — 3ab + 90°
=a’ —6ab+ 9b"

2.15 Find the product and simplify: (2x— y)(*+ 5y- 1).

The FOIL method is useful only when multiplying exactly two binomials. In order
to multiply two polynomials containing any number of terms, multiply each term
in the left polynomial by each term in the right polynomial, one at a time, and In other wovds,
add the results. stavt with 2x ana
2x(x) + 2x(5y) + 2x(— 1) + (—y) (x) + (—y) Gy) + (—y) (-D multiply it by every term
in the vight polynomial:
= 2x? +10xy—
2x —xy—5y? +y
2x(x) = 2x*, 2x(Sy) = \Oxy,
= 2x" + Oxy —5y? —2Qx+y ana 2x(-|) = -2x. Now
vepeat the process, this
2x? — 5x? +9x—8 time with -y.
2.16 Evaluate the quotient using polynomial long division:
x+3

Prepare the polynomials for long division: x + 3 is the divisor and 2x* — 5x° + 9x- 8
the numerator is the dividend.
The
x+3 2x? — 5x? + 9x —8 Aividena
What value, when multiplied by x (the first term of the divisor) results in 2x°, the is uside the
first term of the dividend? The only such value is 2x*: (x) (2x*) = 2x’. Write that Avision symbol,
value above its like term in the dividend. ana the Aivisov is
outside,
2x
x + 3)2x? — 5x? +9x—-8

Multiply each term in the divisor by 2x°, and write the opposite of each result
beneath its like term in the dividend.
2x”
x +3) 2x? — 5x? + 9x —8
—2x3— 6x?

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

19
 Chapter Two — Polynomials

Combine like terms. Then copy the third term of the divisor next to the results.

thi eo
Ar = x+3) ; 5x?: +9x—8
2x°—
point, 2x
disappears. The =2x" — 6x
entive purpose of the —11x? + 9x
steps leading up to Repeat the process, this time identifying the value that (when multiplied by x) will
this moment was to result in the first term of the new expression: —11x’. Place that value, —11x, above
find away to ada the dividend, multiply it by the terms of the divisor, record the opposites of those
2x? to its opposite results, combine like terms, and copy the final term of the divisor (-8).
so that it goes
away. 2x? — 11x
x +3) Qx°— 5x? + 9x—-8
—2x° — 6x?
—llx?+ 9x
llx? + 33x
42x —8

The process repeats once more, this time with the value 42 above the divisor, since
You can x: 42 = 42x.
check the answer by Qn? —1lx + 42
multiplying the quotient x +3) Qx°— 5x? + Ox —8
and the divisor and then =2x° — 6x?
et ee -llx? + 9x
oe
~ eae et get
134. You shoula Lx? +33x
2 —

Z 42x — 8
the Aivia
ae —42x —126
14.

The remainder is -134, and should be added to the quotient, 2x* — 11x + 42, as the
134
numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the divisor: 2x” — 11x + 42 — ce
x

the
numerator
2.17 Evaluate the quotient using polynomial long division: (x* + 6x- 2) + (x7 + 3).
has no x tevm—
it skips vight
Use the method described in Problem 2.16, but when setting up the division
Rvow x? to 3. The problem, ensure that every power of x is included from the highest power to a
Aenominator skips constant. Use a coefficient of 0 for missing terms.
two terms, because ee eae x? + 0x —38
it has no x° ov x? + 0x +3) x* +0x° + 0x? + 6x —2
x. Write those
“wrissing” terms
—x* —0x°* — 3x?
as Ox, Ox’, ana Ox? — 3x? + 6x
Ox’. Ox® + Ox? + Ox
— 3x°+ 6x —2
3x°+ Ox+9
6x +7
6x +7
The solution is x” —3+
+3

20 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Two — Polynomials
ee ee

2.18 Calculate (3x?+ 10x- 8) + (x+ 4) using synthetic division.

List the coefficients of the dividend, and place the opposite of the divisor’s constant You can
in a box to the left. Leave some space below that and draw a horizontal line.
pe USE syuthet
ai IVISCON only ic
[-4]
3 10 -8 eNiing by a iL youvYou’e
li
Mowmlal—som near
ething like
*~S) ov (y + Ss).
Copy the first constant (3) below the horizontal line, multiply it by the boxed
constant (—4), and record the result (-12) in the next column, below the number
10. Add the numbers in that column (10 — 12 = -2) and record the result beneath
the line.

3 10 -8
—12
3 -2 Since (x + 4)
Aividead evenly into
Repeat the process; multiply the new constant (—2) by the boxed constant (—4). 3x? + |0x - & (the
Record the result (8) in the next column and, once again, add the numbers in vemainder was 0),
that column. (x + 4) is a factor of
$.."0107=8 3? + |0x - 8.
=[9° 78
BS) 9p 0
The numbers below the horizontal line are the coefficients of the quotient. Note
that the degree of the quotient is always one less than the degree of the dividend
(so this quotient is linear), and the rightmost number below the horizontal line
(in this case 0) is the remainder. The solution is 3x— 2.

2.19 Calculate (4x° - ll - 1) + (x-3) using synthetic division.

List the coefficients and the opposite of the divisor’s constant as demonstrated
in Problem 2.18, but notice that the dividend contains no x-term. Just like long
division, synthetic division requires you to insert a 0 coefficient for missing terms.
[3] 4 -11 0 -1
12241029
Soe ae
8
The quotient is 4x* +x+3+ xe ie

Factoring Polynomials
Reverse the multiplication process

2.20 Factor the expression: 18x*y’ — 9xy’.

Both terms can be divided evenly by 9, x, and y’ (i.e. there will be no remainder).
Therefore, the greatest common factor is 9xy’. Factor the expression by writing

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

21
 Chapter Two — Polynomials

the greatest common factor followed by the quotients of each term divided by that
factor. 18x29? Oxy?

Ixy cae 3
Oxy" Oxy
= Qxy° (Qxy? —1)

2.21 Factor the expression: 21x°y°z° — 15x4y%z!' + 36x°y°z,

In other
The greatest common factor is 3x"y?z. Use that value to factor the expression,
Wwovds, find two applying the method outlined in Problem 2.20.
wumbers that equal
the x-coefficient when
they've adde De 3x" yz 3x4 yz 3x4 yz
equal the coustant
= 3x" yz (Zoxy’ 2° —5z! +12x*y)
when they've
multiplied,
2.22 Factor the expression: x’ + 13x+ 40.

To factor a trinomial of the form x? + ax + 6, find two numbers k, and k, such that
k, + k, = aand k, - k, = b. The factors of the polynomial will be (x +%,) and (x+ &,).
In this case, k, = 5 and k, = 8, since 5 + 8 = 13 and 5(8) = 40, so the factored form
of the polynomial is (x + 5)(x+ 8).

2.23 Factor the expression x? — 7x— 18.

Determine k, and k, as directed in Problem 2.22. Note that the constant (—18) is
negative so k, and k, have opposite signs. (The product of two numbers with the
same sign is always positive.) Additionally, the x-coefficient is -7, which means the
larger of the two numbers must be negative: k, = —9 and k, = 2, as -9 + 2 =-7 and
(-9)(2) =-18. The factored form of the polynomial is (x—9)(x + 2).

2.24 Factor the expression: x° — 49.

You cam also facto This expression is the difference of perfect squares (x? = x- xand 49 = 7 - 7). Note
the Aifference of that a’ — b’ is factored (a+ b)(a— b), so the factored form of the polynomial is
perfect cubes: x’ - y° = (x+7)(x—7).
(xk - yi + xy + y’).
Factor the expression: 8a’ + 1250’.

This expression is the sum of perfect cubes: 8a* = (2a)* and 1250° = (56)°. Much
like a difference of perfect squares follows a distinct factoring pattern, so does the
sum of perfect cubes: x° + y’ = (x + y)(x*— xy + y?). To apply the formula, set x = 2a
and y= 5b. ne
x? +9 =(x+ y)(x? —ay +9")
(2a)’ + (56) =(2a+5b)((2a)* — (2a) (5d) + (55) )
8a? + 125b° =(2a+5b)(4a* —10ab + 255")

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

22
 Chapter Two — Polynomials

ae
2.26 Factor the expression: Ax = 20% = Sx +15.

A polynomial containing four terms from which no common denominator can be

extracted is often factored by grouping. Use parentheses to split the polynomial the two
into the sum of two binomials, one containing the first two terms and one groups ave always
containing the remaining two terms.
added. Even though
(4x° — 20x?) + (-3x+ 15) the coefficient of x is
ve
Factor the greatest common factor out of each quantity. -3, keep that negati
sign inside the second
= 4x?(x- 5) —3(x—-5) set of paventheses.
Both terms now have a common factor: (x- 5). Factor out that binomial; the first
term is left with 4x° and the second term is left with —3.

= (x—
5) (4x° - 3)

2.27 Factor the expression by decomposition: 6x? + 7x — 24.

The coefficient of the x°-term in this trinomial does not equal 1, so the
method described in Problems 2.22 and 2.23 is invalid and you should factor
by decomposition. To factor the expression ax° + bx + c (when a # 1), you once
again seek two constants (k, and k,), but in this case those numbers meet slightly
different criteria.
k, + ky = b and (k,)(ky) = ac
With some experimentation you'll determine that k, = 16 and k, = -9.
ka
as on k, still
Replace the x-coefficient with k, + ,. ace a up
“Coe ici
6x? + 7x — 24 but wow fee
ProAuct
VOA
€Auals the
= 6x" + (16 — 9)x — 24
CMStant
= 6x? + 16x— 9x — 24
Himes the
“Coe PFicient
. Iy this

Factor by grouping, as explained in Problem 2.26. Problem, k, -

= (6x? + 16x) + (—9x — 24)

= 2x(3x + 8) — 3(3x + 8)
= (3x + 8) (2x — 3)

Solving Quadratic Equations

Equations with a highest exponent of 2
2.28 Solve the equation by factoring: 4x° + 4x= 15.

Subtract 15 from both sides of the equation, so that the polynomial equals 0.
4x? + 4x-15=0
Factor by decomposition, as explained in Problem 2.27.
4x* + (10 —6)x —15=0
4x* +10x —6x —15=0
2x(2x +5) = 3(2x + 5) =0
(2x — 3) (2x +5) =0
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
23
 Chapter Two — Polynomials

Set each factor equal to 0, creating two separate equations to be solved.

2x —-3=0 2x +5=0
eerUseSoy?
thebe 2x cd
=3 or he
2x=—5
3
x= 5 n=n55
sepavate the
answers, DECAUSE iz
either xvalue, x =~ 7
ov x = 5, will solve The solution is x = — 2 orx=S
2 vee
the equation.
2.29 Solve the equation using the quadratic formula: 5x’ = 3x- 6.

Begin by setting the equation equal to 0.

5x? -3x+6=0
Apply the quadratic formula to solve the equation.
_ The solutions
of the equation emailer &:-(-3)* v3)" -46)@)
Ax’ + Bx + C=0 ave 2(5)
3+ J/9-120
—Bry AAC ==e
ae
ee
z
A on veiil
Just plug in the, i eee TO
coefficients: In order to simplify a square root with a negative radicand, recall that i = /—1.

3+ J-111 _ 3+ /(-1)(111) - 3+iJ111

10 10 10

Therefore, there are two imaginary solutions to the quadratic equation: ae

3—-iv111
fp Chega

o2 2.30 Find the value of k such that the quadratic equation 6(x? + 2x) = k(2x- 1) + 5x?
has the double root x= 3.

Simplify and set the equation equal to 0.

A quadvatic 6x? + 12x = Qkx —k + 5x?

equation has a (6x? — 5x?) + (12x —2kx)
+k =0
Aouvle voot when the
same voot appears Factor x’ out of the first quantity and factor x out of the second.
twice. For exawele,
x*(6—5)+x(12—2k)+k=0
(x -3)« -3) = 0 has
matching solutions: x” +x(12—2k)+k=0
x=3ovx=%,
Notice that (x—3)(x- 3) =0 is another quadratic equation whose solution is the
double root x = 3. Set the equivalent expressions equal to one another.
x? + x(12 — 2k) +k =(x — 3) (x — 3)
x” + x(12—2k)+k=x? —6x4+9

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

24
 Chapter Two — Polynomials

Quadratics are equal only if the coefficients of their corresponding terms are
equal. The constant of the left quadratic is k, whereas the constant of the right
quadratic is 9. Therefore, k = 9. (Substituting k = 9 into (12 — 2k) results in —6, so
the coefficients of the x-terms in both polynomials will be equal as well.)

2.31 Solve the equation by completing the square: x* — 14x + 3 = 0.

Unlike the methods of factoring and the quadratic formula, you should not set
the equation equal to 0, but instead, isolate the constant on the right side of the
equation.
x -— 14x=-3
Calculate one half of the x-coefficient and square it: (-14) + 2 =-7, and
(-7)? = 49. Add the result to both sides of the equation.

x -— 14x+ 49 =-3
+ 49

This creates a perfect square on the left side of the equation.

(x —'7) (x — 7) =46
(x — 7)? = 46

Take the square root of both sides of the equation and solve for x.

V(x-7) = +,/46 dae

4 (s half of
x—-7=+/46
< coefficient
Squavea: -$ +9 a SE
x= V46
2
x
2.32 Solve the equation by completing the square: 4x” — 20x + 7 = 0.

Note that you cannot complete the square unless the coefficient of the x*-term is 1.
Although that was true in Problem 2.31, it is not true here. Divide everything by
the coefficient of x?, and then use the method described in Problem 2.31.

Ax! _ 20x 70
4 4 4 4
Rationalizing
x —5xt+ : =0
a fraction
eliminates the
x —5x=— Z
: vadicals from its
a + as denominator. Multiply the
x” —5x+
: Seve top and bottom of the
_18 Rvaction by the radical
5)’
oes youve trying to get via of:
b
ohoe | diigo
An ee
(>: 3)~ V2
x ye
9 ao 2

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

25
 RS PAW Yr pent }
merece gedFelgn hie, fe
iT SSRN pos Learne
baseenou MIO’ sill atnoiee.
tN <I Ramerpetey
2 te > 24
wd Petal ean ak 2 90sa Aolink
YA AD ATI OF Dart

‘t& é
Ne ry Sal,
Pag are Ww ah “
iy get hese ie ‘4 es)
1 ressage ee Aataies
ee i ; Gert
sigs She ae)
ay hx aaaandy me

“ re
a

pay ae a ae aes) : =i oe

v Moth nea eto? rea at a

 Chapter 3
RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS
Fractions, fractions, and move fractions

During a course of review, rational expressions are the natural successors

of polynomial expressions for myriad reasons. For one, the most common
rational expressions are merely polynomial quotients. Additionally, rational
expressions (like polynomial expressions) are restricted under the binary
operations of addition and subtraction, but face far fewer restrictions if
products or quotients are calculated. It is, therefore, logical to investigate how
the skills already applied to linear and polynomial expressions (in Chapter 2)
extend to rational expressions.

j
is just ion. OF
a fraction
A vational expression, like a vatiional number, is
) le
course, you probaly Aow't have a whole lolot of love in : your heavt for
ciall
with, ete y when
rea t
Pyvactions—they caw be pretty hava to work
re time, Finding e i
it comes to adding ana subtracting. Most of
thing about ea: an
common Aenominator is the most difficult
have to 4 i =:
unfortunately, it’s usually the tivst thing you 9
other x
alll, iP you cant ada two things togethev, why ee
r eu get you oe |
how to multiply ov Aivide them!) This chapte
A with fractions, help you solve comp
licated fractiona
ations, and end with fraction al
Rae inequalities (which Aont wovk
equ
r |).
anything like the inequailities from Chapte
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

Remember the least common Aenominatov?

In a
3.1 Simplify the expression: j Ax?
this problem,
the unique factors
Ave K and y. The Begin by calculating the least commen denominator (abbreviated LCD), the term
highest power of x is that includes all unique factors of each denominator raised to the highest power
2 and the highest reached by each individually. In this problem, the LCD is x’y.
Power of y is |, so \ 5 :
Multiply the numerator and denominator of 7 by x’, so that the resulting
the LCD is xy,
denominator is the LCD (x*y). Similarly, multiply the numerator and denominator
3

Abe = |
ale B(x?) 3(y)\ 5x? 3y
x
+—|-|=—-+
J
Now that the denominators are equal, add the numerators. |
: . ' >
‘ \ tr asso”
, OY
= 5x(+By ahd wre
x*y

; 2 i 3

To 3.2 Simplify the expression: G = - 7 =

Figure out
the LCD, factor
the Aenominators: Notice that the least common denominator is 36xyz. Rewrite each fraction in an
Sy = 3-2. Y, equivalent form that contains the LCD.
I2x
= 22-3. x, ANA
32=3-2z, Multiply the = (2)-2). 2 (|
unique factors vaisea 18y\2xz} 3z\12xy} 12x\3yz
to
theiv highest powers: e. oath be 84 xy" i 15 yz*
2? -3?- x! yee 36xyz 36xyz 36xyz
_ 2x°z— B4xy? +15 yz*
= 36xyz

d
implify th the expression
Simplify ion: 10m =o
To find out
what you shoula Every integer has an implied denominator of 1, but that denominator can be
multiply a fracti ignored when determining the LCD. By default, then, the LCD of this expression
on
by to get the LC is 10xy’—the left term already has this denominator, so it does not need to be
D, modified.
divide the LCD
by the
fractions Aenomi
na
is toy, Foy
Baar te take 2. Dividing 5
the LCD by 3z ee ee
tn BAT die 10xy* 10xy°
7 — 30xy°
10xy°

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

28
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

oo) e Wel 5
3.4 Simplify the expression: iu we Sah

Factor the denominators.

wtl 5
2:7-w* w*(w—3)
The LCD is 2-7 - w* + (w—3) = 14(w*)(w- 3). Manipulate the factored versions of
the fractions so that they share the LCD.
_ wt (2=2)- 5 (i)
14-w*\w-3) w?(w—3)\14w0?
_(w+l)\(w-3) 70”
14w'(w—3) 14w*(w—3)
> (w® — 2w -3)—70w" Factoving
Sx — ea takes
14w* (w—3
ic 69 ysee (w—3)
—2uw —3
two steps. Fivst,
Pactor our the
14w* (w —3) greatest common
Ractor: S(x’ - 1).
x-2 ax -3 Now factor < -4,
3.5. Simplify the expression:
Bx?
—45 x? —x—-12 the aifference oF
perfect squares: |
Factor the denominators. S(x + 3)(x - 9).
x-2 x3
5(x+3)(x-3) (x-—4)(x+3)
The LCD is 5(x + 3)(x-3)(x-4).

mp mre? (==4)- 2x—3 Eat

5(x+3)(x—3)\x-4/]. (x—4)(x+3)| 5(x—3)
Me (x —2)(x—4) ee ey)
5(x+3)(x—3)(x—4) 5(x+3)(x—3)(x—-4)
~ (x? —6x+8)—(10x* — 45x +45)
és 5(x+3)(x—3)(x—-4)
- —9x? + 39x — 37
~ B(x +3)(x—3)(x—4)

3.6 Explain why the process used to simplify the following expression is incorrect.

The fraction ; 4 can be rewritten as two fractions with a common denominator.

2 — . * . .

v—-4 x? 4
4 44 4
2
x —4
Therefore, properly reducing the fraction to simplest terms results in ae
not x*— 1.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

29
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

6x?” y? + xy"
3.7 Simplify the expression: 10x"

“ Factor the numerator.

Accovding
to the Qxy" (3x + y’)
exponential rules 10x°y°
from Chapter 2,
you cam sulbtvact For the moment, ignore the quantity (3x + y’) and reduce the rational
exponents when equal expression any
10x°y*
bases ave divided:
Oxy" (3x+ °) 9x y (3x +°)
hie SE BE a
nee eens oe ye (8x +y")
rae | 1
_ ¥ (8x+5")
x 5x?

64x° — y°
3.8 Simplify the expression: dea ay
To factor
the aiffevence
of perfect cubes, Factor the numerator and denominator. Note that the numerator is the difference
vemember the formula of perfect cubes.

a-p=atantd’.|n
this problem, a = 4x and (4x— y)(x—8y)
b= y. To factor Eliminate the common factor of (4x-— y).
Ax? -B3xy + Sy’,
use factoving by (4x3) (16x" + 4xy+y°) _ 16x? + 4ay ty”
Aecowmposition (like in
Problem 2.27).
(4x9) (x89) a
Neither the numerator nor the denominator can be factored further.

Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

Multiplying = easy, Aividing = almost as easy
3 a
3.9 Calculate the product: e Ie s
y de

The numerator of the product is the product of the numerators, and the
denominator of the product is the product of the denominators.

(3xz°)(7x*y°) 21x%y%2°
(y?)(928) = Qy2z*

; 1 ts ey : :
Notice that ~ = re ss To reduce the variable portion of the expression, recall
Chat Sesh
. Lytyty ee Te 7x? y

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

30
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

ae a 2.5 7
3.10 Calculate the product: aa ete
10w" }\ 11x" y

Before you multiply the numerators together, it’s helpful to reduce the
coefficients. Any factor in either numerator can be reduced using any factor in
either denominator: 2° =2 and 2. =1.
EL el TG =2

as ES 4 3
ech hy ome OD 2ap- gape eeg Ok ok wt 3__ ow y
1S.
a xt aple Ww y UE al) sae
2x 7

2 o\—"
3.11 Calculate the product: C= (¥] :
r .
You coula also
Before multiplying, raise each fraction to the power indicated. interpret the hegative
exponent as a vecipvocal,
3s xe 6-2) ye
hele ae vewvite
38 72-2)
77] AS ei] SO you
S O70 \e
i 2 62y° Aow't have to mess
with lots of negative
. 27x° 2)
exponents later,
36 yz?
3x°xz
4y?

3.12 Calculate the product: a 2 = =|

A 4xy ]\ x+6

Apply the FOIL method when multiplying the numerators. In other words
Wy-
Aivi- di).ng
by x” Means the
(x-1)(2x-5) - 2x? —7x+5 Same as “multiplyi
4xy?(x+6) 4x7 + 24xy" ng by the
VeCcipvoca) of x.” ye res
b er

really equals (
a4
3.13 Calculate the quotient: a mo =

The quotient wha (where band dare nonzero real numbers) is equivalent to

*)( 10 \- 30x
4)\6x-9) 24x -36
To reduce the fraction, factor the denominator.
30x B+ Bex
12(2x—3) 6-2+(2x—3)
. 5x
~ 2(2x—3)

eee
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems oo
31
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions
—eeeEeEeEeEeEeseeeseeeee
eo eee

3.14 Calculate the following quotient and write the answer in simplest form.
Bee lle | ox 2x5 :
x” —49 x” —6x—7

Factor the polynomials and rewrite the quotient as a product (as explained in
Problem 3.13).

(3x—5)(x—2) (38x—5)(e+1)_ (8x—5)(x=2) (x —7)(x +1)

(x+7)(x—7) (x—7)(x+1) (x+7)(x-7) (3x—5)(x+1)
_ (38x—5)(x-2)(x-7)(e +1)
(x +7)(x —7)(3x—5)(x+1)

Eliminate any binomial factors that appear in both the numerator and
denominator.

Bx) (x-2) GH (st) _ x2

(x+7) (x7) (3x=5) (xT) x +7

3.15 Calculate the following quotient and write the answer in simplest form.
a +8 Sxt16
(x+8) x? +16x +64

Notice that x° + 8 is a perfect cube (which should be factored according to the

formula in Problem 2.25) and x’ + 16x + 64 is a perfect square (because it has two
equivalent factors).
(x + 2)(x° — 2x +4) SSG 2)
(x+8)° " (x+8)°
Convert this quotient into a product and simplify.

a (x +2)(x? =2x+4) (x+8)°

(x+8)° 8(x +2)
_ (erB) (x? - 2x + 4)(248) (348)
(58) (+8) (x +8)(8)(x42)
_ x —2n+4
if 8x +64
3.16 Write the following expression in simplest form.
I= : 16x° 4x? +10x
(e-2 244° GP 4 8e 10

Begin by calculating the quotient. Rewrite the quotient as a multiplication

problem and factor.
Division
comes befove
Addition, ACCovAing
to the ovder of
Opevations,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

32
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

x, 16x!
4x!+13x—-12
x—-2 “+4 4x” +10x Dowt
ee , 16x! (4x ~-3)(x+4) forget
x-2 xt+4 2x(2x+5) that you
x 82 x: (Ax—3)(e+) Sen
Sa x—-2 Zx(x44) (2x +5) 1use
the
ate orauc
eh 8x (4x — 3) Aenominator:
2 BRAS (x - 2)(2x«
+ $9).
Calculate the sum.

2) Sey
: (x —2)(2x +5)
a (—2x? - 5x) + (32x° — 64x? — 24x? + 48x)
2x? + x—-10
ri 32x° — 90x” + 43x
2x? +x—-10

Solving Rational Equations

Heve comes cvoss multiplication
Ce a Multiply
3.17 Find all solutions to the proportion: 3, ~ j9 - the left
numevatoey

Cross multiply and solve for x. times the vight

Aenominatoy
4(12) = 3x(x) AnA

48 = 3x° oe iF equal to the

; ett Aenominatey
16=x multiplica by the vight
+4= 1% numerator: += =
b ecomes
Therefore, x = —4 or 4.
AA = be,
ON See)
3.18 Find all solutions to the proportion: 746 ~ 9 -

Cross multiply and solve for x.

(2x —7)(x — 2) =(x+6)(2x
—1)
Qn? —11x+14=2x? +11lx—-6
Qn? —Ix? —11x—-llx =—-14-6
—22x
= —20
20 10
x==
22> 48

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

33
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions
fe

—4
3.19 Find all solutions to the equation: ete 0.
x+3 4

Transform the equation into a proportion by adding — to both sides of the

equation.
Ai ee
x+3 4

Cross multiply to eliminate the fractions.

Heve’s
2(4) =(x«+3)(x—-4)
how you ger
those answers: 8=x*-x-12

7 +
= 4d — 4(\)(3)
ne Apply the factoring method to solve the quadratic equation.
x= 2
x —x—-20=0
7++49-\2
pee (re=) (ated ant
x=—-4or5

2 :
3.20. Find all solutions to the equation: 2**
~+ 4 5—9,
x

Create a proportion and cross multiply.

ep 2a 3 me
x 1
x? +2x+3=—5x
x +7x+3=0

According to the quadratic formula, the solutions are x =—

Simplify the left side of the equation.

4 Late
3.21 Find all solutions to the equation:
2x+1 ane

AAdeeay to 4 (34)-=
~3 together using the St 1 2x+1 x

COMMON Aenominatoy
pn a 4—3(2x+1)_ x+5
2x+ | to get one 2x+1 x
fraction on the left 4 ONS. oliilend
: 2x+1 x
SiAe of :
, the equation, S651 oe
so you'll be able to as
2x +1 x
Cross multiply,
Cross multiply and solve using the quadratic formula.
(—6x +1) (x) = (2x +1)(x +5)
— 6x" +x
=2x? +1 1x +5
0 = 8x" +10x+5
= ot
The solution is x = eee

the Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

34
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

pat
cr 5 td
3.22 Solve the equation in Problem 3.21 again Ret 3=223) but this time
eliminate the fractions by multiplying the entire equation by its least common
. . i . . . * x“ .

denominator, Verify that you get the same solutions.

; Sometimes
The denominators of the terms, from left to right, are (2x + 1), 1, and x; the least Multiplying a
common denominator is x(2x + 1). Multiply each term of the equation by that entive eaquatic

“cen eee
value. Something Pole

2x +1 1 x

4x (2x41) 3x(2x +1) _ £(2x+1)(x+5)

QT 1 K
4x— 6x? — 3x = 2x7 +11x +5
0 = 8x? +10x+5

This matches the quadratic equation from Problem 3.21, so it will have identical
solutions.

3.23 Find all solutions to the equation :

See esisielinhenmniietbue sibilant,
:
—_ =
:

Factor the denominators.

5 3 1
fens ae
(x — 2) x x (x a 2)

The least common denominator of all three terms is x*(x— 2)*. Multiply each term
by the LCD to eliminate the fractions.

—
—5x? (xB
I $e
3x% (x-2)° eas
x +x (xD) (x-2)
ay xe ted
—5x? + 3(x—2)° =x(x—2)
—5x? +3(x° —4x +4) =x" —2x
—5x* + 3x” —12x +12 =x" — 2x
— 3x? —10x+12=0

5-61 5+ 61
According to the quadratic formula, the solutions are x =— 3
v6l anes 3
the xvalues
that make the
Polynomial and Rational Inequalities polynomial equal 0.

Critical numbers break up your number line

3.24 Write the solution to the inequality using interval notation: (x — 3)(2x +1) <0.

Calculate the inequality’s critical numbers.

tang 2x +1= 0
1
x=3 = x=-—=

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

35
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

Draw a number line with these points marked; they split the number line into
three intervals: (-«5 (-5.3} and (3,%), as illustrated by Figure 3-1.

[39] (3,0)
Use open Acts ;
line Pov +
on the number
ed Aots
Lana 7 ana clos
Rov < ana 2.

a
Figure 3-1 = The critical numbers of (x — 3)(2x + 1) < 0 arex = Se and x = 3.

The solution to the inequality may be any combination of those three intervals. To
determine which belong to the solution, pick a value from each (called the “test

(1) | GH
value” of the interval) and plug them into the original inequality.

(3,00)
Test Value: x =5
Test Value: x =—1 Test Value: x =0
If the Aots weve
(-—1-3)(2(-1)+1)<0 | (0-—3)(2(0)
+1) <0 (5-—3)(2(5)+1)
<0
closed on the graph,
the solution would VY (—4)(-1) <0 (—3)() <0 (2)1) <0
have been 23} 5<0 -3<0 29 <0
False True False

Only values from the interval (-3.3] make the inequality true, so that is the final
; ; : 1 :
solution to the inequality. Note that x=—> and x= 3 are excluded from the solution
because the critical numbers are excluded from the graph in Figure 3-1.

3.25 Graph the solution to the inequality: x° +x 22 .

Move all the terms to the left side of the inequality and factor.
x +x-220
(x+2)(x-1)=0
The critical numbers for this inequality are x = -2 and x= 1. Graph both ona
number line using solid dots, as illustrated by Figure 3-2.

4 --3 -2 -l 0 1 2 3 4
Figure 3-2 The critical numbers ofx” +x = 2 are x= -2 and x = 1.

The number line is split into three intervals: (— ,—2], [—2,1], and [1,). Choose
one test value from each interval (such as x=—5, x= 0, and x= 2, respectively) and
plug each into the inequality to determine the solution.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

36
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

Use
It is more expedient to substitute into the factored version of the polynomial, as
the arithmetic is simpler. rackets
next to
(—,—2] [-2,1] pK) -2 and \
Test Value: x =—5 Test Value: x =0 Test Value: x =2 since they've
(-—5+2)(-5-1)=0 (0+2)(0-—1)=0 (2+2)(2-1)=0 graphed as soliA
(=3)(=6)20 (2)(—1)=0 (4)(1)=0 dots, out always
18>0 -~2>0 4>0
ie by retin,
o matrer
True False True Sear
what Aotrs ave
The solution is (— %,—2] or [1,~); graph both intervals on the same number line, as
numbers.
illustrated in Figure 3-3.

4 3 2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 3-3 The solution graph of x + x = 2.

3.26 Graph the solution to the inequality: 2x” — 3x —8 <0.

3+V/73
Calculate the critical numbers via the quadratic formula: «= 4
. Usea

calculator to determine approximate decimal values for the critical numbers:

am ~—1.386 and ae ~ 2.886. Choose test values (such as x = —-2, x=0, and x= 4)
$—J73 34/73
to verify that the solution is }as graphed in Figure 3-4.
Aan 4

3-73 3+ 73
4 \ 4

4 3 2 -1 0 1 2 S] 4

Figure 3-4 The solution graph of2x? — 3x—-8 <0. \

2 fA
3.27. Graph the solution to the inequality: 16x" — 24x +9 20.

Factor the quadratic and note that this polynomial has a double root (because the
polynomial is a perfect square).
(4x — 3)(4x -—3) 20 /

The only critical number is xs graphing that value results in two possible
interval solutions (as illustrated by Figure 3-5): |-»*7 |and <<}

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

37
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

Figure 35 The only critical number of 1 6x” — 24x +920 isx= 4

if the
Neither interval is a solution to the inequality; verify using the test values x= 0 and
inequality haa x = 1—both make the inequality false.
een ox? - 24x + 17 0,
peen
there would have Test value x =0 Test value x =1
olution at al , pe cause
(4(0) -—3)(4(0)-3) rt =f
(4(1)-3)(4(1)-3) <0
ae dots ave excluaea eer <0
Pyow solution intervals.
ee 1<0
False False

Therefore, the only solution to the inequality is the solid dot x =~ in Figure 3-5.

3.28 Write the solution to the inequality using interval notation:

Basically, Critical numbers are x-values that cause an expression to equal 0 or x-values that
any x-value cause an expression to be undefined. Whereas polynomial inequalities do not
that makes address the latter case, rational inequalities do.

the wUMmevatoy Ensure that the rational expression alone appears on the left side of the inequality
ov Aenominatoy and that 0 appears on the right side. Set the numerator and denominator equal to
of the fraction 0 and solve the resulting equations.
equal 0is a
critical number. x+1=0 Ss
x=—1 ai vox 1
3
Plot those critical numbers on the number line, as illustrated in Figure 3-6. Notice
1
that*~3 is plotted with an open dot, even though the sign of the inequality is
“2”. Any critical number generated by setting the denominator equal to 0 must be
It cant be a plotted as an gpen dot, regardless of the inequality sign. Therefore, the possible
solution, DECAUSE solution intervals are (—%,— 1], -13h and ac}
plugging it into the
imequality MEANS
Aividing vy 0, ana
that’s not allowed.

ys x+1 i
The critical numbers of eae: =0 arex =-l1 andx=-—.
O
Figure 3-6
I Tania
those, only x =—I1 can be part of the solution.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

38
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions
0

Choose test values from those intervals (such as —3, 0, and 1, respectively) to verify
that the solution is (—%,—1] or (5.2)

(—,—1]
Test Value: x =—3
A union makes one
big thing by combining
two smaller things. For
example, the solution
graph in Figure 3-7 is
created by combining
two inequality
graphs.

The solution graph is the union of the graphs of the solution intervals, pictured in
Figure 3-7.

!
Figure .
3-7 The e solution
soluti graph h of 3 Sy
x — 1

3x? +17x +24

3.29 Graph the solution to the inequality: ——.———_ <0.
P q i. 3x? + 2x

Factor the numerator and denominator.

(3x +8)(x+3) aa
x(3x+2)
Set both the numerator and denominator equal to 0 in order to calculate the
critical numbers: x= fe sl 0. Plot those values, keeping in mind that x = 0
and x= -;must be graphed with an open dot (because they make the expression
undefined). Choose test values from each of the five resulting intervals and
darken the intervals that satisfy the inequality, as illustrated by Figure 3-8.

eee ap? = ae 0 1
3 3

2
The solution to the inequality eA < 0 is -3-5]
3x? + 2x :
Figure 3-8 or (-3.0}

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

39
 Chapter Three — Rational Expressions

pee . : x+ 2
3.30 Write the solution to the inequality using interval notation: oa a5.
Make suve
youve gor 0 om Subtract 3 from both sides of the inequality and then identify critical numbers.
the vight side of
the inequality ana
a single fraction om
the left before you Simplify the left side of the inequality using the least common denominator x — 4.
stavt looking ov x+2 =(2=4)
critical wumoevs. = >0
x-4 I1\x-4
x+2 3x-12
—_ >0
x—-4 x—4
(x+2)~ (3x12) | 9
x—4
x—3x+2+12
—————> 0
x—4
~2e414 SG
x—-4
The critical numbers of the inequality are x = 4 and x= 7, so the possible solution
intervals are (—,4), (4,7), and (7,0). Use test values from each interval to
determine that the solution is (4,7).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

40
 Chapter 4
FUNCTIONS
Now you'll stawt seeing L(x) all ovev the place

Whereas linear, polynomial, and rational equations are both useful and
ubiquitous in advanced mathematics, concise definitions of mathematical
relationships are essential once theory and proof are involved. That the
function automatically assures us of predictable behavior is a given, but that
you know how to manipulate such expressions is not, hence this chapter.

y eee wl
on is an eq ua ti on wit h certain benefits. T he
A functi polynomials si Pete
ear equations and
little aifferent than the lin on
cha rte rs, so the y'v e ea sy to spot. Rather than equari
preceding Tana
y = De x 7x - |0, th ey lock like £0) = 3x -
look like y = 3x - TF and
ao wt have to si ee a
10 (Te chn ica lly , th ey
(x) = 2x + Tx - ave w vitten like rhar. ae
i
ee quality as a Function,i pw + most functions
A
bo y one Ourpu
he gua van tee : Rov eve ry input, youll get one ana onl
pats me thing:
= 3x — 9, youll always get the sa
IP you plug x = | into P(x) so
-6. Mo st i 2 cal cul us dea ls with functions exclusively,
Q(\) =3(\) - 1 =
ng.
they've well worth veview
 Chapter Four — Functions
[—

Combining Functions
Do the usual (+, x, and +) ov plug ‘ew into each other
an of
The Qom
n is the 4.1 Is the relation s: {(—3,2), (4,1), (8,2)}, a function? Justify your answer.
a functio
of all its :
collection
inputs. The
vange °
Yes, sis a function because each member of the}domain (-3, 4, and 8)
the set
aA Lunc tion 1S \
ibs corresponds to exactly one member of the range (2, 1, and 2). In other words,
conraining 2 s(—3) = 2, s(4) = 1, and s(8) = 2. While it’s true that s(—3) and s(8) both have the
ourpurs. same output, that does not invalidate the function. Two inputs may have identical
outputs, as long as each input corresponds only to that output and no other.

4.2 Find real number values for mand n such that the following relation is not a
function.
p:{(-4,-1), (-2,7), (0,3), (m,n), (10,8)}

There The relation p is not a function if any element of the domain has more than one
ave an infinite corresponding range element. Therefore, if mis equal to any other member of the
domain and n does not match that element’s range element, pis not a function.
number of answers.
Any of the four following possibilities are viable solutions to this problem: m= —4
Heve’s one: w = 0,
and n # -1; m=-2 and n # 7; m=O and n # 3; and m= 10 and n # 8.
n= S. That woulda
mean p contains (0/3)
4.3. Finda real number value for c that ensures the following relation is one-to-one.
ana (0,5), so the put
0 covvesponas to two
7. {(-2,9), (-l1,¢), (0, —4), Ch -13), (2,-6)}

aiflevent outputs,
Zava Ss. As discussed in Problems 4.1-4.2, no function may have an input element that
corresponds to two different output elements. If a function is one-to-one, the
reverse is also true—each element of the range corresponds to exactly one
domain element, so c may be any real number except -13, —6, —4, or 9. No matter
what real number is substituted for c, j will be a function, but it will only be one-to-
one if those four values are avoided.

4.4 Given the functions f: {(-1,10), (3,5), (10,-6)} and g: {(-1, —4), (3,0), (10, —5)},
calculate (f+ g)(10).

Note that (f+ g)(10) = f(10) + g(10).

(f + g)(10)= f(10)+ (10)
=(-6)+(-5)
=-11

4.5 Given the functions f(x) = x°+ 4 and g(x) = («+ 4)’, calculate (Je) (-2).

Note that (fg) (-2) = f(-2) + g(-2).

(fe)(-2) =f (-2)- g(-2)
= ((-2)" +4)-(-2+4)
=(4+4)(2)°
= 8(4)
= 32
K———_
ante
The Humongous Book of Calculus Prelblems
42
 Chapter Four — Functions
eee ee RS eC ane

4.6 Given the functions f(x) = x+ 1 and g(x) = 6x’ + 19x- 36, determine the domain
of {Lo
|

Heve’s how
The function
L\
y= £0. x+1 to Factor by
- g(x) 6x?+19 —36 1 undefined whenever its denominator
Aecomposition (the
neaA
equals 0. Set g(x) = 0 and solve to identify those values, which must be excluded technique explai
from the domain.
in Problem 2.27):
Gee CL g) x = 56
6x?+ 19x- 36 =0
— 36
= 6x?+ 21x— 8%
Factor the polynomial. + q)
= 3x (2x+ 9 — 4(2K
(2x + 9)(3x-—4)=0
2x+9=0 3x-4=0
= (2x +4) Ox- 4)
9
x=-— os
2
: if i 9 4
The domain of| = |(x) is all real numbers except x = ar and x=-—.
&

4.7 Given functions /(x) = x and g(x) = 2x+ 5, find (f° g)(x) and (ge f)(x),

The notation (f ° g)(x) is read “fcomposed with gof x,” and is equivalent
to f(g(x)). In other words, the function g(x) should be substituted into f(x).
Similarly, (g ° f)(x) = g(f(x)).

(f° g)(x)= f(g(x)) (g° f)(x)= els)

= f(2x+5)
IF you have
= g(x ) Something that
a (Dade 5)
= Q(x?) +5 looks like Vx and
= 4%" + 20x +25 = 2x? +5
nis €veu, they

4.8 ue f@=~vx and g(x) =x" —12x+36 | find (f° g)(x) and
yx = [x| p
gof lx).

(fo g)(x)= f(g(x))

= f (x? -12x + 36) (g°s)(=)=e(F@)
= /x* -12x + 36 ( )
= e—6y eeu Start with W(70)
and work your way
=Ix—
6) =x—12Vx +36 Prom the inside
out

1 In other words, plug

4.9 Given the functions f(x) = oo g(x).= x— 2x, and h(x) = /x —6, calculate what you get from
f(g(h(70))). la ee ee ee
N(70) into a(n), eaned
then plug that vesult
tuto L(x),
Evaluate the innermost function.

h(70) = 3/70 —6 = 64 = V4° =4

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

43
 Chapter Four — Functions

Substitute (70) = 4 into the function: f(g(h(70))) = f(g(4)). Once again evaluate
the innermost function, which is now g(x).
g(4) =4-2(4)?=4-2(16) =-28
By substitution, f(g(4)) = f(-28). Evaluate f(-28) to complete the problem.

(- 28) == =3'9 = eek

f ee ty ae 25
1
Therefore, f (g(n(70))) aoe:

3
KR i 4.10 Given the functions f(x)= x, g(x)= oT and h(x)=——~~ find Aen)

2 } Substitute h(x) into g(x).

4CISD
Se 2x
1

Evactions aSox Je

Conraining f 1
Ryactions ave§calcd Bil-x +1
hex and Lex
ae ommMon 1
| using the © ~1=x
Denominator, *- +1
Simplify the complex fraction.
1
g(h(x))= ne
x
42 x
1
(l—x)+x
*
cos
Kal
x
Multiply the numerator and denominator of the complex fraction by the
reciprocal of its denominator to simplify.

pte eeag
x
Sees

g(h(x))=T
=x
Substitute g(h(x)) = xinto the expression: /(g(h(x))) = f(x) =

44 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Four — Functions

Graphing Function Transformations

Stvetches, squishes, flips, and slides
Stowt
OVeYV With the
Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x) in Figure 4-1, so that you
can more effectively juxtapose the effects of the transformations. It is not beneficial to determine original graph of
P(x) in cach Problem
the equations that generate the graph.
Dut don't worry about
what the actual)
4.11 Graph f(x) - 2.
Punction is. Just pay
attention to whey is
the points on the
graph will go.

Figure 4-1
The graph off(x), to be transformed in
Problems 4.11-4.18.

Moving
the
points of a
When a constant is added to, or subtracted from, a function, it shifts the graph graph Aown 2
vertically. Adding a constant c moves each point on the graph up c units, and units Means you
subtracting c moves the graph down c units. Therefore, each point on the graph of shoula subtvact
f(x) -— 2 should be plotted two units below its corresponding point on the graph of 2 from the y-
J(x), as illustrated by Figure 4-2. coordinates of
tts points.

Figure 4-2
The graph off(x) — 2 is the graph off(x) Reaa
moved down two units. that cavefully,
Adding inside the
Paventheses moves the
function LEFT not vight,
ana subtracting Soa 7
the function RIGHT.

Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x) in Figure 4-1.
4.12 Graph f(x- 3).

Notice that 3 is subtracted from x, whereas the constant was subtracted from /(x)
in Problem 4.11. This operation causes a horizontal shift on its graph. Note that
subtracting a constant moves the graph to the right, and adding moves the graph
left. Therefore, the graph of /(x— 3) is simply the graph of f(x) moved three units
to the right, as illustrated in Figure 4-3.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

45
 Chapter Four — Functions

Figure 4-3
The graph off(x — 3) ts the graph off(x)
moved three units to the right.

The
oviginal L(x)
Ivaph contains
the points (-2,-2)
ANA 3, I).Take Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x) in Figure 4-1.
< Opposites of 4.13. Graph -/(x). :
the ys to get the
COvvespondin = Multiplying a function by -1 reflects its graph across the x-axis. If f(x) contains the
on P(x); onan point (x,y), then —/(x), graphed in Figure 4-4, contains the point (x,-y).
ANA (3,- |ps

Figure 4-4
The graph of —f(x) is the reflection off(x)
across the x-axis.

Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x) in Figure 4-1.
4.14 Graph f(-x).

Multiplying x by —1 reflects the graph of f(x) across the y-axis; if {(x) contains the
point (x,y), then /(—x) contains the point (—x,y), as illustrated in Figure 4-5.

Figure 4-5
The graph off(—x) is the reflection off(x)
across the y-axis.

46 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Four — Functions
ae een ec SE

Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x) in Figure 4-1.
4.15 Graph afte)

Multiplying a function by a constant affects the y-values of its coordinates. If the

Multiply the y-
graph of f(x) contains the point (x,)), then the graph of c+ f(x) contains the point
values by >v Be
(x, c+ y). In this case, each point on 5sfx ) is half the distance from the x-axis as cause
the corresponding point on graph of J(x), as illustrated by Figure 4-6. P(x) contains th
e ae
(-S,4) ana
(3,1), SF 6s)
will contain e
s Points
Figure 4-6 (-S,2) ana (25)
Points on the graph of5<i x) are half as .
far from the x-axis as the corresponding
points off(x).

The
Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x) in Figure 4-1.
Points on the
4.16 Graph /(2x).
gvaph of £(2x) have

Whereas multiplying f(x) by a constant affects the distance of its points from the xValues that are
> |
x-axis, stretching it away from (or compacting it toward) the x-axis (as explained as lavge as the ovig
ina)
in Problem 4.15), multiplying x by a constant inversely affects the distance of a Points on L(x), Be
cause
function’s coordinates from the y-axis. Although you might expect the coordinates P(x) contained Points
of f(cx) to be c times further from the y-axis than the corresponding points on -S,4) ana (2=A
, }£(2x)
j(x), the points are actually ~times as far away, as illustrated by Figure 4-7.
Contains |->/4
and (I, =

Figure 4-7
Points on the graph off(2x) are half as far
from the y-axis as the corresponding points
off(x).
Any
CoovAinate
that hada negative
yvalue now has a
Positive y-value:
Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations of the graph f(x)in ar 4-1. (—2i2[)\e( S290) ema
4.17 Graphlf (x). ES, 21) =e oy
By taking the absolute value of f(x), you change all negative outputs into their
opposites while leaving positive outputs unchanged. In other words, if /(x)
contains the point (x,y), then |f(x)| contains the point (x, raphically, this
means any portion of /(x) below the x-axis is reflected above the x-axis, but the
rest of the graph does not change.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

47
 Chapter Four — Functions
pe

Figure 4-8
The graph ofif(x JI

Note: Problems 4.11-4.18 address transformations

of the graph f(x) in Figure el
To 4.18 Graph f (lel)
vag L(xl) ,
completely evase The f (|x|) transformation affects coordinates with negative x-values. Consider
the parr of the this: x= 1 and x=-1 must have the same output for f (|x|), since f (|-1|) = f(). In
vapn that's lett of fact, every x in the domain of the function must output a value that matches its
the y-axis (put keer opposite; therefore, f(x) = f(—x) even if—x does not belong to the domain off(x).
:
the -ntervceP x if there
Graphically speaking, if f(x) contains point (x,y), and x> 0, then f(|x|) contains
4 Replace the ew
is one).
the the point (-x,y). The net result: f (|x|) is symmetric about the y-axis based on
tive left halt of
covainate AKES with its positive domain, as illustrated by Figure 4-9. See Problem 4.21 for another
a yetlection of its vignt example of this transformation for additional clarification.
side (sort of like you
Did ineave
Prod! ew 4A\A—
the points
justthe
oo | Sst
ana C
Avanrs
re au .
Figure 4-9
alone). The graph off (|x|) is symmetric about
the y-axis

You neea to 4.19 Sketch the graph of f(x) = (x+2)?-1 without a calculator by applying graphical
know what the transformations.
graph of x* looks
Vee. If you Aowt, He To transform the function y= x? (the dotted curve in Figure 4-10) into
to the back of the f(x) = (x + 2)?—1 (the solid curve in Figure 4-10), you must to add 2 to x (which
ook ana check out shifts its graph left two units) and subtract 1 from f(x) (which shifts the graph
Appenaix A: Im
portant down one unit).
Graphs ana
TW anslovrmMarions.

4g «he Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 ee haptenFours Functions

Figure 4-10
The graphs of y = x’ (dotted) and
J(x) = (x + 2)? — 1 (solid).

4.20 Sketch the graph of g(x) =— x2 +4,

There are three transformations that change y =|x| (the dotted curve in Figure
4-11) into g(x) =- at 4 (the solid curve in Figure 4-11):

1. Multiplying x by 5 stretches its graph horizontally along the x-axis by a

factor of 3.
2. Multiplying by —-1 reflects its graph across the x-axis
3. Adding 4 moves the graph up four units.

Figure 4-11
The graphs of y = |x| (dotted) and

g(x) = LZ +4 (solid).

4.21 Sketch the graph of h(x) = 34x] — 4 without a graphing calculator.

Three transformations are required to change ) = Vx (the dotted curve in

Figure 4-12) into h(x) = 34/|x| — 4 (the solid curve in Figure 4-12): the absolute
value within the square root function replaces all points for which x < 0 (via the
technique of Problem 4.18), multiplying the function by 3 stretches its graph
vertically by a factor of 3, and subtracting 2 moves the graph down 2 units).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 49
 Chapter Four — Functions

Figure 4-12
The graphs ofy = Vx (dotted)
and h(x) = 34)\x| — 4 (solid).

Inverse Functions
Functions that cancel other functions out

4.22 Given the function s {(-2.-»/- 13 }(0.).(44).8,-9)} define the inverse

Any function, s’. “
output of Lx) is
ei tor FG.)
ANA vice Versa, To generate the inverse of a function, reverse the coordinate pairs—if s(x) = y,
then s'(y) =x.
3
ged: {(-2-2).5.-1).(4.0),(4.).-9.9)}

Rewrite s', listing the domain elements from least to greatest.

S {(-9,8),-1.-2).0.0)(2.-1),4.0}

4.23 Given f(x) graphed in Figure 4-13, sketch the graph of f(x).

Reverse
the x's
and y’s of the
Figure 4-13
points on Figure The graph of a one-to-one function f(x).
4-\3 to get the new
points (3S), (0-4),
(3,-\), amd (473) ana
connect the Aots
to get the graph
of £'(%).

The graph of a function and its inverse are reflections of one another across the
line y= x, as illustrated by Figure 4-14.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

50
 Chapter Four — Functions
I

Figure 4-14
The dotted graph of a function f(x) and the
solid graph of its inverse f-'(x) are reflections
of one another across the line y = x.

4.24 Given the function g(x) graphed in Figure 4-15, explain why g“(x) does not
exist.

Figure 4-15
The graph offunction g(x).

In order for a g"'(x) to exist, g(x) must be one-to-one (as defined by Problem 4.3).
However, g(x) fails the horizontal line test, indicating that it is not one-to-one,
and therefore does not have an inverse. According to the horizontal line test, any
horizontal line drawn across a one-to-one function won’t intersect that graph
more than once. However, the horizontal lines y = —2 and y = —3 both intersect
g(x) twice.

P . xt4
4.25 Given g(x)= a? find g(x).

Rewrite g(x) as y.
x4
ae
Reverse the x and y variables, substituting x for y and vice versa.
; ts
7

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

51
 Chapter Four — Functions

Solve for y. 7x=y+4

y=7x—4
Rewrite yas g7'(x).
g(x) =7x-4

the
var of :
4.26 Given f(x) = 2 +1 (x= 0), find f(x).
269)= 2 + | Bails
Lhe horizontal line
Rewrite f(x) as y.
Lest. That's why the io
problem includes
x > 0, which says +o
Rovget arpout the halt Reverse x and y.
: x=ytl]
of the pavatoola cc-AKIS,
eae YOu \
the lett ofhat way Solve for y
x-l=y"
ee ictal a
ae
Vine test. (Look at 3 +Jx—-1=y
epee)
rhe grarh 4-\¢,)
Note that f(x) doesn’t equal both Vx —1 and —Vx —1; only one of those equations
is a reflection of f(x) = x° + 1 (x # 0) across the line y = x (as illustrated by Figure
4-16): f-' (x) =x —1. Discard the negative radical.

The
leftover
Piece of gvaph
Prom Figure 4-|¢,
Figure 4-16
eee | ,Sa Notice that f(x) = x° + 1 and
veflection of the
f 1 (x) =x —1 are reflections of
Pavabola half that one another across the y-axis. The
got cut out by the
vestviction x > 0, equation y = —Vx — 1, a byproduct of
the inverse function creation process, 1s
superfluous.

+4 : :
4.27 Verify that g (x)= and g(x) = ix 4 (from Problem 4.25) are inverses by
demonstrating that g(g~(x)) = g7(g(x)) =x. AG

Perform composition of functions using the method of Problems 4.7 and 4.8.

Ce _(7x-4)+4 |ee g'(e()=6"(*5*}

7
= " ! Le
I = —4
7% ! (7
er, =x+4-4
=x =x

52 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Four — Functions
——

4.28 Verify that f(x) = x2 +1 (x # 0) and f~'(x)=Vx—1 (from Problem 4.26) are
inverses by demonstrating that SF (%)) = fF J(x)) = x.

fC @)=f(Ve=1) 1SY)
=sF7 (+1) Technically,
|
|
|
| x =|x[, but
=( x—1) +1! = f(x? +1)-1 thanks to the x D0
vestviction on L(x), ¥
=x-1+41 | awe
ee ! 7 can't be negative and
the absolute Values
aven'- necessary,

Asymptotes of Rational Functions

Equations of the untouchable Aotted line
If
4.29 Identify the vertical asymptote to the graph of y= Ccmakes
x-3
the top ana
If substituting c into the rational expression causes the denominator to equal 0, the bottom of the
then x= cis a vertical asymptote of f(x), as long as the numerator does not equal 0 fraction equal 0, it
as well. Set the denominator equal to 0 and solve. usually means there's
a hole in the graph.
x—-3=0
In Chapter 10, you'll
x3
use limits to figure
Because x = 3 causes the denominator to equal 0 (and the numerator does not out where that
equal 0), x= 3 is a vertical asymptote of the function’s graph.
hole is,
=o
4.30 entify the
Identify th vertical
tical asymptotes to th the graph Lot
totes to of y=
y Gy? oan
236

Set the denominator equal to 0 and solve the quadratic by factoring.

3x" — 23x —36=0

(3x +4)(x-9)=0 If the numevator's
3x +4=
; 0‘ Ge Aegree is higher than the
x= or Oey Aenominator's, the function
4
won't have any hovizontal
x=-— asymptotes,
3
Both x-values cause the denominator (but not the numerator) to equal 0, so they
+4
are asymptotes to the graph:*"~3 and x=9.

2
See
4.31 Identify the horizontal asymptote to the graph of g(x) =——;——
—2x*° —16—
/

Compare the degrees of the polynomials in the numerator and denominator to

determine the equation of the horizontal asymptote (if it exists). In this case, the
degree of the numerator is 2, and the degree of the denominator is 3. When the
denominator’s degree is greater than the numerator’s degree, the function has
horizontal asymptote y = 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Probl

ems
53
 chapter Four — Functions

2x — 3)(x +6
4.32 Identify the horizontal asymptote to the graph of h(x) = ey

Calculate the products in the numerator and denominator.

The 2x? +9x —18

coefficient Gn)
of the x that’s
7 aa ores
VAISEA to the When the degrees of the numerator and denominator are equal, the graph of
highest Power,
the function will have horizontal asymptote y= i: where aand bare the leading
eee ee of the numerator and denominator, respectively.

2 1 F
Yi ee
; : 3x" —13x +4
4.33 Determine the equations of all asymptotes to the graph of f (x)= pee

The numerator and denominator have equal degrees, so the horizontal asymptote
is equal to the quotient of their leading coefficients, as explained in Problem 4.32.
Slant
ea
=

asywmptotes
occu only when
To determine the vertical asymptotes, factor the polynomials.
the degree of the
WUMevator is one tex
1) 4)
number greater than tae)
the Aegvee of the Set the factors of the denominator equal to 0 and solve to get x= —3 and x= 3.
Aenominatoy, Neither of those values causes the numerator to equal 0 as well, so both represent
vertical asymptotes. Therefore, the equations of the asymptotes to f(x) are x =—-3,
x= 3, and y=3.

4.34 Find the equation of the slant asymptote to the graph of g(x) ass
=
= 3xt6
xr

The slant asymptote is the quotient of the rational function (omitting the
To ger
remainder). The divisor is a linear binomial, so synthetic division (the method
the equation
described in Problems 2.18 and 2.19) is the most efficient way to calculate the
of the slant quotient.
3 ane
a2
2 20 i)

The equation of the slant asymptote is the quotient: y = 2x— 5.

5x” — 30x? —4x +24

4.35 Identify asymptotes to the graph of j(x)= :
Ko ons

Because the degree of the numerator is exactly one greater than the degree of the
denominator, j(x) has one slant asymptote and no horizontal asymptotes. (Note
that a rational function may have only one slant asymptote or one horizontal
asymptote, but may have multiple vertical asymptotes.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

54
 Chapter Four — Functions

To determine the slant asymptote, use polynomial long division, as outlined in

Problems 2.16 and 2.17.
5x —40
x® + 2x — 4)5x° — 30x*-— 4x+ 24
—5x*? — 10x" + 20x
— 40x? +16x+ 24
40x* + 80x — 160
96x — 136

The slant asymptote to j(x) is y= 5x-—40. To determine the vertical asymptotes of

j(x), set the denominator equal to 0 and solve using the quadratic formula.
x? +2x-4=0

—2+.,/2? —4(1)(—4)
x=

2-1
—2+,/20
2
_ -242V5
sgn 9

iG zZ
=—-1+ 5
The function j(x) has three asymptotes: the slant asymptote y= 5x— 40 and the
vertical asymptotes x = —1—V/5 and x =—1+ V5.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

55
 Chapter 5
LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL
FUNCTIONS
Functions like log, x, nx, a, ana eo
Chapters 1-4 provide the opportunity to sharpen your skills in all matters
concerning variable expressions raised to real number powers. This chapter
begins by investigating the reverse, expressions containing real numbers
raised to variable powers. Whereas exponential rules hold true despite this
reversal, new techniques must be mastered in order to properly manipulate
such expressions. Of course, one cannot discuss such an important function
without exploring its inverse, the logarithmic function.

This chapter Aeals with expone

ntial functions, which look move
3* than x*. The problems feel like
very Aiffevent when x is the
lustead of the base. For one thi exponent
ng, you'll need some way of “ca
out” x exponents if youve eve ncelin
r going to solve fov x, and tha
logavithumic functions. Good t Wi
news and bad news: logavithw
(th
e inverses of exponential fun mic functions
ctions) veally help you solve
have x in the exp equations that
onent, but logavithms bring with the
Properties and vules. m their own Set of
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Exploring Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Havness all those powers

5.1 Graph the function f(x) = 3* without a graphing calculator.

An exponential Employ the most basic of graphic techniques: substitute consecutive values of x
function always into f(x) and plot the resulting’coordinate pair.
equals | when you f («)
plug
Mx =O. In Proble
m s.|
any wumber te th |
e g: Oh see
Power will equal
| iLa aeee
e
2| f(2)=3'=9
1 :
Because f(-)D = 3° the point(-15) belongs on the graph. Similarly, the graph of

f(x) includes the points (0,1), (1,3), and (2,9), as illustrated by Figure 5-L.

negative the Figure 5-1

input, the closev The graph of f(x) = 3*.
to
the output gers
£(-S) is
0. Even though
os
small, #(-5) E
oaviev:
Q-10) is a lor sm
R10) =3 = =|
OA

Note that the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of f(x). Although negative values of
x result in small f(x) values, 3* doesn’t equal 0 for any x-value.

5.2 Identify the domain and range of the generic exponential function g(x) = &
Make (assuming ais a real number and a> 1).
suve to use
a parenthesis, Any real number can be substituted for x, but the positive real number a raised
nok a bracket, to any power (whether positive or negative) always results in a positive number.
heve. The function Therefore, the domain is (—%,%) and the range is_{0,«).
never actually
equals 0, so you cawt 5.3 Sketch the graph of y= 2*— 1 without a graphing calculator.
include 0 im the
The graph of any exponential function y= a‘ will pass through the points (0,1)
and (1,a) and have a horizontal asymptote ofy = 0. Begin by graphing
y = 2* as illustrated by the dotted curve in Figure 5-2.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

58
 |
|
Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Figure 5-2
The graphs ofy = 2* (dotted) and
y = 2*— 1 (solid).

To graph y= 2*-— 1, perform two translations on the graph of y = 2* (as explained

in detail by Problems 4.11-4.21): Substituting —x for x reflects the graph about the
y-axis, and subtracting 1 moves the entire graph down one unit.

5.4 Determine the domain and range of the logarithmic function h(x) = log, x.

Note that h(x) is the inverse function of /(x)= 3*, as defined in Problem 5.1.
Therefore, the domain of f(x) equals the range of h(x) and vice versa. You can
then conclude that the domain of h(x) is (0,%) and its range is (—%,).
You
Cay translate
5.5 Solve the equation: log,, x= 2. any
log &XPvession log x=h
nto a? = x z
Rewrite the logarithmic equation as an exponential equation and solve for x.

10°? =x
100=x

5.6 Solve the equation: log, x= -3,-

Rewrite in exponential form and solve for x.

4% =%
1
goe

a
64 x

5.7 Solve the equation: log, 625 = x.

Rewrite the equation in exponential form: 5* = 625. Note that 5* = 625, so x= 4.

ee 1
5.8 Solve the equation: log, 3 =X,

Rewrite as an exponential equation.

4 =*8
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
59
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Express the fraction as a negative exponent.

4* = 87

5 : : ‘ Raye
nt bases (4 = 2
Rewrite the equation using exponential expressions with equivale
and 8 = 2°).
(2°) =(2°)
rhe pases—F 9? = 9-8

then * = >
Two equivalent exponential expressions with equal bases must have equal
exponents as well.
2n =—-—3
3
x=-—
7

5.9 Solve the equation: log, 16 = 2.

The base of a log
has to be greater Rewrite as an exponential equation and solve for x.
than |, which is why
x? =16
<= 4 iswt a valia x=2#4
Answer,
Only the solution x = 4 is valid; discard x =>4.
eh ee a

4
5.10 Solve the equation: log, 81= z

Rewrite in exponential form.

x? = 81
: : 3
To solve for x, raise both sides to the 7 power.

(x*? )3/4 aa 83/4

43 :
xo4 = (4/81)

1 3
x =3
x= 27

5.11 Graph the function f(x) = log, x without a graphing calculator.

My

The domain of f(x), like the domain of y= log, xin Problem 5.4 or any other
logarithm, consists only of positive numbers; do not substitute negative x-values
into f(x) as you plot points. The first column in the table of values below consists
of the x-inputs, the second column substitutes x into f(x), the third column is the
equation expressed in exponential form, and the final column is the y-value that
corresponds with x.

60 “the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Ik eles €0 © ea eee
: A(5)= log (5) 2 vaisea to the
2)" \2 ave “| power equals +.
1) f(1)=log,1
2} f(2)=log, 2

mai
8
Because the x-axis is an asymptote to the graph of an exponential function, the y-
axis is an asymptote to logarithmic graphs, as illustrated in Figure 5-3.

Figure 5-3
10 The graph off(x) = log, x.

5.12 Sketch the graph of g(x) =—log, (x + 4) without a graphing calculator.

The graph of g(x) is simply the graph of y= log, x with two transformations
applied to it. Adding 4 to x shifts the graph left four units, and multiplying log, x
by -1 reflects the graph about the x-axis, as illustrated in Figure 5-4.

Figure 5-4
The graphs ofy = log, x (dotted curve)
and g(x) = —log, (x + 4) (solid curve).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

6l
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
JAZ

Natural Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Unwritten bases, bases with e, and change of base formula
he
constant 5.13 Define the terms “common logarithm,” “natural logarithm,” and “natural
\82 84... exponential function”; indicate the notation used for each.
en 21\828
ioev, A
is Euler's: Wamnoenr wu
\ong ana wvational(a) we ¢ The common logarithm has base 10 and is implied if no base is indicated:
is
ver like TJthat log x= log,, x.
wary Foo \ong
portant, (\o) ¢ The natural logarithm has base_e¢ and is written In x: In x= log, x.
and (Ca) ¢ The natural exponential function has base eand is written &.
bo memoviZe,
to
programmed
your caicular 5.14. Use a calculator to determine the value of log 19, accurate to five decimal places,
tov. and interpret the answer.

Note that log 19 = log,, 19, because unwritten logarithmic bases are understood
Read “In 19”
r to be 10. Calculating log 19 is the equivalent of solving the equation log,, 19 = x,
AS ‘natuve| log of
which can be rewritten in exponential form: 10*= 19. According to the calculator,
ig” ov just veaad the
log 19 = 1.27875, which means 10!” = 19. E
letters: sf N of 19.”

5.15 Use acalculator to determine the value of In 19, accurate to five decimal places,
and interpret the result.

Note that In 19 = log, 19, as any logarithmic expression written “In” instead of
“log” is a natural logarithm and has an implied base of e. Calculating In 19 is
the equivalent of solving the equation log, 19 = x, which can be rewritten in
exponential form: e = 19. According to the calculator, In 19 = 2.94444, so
“44 = 19. Because Euler’s number, ¢, is approximately equal to 2.7182818, you
Most ;
BAculators can also write 2.7182818?°44#4 = 19.

cawtk compure
logs fhat Aaowt 5.16 Evaluate log, 25, accurate to four decimal places, using the change of base
formula and a calculator.
have a base of
10 ov e. That's why
the change of base ee change of base formula allows you to rewrite the expression log, b as wal or
n oga
Povmula is so handy.
Just vemembber that log25_—_ 1n25
the log of the log3 = In3
base goes iM the
1.3979400087 _ 3.2188758249
aAenominator.
0.4771212547 1.0986122887
2.92994704... = 2.92994704...
Therefore, log, 25 ~ 2.9299. Note that there is no need to calculate the value
twice, as both calculation methods return the same value.

62 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
mein RRNA SES

5.17 Evaluate log, 10, accurate to four decimal places, using the change of base
formula and a calculator.

Apply the change of base formula.

Inl0 _ 2.302585093
eetn re erent es BL |
In6 ~—-1.791759469 ;

5.18 Verify the solution to the equation in Problem 5.7 (log, 625 = x) using the
change of base formula and a calculator.

Apply the change of base formula.

log 625
ee See If you
log5 ohne eiaas
log 625 _ 4 ans
Approximations of
log5
log 625 ana log S ana
1
5.19 Verify the solution to the equation in Problem 5.8 fog.-= |using the change then divide, youll get
of base formula and a calculator. : something Vike this:
2.7458800\TF — 4.00000000145-
Apply the change of base formula.
0.6487100043
the veal answer \s
1 z
Le 3 exactly 4—the oe
die eae C: has some evvor DECAUSE
+ use all of the
iwhnitely many deciwal
ene
Properties of Logarithms places. That's ot
55,
Expanding and squishing log expressions you should tyre 40
divectly intro your
USE
5.20 Rewrite asa single logarithm: log, x + log, 5 + log, y. calculator, DECA
. youll avoiA
The sum of logarithms with equal bases is equal to the logarithm of the product: yvOUnAIng
log, b+ log, c= log, (bc). evvovs.

log, x + log, 5 + log, y= log, (5xy)

5.21 Rewrite as a single logarithm: log 3 - (log 9 + log x).

Rewrite the parenthetical expression, log 9 + log x, as log 9x (as explained in

Problem 5.20). Combine those first, according to the order of operations.
log 3 — (log 9 + log x) = log 3 — (log 9x)

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

63
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

The difference of two logs with equal bases is equal to the logarithm of the
If two logs
added become quotient: log, b— log, c= log, -.
g
one leg that’s ace ile
multiplied, then it 9x
makes sense that Reduce the fraction.
two logs subtvacteA ‘
become one log that’s = log =
AaivideA—they’ve
exact opposites of
one another. 5.22 Rewrite asa single logarithm: log 7 + log x— log 3 ' log y—log z.
&

According to the order of operations, addition and subtraction should be

performed from left to right. Begin by rewriting log 7 + log x as a single logarithm.
log 7 + log x- log 3 + log y— log z = log 7x- log 3.+ log y—log z
_ The answer Again manipulate the two leftmost terms of the expression; rewrite log 7x— log 3
is just all of the as a quotient using the logarithmic property discussed in Problem 5.21.
log values written im
one Lvaction—alll the = log +logy—log
positive logs (like \og 7
and log y) end up in the Adding log to log y results in a single log containing the product.
numerator, and all the
7
negative ones (Clog 3 ana = log—> —logz
-log 2) end up im the 7
Aenominator. Finally, divide = by z, which is the equivalent of multiplying the fraction by the
reciprocal of z.

Txy Txy 1)
—--|=]
Txy
nae
=| ees =|
og(3 | og(phe? 7 7 3z

Verify that 3 In x= In x and, based upon your proof, extrapolate and prove an
equivalent conclusion for log, x’ (if aand n are real numbers and a> 1). ;
~~

Rewrite 3 In xas asum.

31In x=In
x+In x+1n x
Just like According to a logarithmic property (described in Problem 5.20), the sum of
KE xX+x=%3x ov logarithms with the same base is equal to the logarithm of their product.
w + w* + w? = 3y?,

3Inx = Inx + Inx+Inx = In(x-x:x)=Inx°

Therefore, 3 In x= x’. Expressed more generally, n log, x = log, x’. As justification,
recall that » log, x can be rewritten as the sum of n terms (where each term is
log, x).
nlog,x=log,x+log,x+log,x+-:-+log,x
total of n terms

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

64
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

Rewrite the sum of the logarithms as a single logarithm of their products.

log, x+log, x+log,x+:-:+log, x = log,| (x)(x)(x)-+:(x)|=log, x”

_——-_ YY SEER end
total of n terms there are n ane ”
factors of x “argument
Therefore, n log, x= log, x’. of a log is
whatever's inside
it—the avg wument
5.24 Rewrite as a single logarithm: 5 log x- 2 log y+ 4 log (x—y). a, sale
of 7 log, YS Y-

Rewrite the coefficients of the logarithms as the exponents of their arguments,

according to the logarithmic property n log, x = log, x", as explained in
Problem 5.23.
5 log x— 2 log y+ 4 log (x- y) = log x’— log y’ + log (x— y)*
The two leftmost logarithms are equivalent to a logarithmic quotient.
5

= log + log (x - y)
y
The sum of logarithmic expressions with equal bases is equal to the logarithm of
their product.

5.25 Expand the logarithmic expression: In xy’.

Expanding a logarithmic expression requires you to apply logarithmic properties

in order to rewrite a single logarithmic expression as multiple logarithmic
expressions. Because xy is a product, rewrite the argument as the sum of two
logarithms with equal bases.
In xy? =In x+1n y?
Recall that log x‘ = alog x, soln y’ = 2 In y.
=Inx+2Iny
Tie, i

5.26 Expand the logarithmic expression: log -

Recall that log; = loga—logb.

3
log _ log
y* —log5
5
Substitute log y’ = 3 log y into the expression.
= 3log y—log 5

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

65
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

2
5.27. Expand the logarithmic expression: log, eer :
AE
The logarithm of a quotient can be rewritten as the difference of two logarithms.
log, 2x’ — log, (x— y)°

The leftmost logarithm contains a product, which can be rewritten as the sum of
two logarithms.
= log, 2 + log, x? — log, (x— y)*
Rewrite the exponents of the logarithmic arguments as the coefficients of their
respective logarithms.
= log, 2 + 2 log, x— 3 log, (x—9)

Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

Exponents and logs cancel each other out
the expression 5.28 Simplify the expression: log, 4°.
169,4 asks “4 vaisea

to what power” equals

Ao?" The answev Apply the logarithmic property log x*= alog x, as described in Problem 5.23.
must be 3! log, 4°= 3 log, 4

Apply the change of base formula to the logarithm.

In4
3log, 4= 3| —]=3(0) =3
084 (=) (1)

This result demonstrates a fundamental logarithmic fact: log, a" = n.

5.29 Simplify the expression: 3°°*.

This expression is the result of the composition of functions f(g(x)), where

(x) = 3* and g(x) = log, x. Because f(x) and g(x) are inverse functions, they
cancel one another out, leaving behind only the argument of the inner function:
\ x. 3'°8* = x, Exponential and logarithmic functions with the same base (y= a‘ and
arr ase ear
y = log, x) are inverses of one another.

5.30 Simplify the expression: In (é : e*).

Multiply the natural logarithmic expressions within the parentheses.

inte 2") sles

Notice that the expression In e*** is a composition of inverse functions, because

In xand é have the same base. Therefore, the functions cancel one another out,
leaving behind only the argument of the inner function. :
In et*= bx+ 4

the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

66
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

5.31 Simplify the expression: Cnty

Rewrite the exponent using logarithmic properties. (The difference of two

logarithms with the same base is equal to a logarithmic quotient, as explained in
Problem 5.21.)
e z-Iny — en (x/y)

The natural logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses of one another,
so only the argument of the inner functions remains when the functions are
composed.
elnls/») = x

5.32 Determine the exact solution to the equation: 2* = 9. Because

log, 1 is an
,
To eliminate the exponential function 2* on the left side of the equation, apply its ivvational wAmbey
inverse function log, x to both sides of the equation.
its Aecimal places
ov
log, 2" = log, 9 never terminate
an yt hi ng short
vepeat, So
Vist
of an inhnitely long
x = log, 9

Although you could use the change of base formula to approximate log, 9, the of Aecimals iswk an
problem specifically requests the exact answer. Therefore, you should not estimate EXACT answey.
the solution: x= log, 9.

5.33 Determine the exact solution to the equation: 2 — ¢* = -13.

Subtract 2 from both sides of the equation to isolate the exponential function,
then multiply the entire equation by -1.

—e* =—-15
e* =15

To eliminate the natural exponential function, take the natural logarithm of both
ase
sides of the equation. W Exp onentiarion

ing
means turn
of
on
oth sides
on into
in the equati
expressions.
= exponential
mah Bec ause the ase o
A. 1S e woth sides
5.34 Determine the exact solution to the equation: 5 + In (x +3) = 7. é p the eQuarion

ypecome exponents
Isolate the logarithmic expression on the left side of the equation, of e.
In (x+3) =2

Exponentiate the equation to eliminate the natural logarithm.

pin@e+3) = 42

xt+3=e°
x=e—3

€ The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

67
 Chapter Five — Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
ne

5.35 Determine the exact solution to the equation: log, 2x— log, 3 = log, (4x—- 19).

Apply logarithmic properties to rewrite log, 2x— log, 3 as a logarithmic quotient.

log, : = log, (4x —19)

Befove
YOU exponentiate, Exponentiate the equation to eliminate the logarithms.
make sure you ha logs(2/3) = 5108s (4x—19)

only logs on the ve

left side Because 5* and log, x are inverse functions, they cancel one another out, leaving
of the eqVation AN
A they behind only the arguments of the logarithms.
combine them
alll inte one
log usin 9g the Properties 2x
from Problems s. 20- Fae 4x —19
5.24, Solve for x.

2x = 3(4x -19)
2x =12x—57
—10x =—-57
57
x=—
10

Determine the exact solution to the equation: log x + log (x- 2) - 1 =0.

Move the constant term to the right side of the equation.

log
x + log
(x —2)=1
The sum of two logarithms with equal bases equals the logarithm of their
product.
log[x(x—2)]=1
log (x? ss2x) =1

Exponentiate the equation to eliminate the logarithmic function.

198" 2x) = 10!

*— 2x =10
lf you plug 9 r .
X=l-7 Tx oo x =2x=10'=0
int oer
: ihe Oviginal]
eqwation, You get
Solve using the quadratic formula.
;
age + log (432) — pe TENE 2-410)
e — = 0 ee ———oOoOCCCo—————_—_—_—_—¥—K—KKX—« _—X—X—X—X—X—X———

aoe °9 OF a positive eo
Aye VAliAeRsolution,
EI=VT isnt :
a
2+2V11
5

=1+ 11
Discard the invalid solution x =1- 11 (logarithmic functions have a domain of
x > 0); the only valid solution to the equation is x =1+ v1].

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

68
 Chapter 6
CONIC SECTIONS

Pavalolas, civcles, ellipses, ana hypevbolas

When a double-napped right circular cone is sliced by a plane, the
perimeter of the resulting cross section will be a circle, an ellipse, a
parabola, or a hyperbola. Hence, this family of four curves is known as the
conic sections. Like their graphs share a similar origin, the equations of
their standard forms share similar characteristics as well, though each has
unique distinguishing features. |

This chapter explores the nuances of the equations that generate the conic
sections and investigates how the constants and variables in those equations
affect their graphs.

Quadratic equations have graphs

that ave voughly u-shaped, that
ave callea “pavabolas.” The mest obv
ious featuve of a eee
equati on is its Aegree—one of the vaviables
is vaised to the second
and it’s the highest exponent in the
equation (like y = x - 7x + 2) aan
all well and good, but :
what happens when there's an x? ANDay’ infee
equation? Those gvaphs will be
(a) civcles, (b) ellipses, ov (c) Rete
this chapter, you'll learn how to gra amines
ph all four kinds of conic ect
how to manipu ; A
late an equation so it’s easy to gvaph.
a
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

Parabolas
Graphs of quadratic equations

6.1 Write the equation of the parabola in standard form and identify its vertex:
y= x + Ox-4.

Add 4 to both sides of the equation so that the right side contains only x-terms.
yt 4 = + 6x

Complete the square on the right side of the equation: take half of the x-
coefficient (2.6
=3 , square the result (3? = 9), and add that number (9) to both
sides of the equation.
y+44+9=x° +6x49
yt13 =x? +6x4+9
Factor the trinomial.

y+13 =(x+3)(x4+3)
y+13=(x+3)°
Solve for y.
(x+ 3)?- 13
The standard form ofa parabola is y= a(x— h)? + k, , so in this problem a= 1,
Pade ss =-3, and k=-13. The vertex of a parabola in standard form is (h,k) = (-3,-13).
No-
rice that
6.2 Write the equation of the parabola in standard form and identify its vertex and
rhe stamndava ”
p ov jncuaes “VM axis of symmetry: y = 2x? — 16x— 1.
so you SY oula rake
rhe opposite of Fhe Move the constant to the left side of the equation.
numoer ene y+ 1 = 2x - 16x
yentneses: eS
Complete the square on the right side of the equation. To do so, the coefficient
wor 9-
of the x*-term must be 1. Divide the entire equation by 2 (the x*-coefficient) to
accomplish this.
ae
ike?

The square of half the x-coefficient is 16: a 8)=—4, and (—4)?= 16; add 16 to
both sides of the equation.
1
5t5t16=x"—8x+16

Add the constants on the left side of the equation and factor the right side.
1
245+ aH 4)(x—4)
+ 33
Tea

ame ——_
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
70
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
ee ee eeee

; Multiply the entire equation by 2 to eliminate the fraction; solve for y.

The axis

eat ISA Yine that

cuts vight do
wn the
y+ 33 =2(x—4) a varocla
pa
middle of
y =2(x—4)°
—33 lh its vertex.
When ava form
a. stand
e axis
The equation is now in standard form, y= a(x—h)? +k; therefore, a= 2, h=4, and
contains *, th
rhe
of symmetry IS
k =—33. The vertex of the parabola is (h,k) = (4,-33), and the axis of symmetry
Sie ts x = M.
vertical Vine

6.3 Write the equation of the parabola in standard form and identify its vertex:
—y + 3x+ 5y—7=0.

Notice that this equation (unlike Problems 6.1 and 6.2) contains a y*-term rather The
than an x-term. Though the process is similar to those problems, the end result is
Aiffeveuce
an equation solved for x (not y) with standard form x= a(y—k)* + h. between the
Isolate the y-terms on the right side of the equation. Standava form
of a
: 3x-7
= y-5y Y' Pavabola and
an x
Pa vabola is the Po
Complete the square. siti
on
of the vaviables:
2D 25 Kana
3x =7+—=y? —by+—
. Ps Reeve y ave Switched,
ANA so ave
eB | || -3) and k,
4 4 \ a)\? 9
a3. (-2)
ow ooo

eee
Multiply both sides of the equation by 4 in order to eliminate the fraction; solve
for x. t When
a pavaocla mM
standava Form is
Z
written th revms ofy
12x-3=4()-3)
(ike this one), k is the
5 me
opposite of the number
12x=4()-5] +3 in paventheses ana Ww
is the constant. The
1
Multiply each term by Ppto isolate x. vertex is still (wk)—

lee(Bob-]-
ave
those coovaAinates
as
exactly the same
im
~~»
pavaloolas with x
them.

1
The parabola is now in standard form, x= a(y—k)*? + h, with a= 3 A=
1S:
k =; . The vertex of the parabola is (/,k) = (3.3 2
eee
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
ys) 7I
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

6.4 Write the equation of the parabola in standard form andidentify its vertexand _
axis of symmetry: x— 9y? + 18y+ 6 = 0. oe >

This equation contains y’, so you should rewrite it in standard form

You Can x= a(y—k)? + h. Move all y-terms to the right side of the equation.
Aoubdle-
your aie
va b
x + 6 = 9y*— 18y
exp. Anding st, ; Divide all of the terms by 9 to ensure the coefficient of 9’ is 1, so that you can
ANA
form ty See if youa complete the square. Solve for x.

Jeavrrtthede eqwituah:tion you x9 ,6o_g9° 18mGy

x*6)" %
oo =yoe
'-2!
ATP + 1=58-2)41
ee 15 2
=(y-
gage d)1
x+15=9(y-1)
x=9(y-1)
15
This is the standard form of the parabola x= a(y—k)? + h, where a=9, h=-15,
and k= 1, so the vertex is (h,k) = (-15,1). A parabola written in terms of y has axis
of symmetry y =k, so the axis of symmetry of this parabola is y= 1.
If you
need: to veview : a
Runction gvar W . 6.5
oe Graph the parabola .defined in Problem 6.1:2y= x° + 6x— oS4.
; i ‘
LyanshormMarions, \oo
pack at Problem According to Problem 6.1, the standard form of the parabola is y= (x + 3)?- 13.
4.\q—it's very Graph the parabola by applying two basic transformations to the graph of
simi ON. y = x°, Adding 3 to x shifts the graph left 3 units, and subtracting 13 shifts the
graph down 13 units.

Figure 6-1
The dotted graph ofy = x° and the solid
graph ofy = (x + 3)? — 13. All parabolas
containing an x’-term either open upward
or downward, whereas parabolas written
in terms of either open left or right.

vertex = as-is

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

72
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

6.6 - Graph the parabola defined in Problem 6.3: -y’ + 3x + 5y—7 = 0.

A vertical line
cannot intersect
A (5-4 + - The
2
According to Problem 6.3, the parabola has standard form x =
ie
the graph of a
graphs of parabolas containing y*-terms are not functions, because they fail the Punction move than
vertical line test. Thus, function transformations (such as those demonstrated in
Problem 6.5) are not a reliable method to graph this equation. Instead, you
should plot points; substitute a variety of values for y to get the corresponding x-
values and graph the coordinates that result. Since the vertex is located at (3.3)
5
use y-values close to 5

7 15 1
According to this table of values, the points (2.0) IL (33), (5.3),and (1,4)
belong on the graph, as illustrated by Figure 6-2.

Figure 6-2
The graph of the parabola -y + 3x + 5y — 7 = 0
opens to the right. A
PAYAboela

A :

XeA poi
frou a me Aistance

the Focus) Aoy (calllea

6.7 Identify the focus and directrix of the parabola: 2x° + 20x- 3y + 9 = 0.

Rewrite the parabola in standard form. Divide the equation by 2, so that the \ pee
coefficient of x* is 1, and complete the square. ee,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

73
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

Bi: a ae
3y 9 0
O55 er Oe Oa
ayo
= ——=
7 +10x
Deed

S51 Secor aati ioe a

Dies 2
aye 9 50
pty
—= tS =(x
——+— (x+5)(x+5)
+ 5)(x+5

+41
2 =(x+5)

3y+41=2(x+5)
3y=2(x+5) —41
2 2 4l
y = ai (x45) ) ==:

“ Owe
Standard form of the parabola is y= a(x— h)’ + k, so a= =,h=—-5, and k= -=. In
Aiwidea = 1
bya fyaction order to determine the focus of the parabola, first define the constant ¢ = A
equals rhe
veciprocal or aS Be

Rraction youve a “(2

Aiviaivg ’y- 1\3

‘If ais negative,

then the focus is
(h,k - ¢) ana the
Aivectvix isy=kt+o.
It is important to note that a= ;is positive, because that means the parabola’s
focus is above its vertex and its directrix is below the vertex. Any such parabola
has focus (h,k + c) and directrix y= k— c. Substitute the values of h, k, and c into
those formulas.

Focus = (h,k +c) |

| Directrix: y=k—c
41 3) | thie 8
aloa | Lee ae
—~328+9) | __ 328 9
-(-5 24 ) aa) 24 24

-(-5-32| ! y=
24

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

74
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

6.8 Identify the focus and directrix of the parabola: y? + 3y+ 5x+2=0.

Rewrite the parabola in standard form x = a(y—k)* + h by completing the square.

—5x-2=y' +3y
Gor Half of :
sige Dey eb GS) eu. eee
4 4 coefficient is 1.33
52844 4 -(tt +3)
ail =)
ts siege ES
and [3]= 4,so ada 2tg
hs] both SiAes,

] 3
Therefore, @= —* i 90°
c
ang k= rt calculate c.

|1 | Sis theres
Ms Ts
C=! = = =

1 a 5

When the parabola contains a y*-term and a< 0, the focus is left of its vertex
and the directrix is right of the vertex. Specifically, the focus is (h- c, k) and the
directrix is x=h+c.

Focus = (h—c,k) Directrix: x =h+c

pe =)
"(20° 4’ 2)!
ae
Tepe
ee 5 sag
yaa) aaah * 90" 20 Aaa
-(- -5| | wae tiie nue
gee 20 in the aivectws
6 ays eo to the yvalue oF
: eres , a the focus and
divide vy 2-
6.9 Write the equation of the parabola with focus (-1,3) and directrix y= 1 in
standard form.

As noted in Problem 6.7, a parabola that contains an x*-term has a horizontal

directrix. (A parabola with a y*-term has a vertical directrix, as demonstrated by
Problem 6.8.) Therefore, you should use standard form y= a(x— h)? + k.

The vertex (h,k) of the parabola has the same x-value as the focus, so h=-l.
Furthermore, it is equidistant from the directrix and the focus; therefore, k is
the average of the y-coordinate of the focus and the constant in the directrix
equation.

he Humongous Bock of Calculus

Problems 75
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

Note that cis the vertical distance between the vertex and the focus; calculate the
absolute value of the difference of their y-values: c =|3 — 2| = 1. Calculate a using
The
the formula from Problems 6.7 and 6.8, but omit the absolute value signs.
focus is(-173)
ana the vertex is ja
(hk) = C1,2). Swotvact 4a
the y-values to get eu
Suve cis l= a
< and make

Positive! By the way, c 4a=1

is also the distance 1
eos
4

Aivectvix, You must now determine whether ais positive or negative. According to Problem
‘ : 1
6.7, when a parabola’s focus is above its vertex, a> 0. Therefore, a= a h=-1l, and
k=2.
y=a(x—-h) +k
1
y=a(x-Cny +2
ye hea +2
4

Circles
Center + vadius = round shapes and easy problems
6.10 Graph the circle with center (—3,0) and radius a
the
cewrev of
Plot the center point on the coordinate plane, and then mark the points 2 units
aA cwele, a
above, below, right of, and left of the center, as illustrated by Figure 6-3. Draw the
Pocus oF A
graph of the circle through those four points.
es eles af
Phe graagh wut is nor
considered part
of the graph.

Figure 6-3
The graph of a circle with center (—3,0)
and radius 2.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

76
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
a ee

6.1 I If points A = (#4,1) and B= (6,-5) are the endpoints of line segment AB, such
that AB is a diameter of circle C, find the center and radius of C.

The center of the circle is located at the midpoint of the diameter, so apply the
midpoint formula (as described in Problem 1.8).

-f T##6-14+(-5)) eee
center = pa a oe J-(2 9 J=a, 2)

The radius is half the length of the diameter. Calculate the diameter’s length
using the distance formula (as described in Problem 1.9) and divide the result
by 2.

radius =
AB _y(6-(-4)) +(-5=1)" _ 10" +(~6)' _ Vi86 _ 2V84_ ge3
a ee c 2 eee ede
Pull
the Con-
6.12 Identify the center and radius of the circle: (x + 9)? + (y— 1)? = 16. Stants out of
the SQuaved pi-
The standard form of a circle is (x— h)? + (y— k)? = 7°, where (h,k) is the center of romials—just make
the circle and ris the radius. In this example, (h,k) = (-9,1) The radius is equal to mee you pull out the

the square root of the constant on the right side of the equation. PPosites of ty}, enn
aie “SS Since the Stan-
ad vA form Contains

hana -,
Though r= -—4 is a valid solution to the equation 7 = 16, it is not a valid radius; the
radius of a circle must be positive.

6.13 Rewrite the equation of the circle in standard form: x’ + y’-4x+ 12y—10=0.

Write the x-terms in descending order of degree, leaving empty space before
listing the y-terms. (You will use this space to complete the square in the next
step.) Then write the y-terms in descending order of degree (leaving space before
the equal sign). Move the constant by adding 10 to both sides of the equation.

x? —4x +y?+12y =10

Complete the square twice (once for the x-terms and once for the y-terms), adding
‘both constants to the right side of the equation to maintain equality.

x —4x+4+y°
+12 + 36=10+4+36 Half the x-
coefficient is -2
(x —2)(x —2)+(y+6)(y+6)=50
ana (2) = 4. Halt
(x-2)' +(y+6) =50 the y-coefficient is
Cana = 36, AAA
ana 36 to the left side
of the equation in the

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

77
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
ee ee

6.14 Rewrite the equation of the circle in standard form: x’ + + 7x—2y+6=0.

Use the method of Problem 6.13 (completing the square twice simultaneously) to
reach standard form.

49 49
x? +7x+—+y° -2y4+1=-6+—
+41
4 4
7\ gu i2o
(:+—|4 +(y-1)
Che =—aie

7
Recall that the standard form ofacircle is (x— h)? + (y— k)?= r; therefore, h=— 5 De

> ; 9
k= and = pe= The center of the circle is (-Z.1} and the radius is a

\ 2 me Identify the center and radius of the circle: 2x* + 10x + 2y?— 7y + 12 = 0.

In order to complete the square, the coefficients of the x*- and y’-terms must be
1. Note that they are equal, so divide all terms in the equation by the shared
coefficient.
Qn? 10x 2y? Ty 12 0
a
De oe PO ae
M +oxty§—2y+6=0

Rewrite the equation in standard form by completing the square once for the x-
terms and again for the y-terms.

5
Pi Bact Shee eee zs
4 2° 16 4 16
( =|( | ( 7 ( ;| 96 100 49
Be he de aI eae
a a 4 4 16) 160 V16

2 eke
(+3)+a) oie
Dette
2
| i as esee
4 16
hae
The center of the circle is (-3.7] and the radius is joe —

6.16 Graph the circle: 5x? — 30x + 5y? + 5y + 40 = 0.

Rewrite the equation in standard form using the method outlined by Problem
6.15. Divide all terms of the equation by 5, the coefficient shared by the x*- and
y*-terms.
x*—6x+y +y=-8

26a oy +44 ee ea
4 4
(«-8)(x—3)+(45 [p43] =144

(=a +(y+3) =;

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

78
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
eee

bain ies 1 knliscess

The center of the circle is (3-5) and the radius isjeose. Use a calculator to find

a decimal approximation of the radius a 1.118] and graph using the method
outlined in Problem 6.10. The solution is illustrated in Figure 6-4,

Figure 6-4
The graph of the circle 5x’ — 30x + 5y + 5y + 40 = 0
, 7
is centered at (2-5} ;

Ellipses
Fancy wovad for “ovals”

Note: Problems 6.17-6.18 refer to the ellipse graphed in Figure 6-5.

6.17 Calculate the lengths of the major and minor axes of the ellipse and identify the
vertices.
(-2,6)

(-5,1) F igure 6-5

The graph of an ellipse and the endpoints

of its major and minor axes.

The major axis of the ellipse has endpoints (—2,6) and (—2,—4). Its length,
therefore, is the distance between those points. Note that endpoints are on the
same vertical line (x =—2), so the distance between the points is the absolute value
of the difference of the y-coordinates: |—4 — 6] = 10.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Pralb

lems
79
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
J_

the The endpoints of the minor axis are (1,1) and (—5,1); its length is |-5 — 1| = 6, the
enapoints difference of the x-coordinates. Note that the major axis is always larger then the
of the minor minor axis of an ellipse, and only the endpoints of the major axis are considered
axis ave portant, the vertices of the ellipse: (-2,6) and (—2,—4).
pur they've not
yerti ces—anellipse Note: Problems 6.17-6.18 refer to the ellipse graphed in Figure 6-5.
has two vertices,
6.18 Write the equation of the ellipse in standard form.
nor fou.
The standard form of an ellipse with a vertical major axis is (x-h)’ rules-ts =1,
a
where (/,k) is the center of the ellipse, ais half the length of the major axis, and D
is half the length of the minor axis. Apply the midpoint formula to the endpoints
of the major axis to determine the center of the ellipse.

If the
See laa}
/ Major axis Therefore, h = -2 and k= 1. (Note that the midpoint of the minor axis also marks
ishovizontal, a the center of the ellipse—both midpoints are equal, because the center marks the
And b swap places: point at which the axes bisect one another.) According to Problem 6.17, the length
(xh)?
LAE (y-k)* of the major axis is 10 and the length of the minor axis is 6, soa =10+2=5and
aA 2 b=6+2=3. Plug h, k, a, and binto the standard form equation to generate the

Stick a underneath
the vaviable (x oy )
equation of the ellipse.
(x —h)° ‘(y-k)"2 a
whose axi
es goes :tn the ° ae2
Same Aivection as the
(xii (-2))° as (y a 1) =]
Pea axis. In Problem
3° oe
'S Vertical, so stick
9 . 25 ip
A Under the y-
vavialble since the Note: Problems 6.19-6.20 refer to the ellipse graphed in Figure 6-6.
y-axis is also
6.19 Determine the values of aand b required to write the equation of the ellipse in
standard form.

;] Figure 6-6
The endpoints of the major and minor —
axes of an ellipse.

; : : c 1 1
The horizontal axis, connecting points (-3.3] and (5.3) , is 8 units long; the vertical
axis, connecting points (1,-2) and (1,3), is 5 units long. Since 8 > 5, the horizontal

the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

80
 axis is the major axis, and ais equal to half its length: a= 8 +2 = 4, Similarly, bis
half the length of the remaining axis: } = >

Note: Problems 6.19-6.20 refer to the ellipse graphed in Figure 6-6. Technically,
6.20 Write the equation of the ellipse in standard form. Als the
Aistance frou
© cenutey te Me
Identify the center of the ellipse by calculating the midpoint of the major (or oY the Vevtices ana
minor) axis. bis the distance 7
— ene) (2 s}=(1 3] os the Ccentey
to
es 9°99} \9 “ther endpoint of
€ Mihov axis
Therefore, h= 1 and k= : According to Problem 6.19, a= 4 and b= > Substitute
these values into the standard form of an ellipse with a horizontal major axis.
—hy* 0 £27
(x=h) Hy =
a b
If the
(x-1" 9
(y-1/2) 2 _,
ry
and y?.
4° (5/2) Coekp
2 2 elli Stents of ay
(x=1) | V2) ; a RC AWE Octal) Eee
16 25/4 AveUCNtheed eile
same length

6.21 Write the equation of the ellipse in standard form: x* + 4y* - 8x + 24y + 36 =0.

Group the x- and y-terms together and move the constant to the right side of the
equation.
x — 8x+ 4y?+ 24y= -36
Reaching standard form requires you to complete the square twice, in a process
similar to writing equations of circles in standard form (see Problems 6.13-—6.16).
However, the x*- and y*-coefficients of an elliptical equation are usually unequal,
so rather than dividing by a shared coefficient (like in Problems 6.14 and 6.15),
you factor out the leading coefficients. In this problem the coefficient of y* does
not equal 1, so factor 4 out of the y-terms.

x? —8x+4(y° + 6y) =—36

Complete the square for the x-terms, and work within the parentheses to complete
the square for the y-terms.

x? — 8x +16+4(y? +6y+9)=—36
+16 +4(9)

Although you add 9 to create the trinomial y° + 6y + 9, that expression is multiplied

by 4, so you must add 4(9) = 36 to the right side of the equation in order to
maintain equality.
(x—4)° +4(y+3) =-36+52
(x—4)° +4(y+3) =16

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems oy

 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

The right side of an elliptical equation in standard form equals 1, so divide the
entire equation by 16 and reduce the resulting fractions.

(.4)'
,4(+3)' _16
16 16
2

16
a4)
=4)- alot(y+3)Se
16 4

6.22 Rewrite the ellipse in standard form and graph it: 9x? + y? - 90x— 4y + 220 = 0.

Apply the method outlined in Problem 6.21: Regroup the variables, move the
constant, factor the x*-coefficient out of the x-terms, complete the square twice,
and divide by the constant on the right side of the equation.
.
d

It locks Vike YOu"

2 —
Poona lett + y?—4y= —220
Ox? — 90x
side of the ee Q(x? —10x +25)+ y? —4y+4=—220 + 225+4
tout YourNe Yee.
ACTUMN
9(x—5)' +(y-2) 2 =9
enna) ae
9 9 9
Gesy,
_py Ul)
_9) |
1 9
Compare the denominators. Because 9 > 1, a = 9 and ’ = 1 (a is always the larger
denominator). The ellipse has a vertical major axis because a’ appears below the y
binomial, so apply the standard form equationGaee are = 1, where h=5,
k=2,a=
9 =3, andb=V1=1.
a

To graph the ellipse, first plot the center: (h,k) = (5,2). Plot the vertices by
marking points three units above and below the center (since a= 3 and the major
axis is vertical). Finally, plot the endpoints of the minor axes, which are one unit
left and right of the center. As illustrated by Figure 6-7, the graph of the ellipse
passes through all four endpoints.

Figure 6-7
The graph of the ellipse
9x? + y° — 90x — 4y + 220 = 0, has center
(5,2), a vertical major axis 6 units in
length, a horizontal minor axis 2 units
in length.

82 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
ie Eee

6.23 Write the equation of the ellipse in standard form and identify the lengths of its
major and minor axes: x* + 16y? + 32y + 12 = 0.

Apply the technique described in Problem 6.21, but note that you do not have to
complete the square for the x*-term.

x* +16y° +32y =—-12 Dividing

x? +16(y° + 2y+1)=—12+16(1) is the same
as multiplying BY
x? +16(y+1) =4 a veciprocal (see
=e 16(y+1) 4 Problem 4 .\3), so wt

4 4 4 wakes sense that

multiplying by 4 is the
Aly td)
5 2
=. 4(y+1 same as Aaiviaing
4 1 by —-
4
This equation is not yet in standard form because (y+ 1)* has a coefficient of 4
and neither squared term has a coefficient in standard form. To remedy this,
write the reciprocal of the coefficient (3)in the denominator of the fraction that
contains it.

x? (yt1) =]
—+
Aoi adfil
In this equation, h= 0, k=-1,a= V4 =2, and b= Oe= =. The major axis has length

2a= 2(2) = 4, and the minor axis has length 26= 2(5 iF

6) 41)
6.24 Find the coordinates of the foci of the ellipse oathvee
- aif.

Faz . 2
Note that a? = 25 and 0? = 16; substitute these values into the formula ¢ = Va’ —b
to determine the distance between the center of the ellipse and either of its foci. A pavabola
has one Locus,
c=/25-16
ut an ellipse has two
c ll V9 Loci on its major axis.
c a the aistance from the
The center of the ellipse is (,k) = (6-11) and its major axis is horizontal, so the center to either Focus
. Z Z
foci are 3 units left and right of the center. isc=da—b-

(h—c,k) and (h+c,k)

(6—3,-11) and (6+3,—11)
(3,-11) and (9,-11)

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

83
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

Calculate the eccentricity of the ellipse from Problem 6.24:

The
Eccentvici
(6 +1 _,
25
2

16
2

ty
e, of ay elli ,
pse is a
humbey bet
ween O The eccentricity of an ellipse is calculated according to the formula e = z where
And | that
Aescribe c=va’ —b’. According to Problem 6.24, c= 3 and a=5.
the ‘ovalness” of
ellipse. When ay ;
2 is clos Cc
to 0, ay ellips e=-=
e looks : a 5
a lot like a
Civcle,
6.26 Calculate the eccentricity of the ellipse accurate to three:decimal places:
GAD oe)
2 = 2

6 18

Substitute, a? = 18 and 3? = 6 into c= Va* —b?.

c=~V18-6 _

c=V12
c= 2V3

Apply the eccentricity formula defined in Problem 6.25.

e=-
¢_2v3_2v8(y2)_2v6_ V6
—=S}{a§ = —— =
a 18 32 (2 gens
Use a calculator or other computer computational tool to calculate the decimal
equivalent: e = 0.816.

[7 6.27 Prove that an ellipse with eccentricity 0 is a circle. —

& s If the eccentricity of an ellipse equals 0, then e= = 0. In order for this fraction
to equal 0, its numerator must equal 0, so assume that c = Va? —b? =0. Solve the
equation for aand disregard negative values for aand b. (Because they represent
distance in the coordinate plane, aand b must be positive real numbers.)

(Va - 3 ) =(0)
a’ —b? =0
a’ =5*

a=b

If aand bare equal, then the major and minor axes have equal lengths and the
endpoints of the axes (as well as all other points on the ellipse) are equidistant
from the center; that distance is the radius of the circle.

the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

84
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

Hyperbolas |
Two-avmed pavadbolaclocking things

Note: Problems 6.28—6.29 refer to the hyperbola graphed in Figure 6-8.

6.28 Calculate the lengths of the transverse and conjugate axes.

Figure 6-8: — The graph of a hyperbola with vertices (-4,-3) and (2,-3).

Extend vertical lines from the vertices to the asymptotes of the graph. Make note
of the four resulting intersection points and use two horizontal lines to connect
them. The end result is the rectangle pictured in Figure 6-9.

conjugate axis ;
transverse axis

: The transverse and conjugate axes of a hyperbola are

F igure 6-9: perpendicular to, and bisect one another, at the center of the
hyperbola, much like the major and minor axes of an ellipse.
Their endpoints lie at the midpoints of the dotted rectangle.

The transverse axis of a hyperbola is the segment connecting the vertices and has
the same length as the horizontal sides of the dotted rectangle; the transverse axis
in this problem is 6 units long. The conjugate axis is the vertical segment passing
through the center of the hyperbola, which is 2 units in length.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

85
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

Note: Problems 6.28—6.29 refer to the hyperbola graphed in Figure 6-8.

6.29 Write the equation of the hyperbola in standard form.

A hyperbola with a horizontal transverse axis has standard form

eae 1, where ais half the length of the transverse axis, bis half the
a

length of the conjugate axis, and (h,k) is the center of the hyperbola.
Rule of thumb: The center is the midpoint of the transverse axis, the midpoint of the conjugate
; The tvansverse Axis axis, and the intersection point of the asymptotes, so (A,k) = (—1,-3). According to
is always pavallel to the Problem 6.28, the transverse axis has length 6 and the conjugate axis has length
axis of the vaviable 2,s0oa=6+2=3and)=2+2=1. Substitute the values into the standard form
in
the positive fraction. equation.
In
Problem 6.29, x is in
the (a) ee Ga)
2
Positive fraction so =, SE
I 9)
the oO L
tvansverse axis is Pavall
e]
to the x-axis, Gays 7 Se
9 1

Note: Problems 6.30-6.31 refer to the hyperbola graphed in Figure 6-10.

6.30 Determine the values of aand 6 required to write the equation of the hyperbola
in standard form.

Figure 6-10
A hyperbola with vertices (0,0) and (0,8).

Draw a rectangle whose sides are congruent and parallel to the transverse and
conjugate axes, as illustrated by Figure 6-11.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

86
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections

I ee conjugate axis
al
lames. | 83
r1 ‘Le
~
transverse axis Be
| he: ! .
Figure 6-11
=
caveful: a is
; 7 | The endpoints of the transverse and NOT always greater
Tia e lets conjugate axes are the midpoints of the than » in equations
rectangle’s sides. of hyperbolas (l
ike in
equations of elli
pses),
IUstead, ais alwa
lf ys ha
the transverse
AXIS (the
one that Cont
ains the
vertices),
According to Figure 6-11, the transverse axis is 8 units long, so a=8+2=4; the
conjugate axis is 6 units long, so 6 =6+2=3,

Note: Problems 6.30-6.31 refer to the hyperbola graphed in Figure 6-10.

6.31 Write the equation of the hyperbola in standard form.

Because the transverse axis is vertical, the standard form of the hyperbola
2
Nalin =P =—7) 3 Z Ae
is a = 1. The midpoint of the transverse axis is the center of the
a

hyperbola (as is the midpoint of the conjugate axis), so apply the midpoint
formula to calculate hand k.

(exeO58) =(0,4)= (uk) Eithey x? ov

y will be negative
2 2
2

According to Problem 6.30, a= 4 and b= 3, so substitute those values into the

th the equation of
a hyperbola, because
standard form equation.
2 without that negative
(y oS e (xza es term, you wouldnt
4 3 be able to get the
(y- 4) x? NEcessavy negative

16 Boi 7 SI9n th standava

form,

Note: Problems 6.32—6.33 refer to the equation 36x — 25y° + 72x + 100y — 964 = 0.
6.32 Rewrite the equation of the hyperbola in standard form and graph it.

Complete the square twice, using a technique similar to Problems 6.21—6.23. The
only difference arises when dealing with the negative y’—make sure to factor a
negative constant out of the y-terms instead of a positive constant.
36x” + 72x — 25y" +100y = 964
36 (x? + 2x +1)—25(y? —4y
+4) = 964 + 36(1)
—25(4)
36(x +1) —25(y-2) =900
36(x+1) _ 25(y-2) _ 900
900 900 900
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
87
 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
pe

Reduce
educe the fractions:
the fractions: =~ == and ====
900 ~ 95 an 900 36°

(24) ieee) ee
25 36
The hyperbola is now in standard form.

Look back at my Go Oe
a’ b?
vale of thumbs Loy
Problem 6.29 iL you
Therefore, h=-1, k=2,a= /25 = 5,andb= V36 = 6, Plot the center point and
Aont know why this is then mark points 5 units left and right of it to plot the vertices. (The vertices are
tue, located left and right of the center—instead of above and below it—because the
positive fraction contains x, so the hyperbola has a horizontal transverse axis.)
Finally, plot the points 6 units above and below each vertex and draw a rectangle
that passes through all of the points (except the center), as illustrated by Figure
6-12.

ere

Figure 6-12
The hyperbola centered at (-1,2) has
vertices (-6,2) and (4,2).

Extend the diagonals of the rectangle through its corners to draw the asymptotes
of the hyperbola. Graph the branches of the hyperbola so that they pass through
the vertices and quickly approach, but do not intersect, the asymptote lines.
Because the transverse axis is horizontal, this hyperbola will open left and right
(instead of up and down) as illustrated in Figure 6-13.

Figure 6-13
The graph of the hyperbola
36x — 259 + 72x + 100y — 964 = 0.

88 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Six — Conic Sections
eae en nena ta

Note: Problems 6.32-6.33 refer to the equation 36x: — 25y' + 72x + 100y — 964 = 0.
6.33 Find the equations of the asymptotes to the hyperbola.

A hyperbola has two asymptotes, one with a positive slope and one with a negative
slope. Notice that one asymptote passes through the center (-1,2) and through
the upper right-hand corner of the rectangle (4,8); calculate its slope (using the
method explained in Problem 1.5).

ee eee
easel” 5
Apply the point-slope formula using the slope and the coordinates of the center to
write the equation of the line. (Substituting the coordinate pair (x,,y,) = (4,8) into
point-slope form results in the same linear equation.)

Ja Js =m(x—x,)

y-2=2(x-(-D) Both asymptotes

pass through the
6 6 center, So you can use
Vent
= +2
Dred it as (x,,y,) tw both point-
y= mes * slope equations.

The asymptotes of hyperbolas have opposite slopes, so substitute m= -: and

(x,,y,) = (-1,2) into the point-slope formula to generate the equation of the other
asymptote.

x ot = m(x—x;)
6
ind ne (-1))
6 6
=—=x-<=+
en ec
6 i 4
gor
=-—-xX —

a7y 2
6.34 Find the coordinates of the foci for the hyperbola: Ge. - ee =1.

A hyperbola has two foci, which are located on the transverse axis c units further
away from the center than the closest vertex (such that ¢ = a’ +b"). Note that
the foci of an ellipse are closer to the center than the vertices, and thus “inside” the
ellipse; however, the foci of a hyperbola are farther away from the center than the
vertices, and are therefore “inside” the branches of the hyperbola.

The positive fraction of the standard form equation contains y, so the transverse
axis is vertical (parallel to the y-axis); and each focus is a distance of c units away
from the center of the ellipse along the transverse axis. In ellipses,
cma_?y, but in
hyperbolas, a=
Va'+y?,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 89

 faChapter Six — Conic Sections

Note that a = 16 and 6? = 28; calculate c.

c=Va +B"

c= 16+ 28
c= 44
c=2V11

The center of the ellipse is (h,k) = (-3,7). The major axis is vertical, so the foci are
located at the points (h,k —c) = (-3,7 - 2/11) and (h,k+c)= (-3,7 + 2V11).

RST oarEEE wearer: moe

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
90
 Chapter 7
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRIGONOMETRY
Inject sine, cosine, and tangent into the mix

The study of calculus combines the arithmetic rigor of algebraic concepts

with geometric and trigonometric postulates, theorems, and measurement
techniques to expand, more accurately define, and generalize skills that
are historically restrictive and unadaptable. Reacquainting yourself with
trigonometric concepts must precede such a laudable endeavor.

knowledge of trigonometry. Nor

Lots of calculus problems vequive pricy , put
ana tangent ave
only Ao you have to know what sine, cosine, civcle),
v values (using the unit
you need to mewmorize some of thei
anda manipulate trig expressions
understand theiv Aomains and vanges,
using iAentities and theovews.
tvig, it’s
trig helps you move beyond very stvict vules in geometvy—without
height.
hava to Sua the avea of a triangle unless you know its base and
complicated)
Besides, tvig expressions ave a lot move intevesting (read:
better tools to
thow linear and polynomial expressions, so they ave often
model veal-life situations.

Basically, calculus is vie with tvig, so make suve you understand the
material in this and the next two chapters, because without this
background, you'll stvuggle mightily in later chapters once calculus hits in
full force.
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry
fn ee

Measuring Angles
Radians, Aegvees, and vevolutions
7.1 Which is larger, mZA = 15° or mZB= 15 radians? Justify your answer.

Just Vike i Radians and degrees represent two different ways to measure angles. Consider
Fahvenhe ie AN an angle whose initial and terminal side overlap after one full rotation, creating

Celsius ave *we ee (for all intents and purposes) a circle. It is fairly commonly known that a circle
ro MEASUVe % measures 360°, but less commonly that the circle measures 27 radians. Therefore,
revaperat ure one radian equals (approximately 57.296) degrees. Therefore, 15 radians
equals slightly more than 859°, and mZBis greater than mZA.

7.2. Convert 270° into radians.

: ; : : IU
To convert a degree measurement into radians, multiply it by —
180
ax 2702
It’s ne to 270 :-— = ——_
180 180
write
= as your _ 90'3-2
final answer—you 90 -2
don't have to Sree
actually write the eal
wova “Vvadiaws.”
7.3 Convert 144° into radians. _

Multiply the degree measurement byia

a 1447
180 180
eu36 “4°
36-5
Bye radians
5

Ms ce ‘
7.4. Convert S radians into degrees.

To convert a radian angle measurement into degrees, multiply it by18)

Sa
180_1802
eG 32
:
_ 60: 8-7
Bon
= 60°

92 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

7.5 Convert 4 radians into degrees, and express the answer accurate to three
decimal places.

Although this radian angle measurement does not contain “z,” you should still
apply the method from Problem 7.4—multiply by =.

4 - (2).
U Pi

Use a calculator to determine the quotient: 4 radians = 229.183°.

A vevolution is
one civculay loop,
7.6 Convert 900° into revolutions.
SO one vevolution
equals 3602
To convert an angle measured in degrees into revolutions, divide by 360°.

900
_180-5 5 ;
= 9 revolutions
360 180-2

2hIGe y
7.7 Convert pe into revolutions.

To convert a radian angle into revolutions, divide it by 27, or (to facilitate

3 ‘ . 5 : 1
simplification) multiply it by =.

270 5 27m 1 _ 27+ _ 27 revolutions

ee ee a

Angle Relationships
Coterminal, complementary, and supplementary angles

7.8 Calculate the complement of 6 = 34°.

Complementary angles expressed in degrees have a sum of 90°, so if a is the

complement of 0, then a@ + 6 = 90°. Substitute 6 = 34° into the equation and solve
for @.
at 34° = 90°
a = 90° — 34°
a=56°
The complement of @ = 34° is 56°.

4
7.9 Calculate the compliment of 6 = =

: a Ff 4
Complementary angles expressed in radians have a sum of e Express this as an
equation such that @ is the complement of 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

93
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

t 4m
Therefore, 18 and et are complementary angles.

7.10 Calculate the supplement of @ = 125°.

When expressed in degrees, an angle 0 and its supplement @ have a sum of 180°.

125° + a =180°
a =180° —125°
a=55°
The supplement of 125° is 55°.

7.11 Calculate the supplement

of 0 = ae

An angle 6 and its supplement @, when expressed in radians, have a sum of .

ae ee
hey
rs lla
Oo ier

usually, polices Lis

you only tale auiceet
pout corerwin™® _ 6%
< 5 when angles AVE
angie
dowa position oa
in stan 67 lla
p ov wove wo, see Therefore, —- and —~ are supplementary angles.
17 1
Problem TA\S-

7.12 Identify the three smallest positive angles coterminal with 0 = —70°.

Coterminal angles share the same terminal ray, so consecutive coterminal angles
differ in magnitude by a single revolution, 360°. Add 360° to (or subtract 360°
from) an angle to generate a coterminal angle.

—70° + 360° = 290° 290° + 360° = 650° 650° + 360° = 1,010°

7.13 Identify the angle coterminal to 6 = 1,265° that belongs to the interval [0° 360°).

Subtract 360° from the angle to identify a coterminal angle: 1,265° — 360° = 905°.
That coterminal angle is still too large for the interval [0°, 360°), so continue
subtracting 360° until the result is between the endpoints of the interval.

the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

94
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry
EEO

~ 905° — 360° = 545° 545° — 360° = 185°

The angle measuring 185° is coterminal with 1,265° and belongs to the
interval [0°, 360°).

7.14 Identify the three greatest negative angles coterminal with 6 = 2

Subtract one revolution (27) from the angle at a time until you get a negative
coterminal angle.

70 in 4 32 3x 3 47 Ws
70 = —— 2 =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Subtract 27 twice more to generate the second and third greatest negative
coterminal angles.

Bere ee ae be bu, __Sa_4n_9n

9 ae 9 2 Ooo ae?
The three greatest negative coterminal angles to 6 = — are aie — > nd -=

If an
angle is
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
in StamAava
Right tviangle trig and vefevence angles Position, one of its
YaAys ovevlaps the
. Ses Positive (ight-han A)
7.15 Evaluate ns based on the unit circle.
Part of the x. wide
OaNA its Vertex is
als, ayes as A
Graph @= 3 in standard position on the same axes as a unit circle with center locatea atthe
(0,0); its terminal ray intersects the circle at (0,1). The y-coordinate of the point ovigin, (0,0).
; ? : a ese
of intersection represents the sine value of 9 = oe so ay =e

70
7.16 Evaluate ce based on the unit circle.

: 72 . et a
The terminal ray of 9= oe intersects the unit circle centered at the origin at the
Nad ; '
point [2-3 . The x-coordinate of the intersection point represents Cos 58°
7
73 V3
COs es
6 2
fon ee
TAT Evaluate cos (-2)based on the unit circle.

The unit circle provides only cosine and sine values for angles on the interval
[0,27]. Add 27 to the angle in order to calculate a positive coterminal angle for
d= a that belongs to the interval.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

95
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

; i
Ef 5 ‘
Positive angles Because ~3 and ~ are coterminal angles, they have the same trigonometric
ave gvaphea 5 : eee piven
values: cos(-4] = cos According to the unit circle, cos" = 5.
counter-
clockwise from
the x-axis, ana 7.18 Verify the cosine and sine values of = Z reported by the unit circle.
negative angles
ave graphed

clockwise. Draw the angle 0 = 7 in standard position and a unit circle centered at (0,0) on
the same coordinate plane. Construct a right triangle, asillustrated by Figure 7-1.
Because two angles of the triangle are known (45° and 90°), subtract their sum
from 180° to calculate the remaining angle: 180° — (45° + 90°) = 45°.

there's alsoa Figure 7-1

The radian measurement 9 == is
30-60-10 theovem
equivalent to 45°, so thisright triangle
from geometry. IF
must be a 45-45-90 right triangle, whose
a vight triangle has
side lengths are governed by specific
those angles, then
geometric principles.
the side opposite
the 30° angle is
half the length of
the hypotenuse, and
the side opposite
the 60° angle is 73
times as long as the
The hypotenuse of the right triangle is also a radius of the unit circle, so its length
shortest side.
i:1. According to the 45-45-90 right triangle theorem, the legs of the triangle are
2 times as long as the hypotenuse, so multiply the hypotenuse length (1) by that
fraction to calculate the lengths of the legs of the right triangle in Figure 7-1.

eee
V2 V2

Wa-t-$
Multiply the numerator and denominator of the fraction by V2 to rationalize it.

2\v2 dawn?
c 2 ne e 2 ;
This means you must travel a units right and 2 units up from the origin to
reach the point of intersection between the angle and the unit circle, and the
coordinates of the intersection point are (22
: the same values reported by the
Akai It .
unit circle for ar and sin—.
4

96 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry
——
a eee ee

7.19 Ifan airborne kite 80 feet high is staked to the ground so that the fixed length of
string forms a 50° angle of elevation, how long is the string that tethers the kite?
Provide an answer accurate to three decimal places.

Consider Figure 7-2, which illustrates the situation described.

Figure 7-2
The three
The kite is 80 feet high with a 50° angle
most Common
of elevation; x represents the length of
the string. tig vatios ave
Cosine = adjacent
hypotenuse,
Sine = __ °PPosite
hypotenuse, nA
tangent = _PPosite
Note that the known side length, 80, is opposite the known angle and the side to be Adjacent
calculated is the hypotenuse of the right triangle. Of cosine, sine, and tangent, the
only trigonometric ratio that describes the relationship between a right triangle’s
opposite side and hypotenuse is the sine. Substitute the known values and solve for x.

80
sin 50° = —
x
x (sin 50°) = 80 Mave
yes 80 Suve your
sin 50° calculator or
‘ ‘ computer is set
Use a calculator to determine the quotient accurate to three decimal places: fay Aegrees moa
ode,
gis ee eee Pl ecco angle
in this problem is
7.20 A stationary submarine (located at point Sin Figure 7-3) has received measured in
intelligence indicating that a hostile submerged mine (point M) is located Aegvees.
directly below a buoy (point B), which is exactly 2,500 feet from their current
position. If the crew is instructed to fire a torpedo at a 9° angle of declension to
detonate it from a safe distance, how far will the torpedo travel before it impacts
the mine? Provide an answer accurate to three decimal places.

Ss 2500 B

Figure 7-3
The distance d from the submarine S to
the mine M can be calculated using a
trigonometric ratio.
M

Youre given a side length that is adjacent to the given angle and asked to calculate
the length of the hypotenuse of the right triangle. You should apply the cosine
: a ; adjacent
ratio, since cosine = and then solve for d.
hypotenuse

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

97
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

500
cos9° = Bote
d
d(cos9°) = 2,500

ia ,500
cos 9°
d = 2,531.163 feet

llz
7.21 Evaluate ie, based on the unit circle.

The tangent of an angle is equal to the quotient of its sine and cosine.

lla sin(11m/6)
tan—— = ————"_+
6 cos(l1z/6)
Substitute the sine and cosine values from the unit circle.

scl ala
Bh N3:72
Simplify the complex fraction by multiplying its numerator and denominator by
the reciprocal of the denominator.

Pie ]
1
ae leg
e + (4) ?) 3
2 \V3 1
And the
secant function is The cotangent of an angle is equal to the reciprocal of its tangent. Bvecause
the VECipvoca) of th e lees We” Pliage als
fan——
= —— =,
cot——
== — == 3:
Cosine function, see Secale
Oar
Evaluate Ooo. based on the unit circle.
,

The cosecant function is the reciprocal of the sine function.

20 1
csc =
3 sin(22/3)
on V3
According to the unit circle, ore Sa
2

CSC an oy ee
3 sin(Qx/3) 3/2
Multiply the numerator and denominator
by the reciprocal of the denominator.
ice
ae
v3
2 [&
fl

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

98
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry
OE

Therefore, csc me = Po Multiply the numerator and denominator byV3 to

v3 on 2/3) 23
rationalize the expression: csc Ree | te
; 3. asl 3°

7.23 Identify the reference angle for 0 = 140°.

Every angle whose measure is greater than 90° has a corresponding reference
angle—an acute angle used to calculate its trigonometric values. Each refer-
ence angle is formed by the terminal side of the angle and the x-axis, so the
reference angle of0 = 140° is 40°, as illustrated by Figure 7-4.

|
terminal side of 0 =140°

Figure 7-4 If the S€cona-

The reference angle for @ = 140° Wadrant angle
‘S Measured in
measures 40°.
vadians, its
reference angle
Ss OQ=-7 — 6.

As Figure 7-4 demonstrates, an obtuse angle 0 whose terminal side lies in the
second quadrant will have a supplementary reference angle @: a = 180° — @. In this
problem, a =180° — 140° = 40°.

g 570
7.24 Identify the reference angle for 6 = ve

5
The terminal side of angle 6 = - lies in the third quadrant, so the reference
angle is the acute angle formed by its terminal side and the negative x-axis, as
illustrated by Figure 7-5.

Figure 7-5
IN
The reference angle for0 = “yg measures
— radians.
4

5
terminal side of 0= ae
4

The Humongous Book of Calculus Probl

ems
99
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

As Figure 7-5 demonstrates, an angle 6 whose terminal side lies in the third
quadrant will have a reference angle a defined by the formula: a = 0-2.

Identify the reference angle for 2.:

: : Lge eens
The terminal side of angle 0 = aa lies in the fourth quadrant, so the reference
angle is the acute angle formed by its terminal side and the positive x-axis, as
illustrated by Figure 7-6.

Figure 7-6 "i

U
The reference angle for0 = sea measures
— radians.
6

terminal side of 6= =

As Figure 7-6 demonstrates, an angle 0 whose terminal side lies in the fourth
quadrant has the reference angle a = 27 — 0.

llx 12a liz a

a=27-0=221 -—=—-—=
In the 6 6 GoaU
Syst quadrant
cosine, Sine, ana
tangent ave a\\ 7.26 Iftan@= -= and > <0<27 . evaluate sin@ .
|
positive. However
™
sine’s also positive
Angles whose tangents are negative have terminal sides that fall either in the
the second Quaa-
vant, tangent’s also second or fourth quadrant, but this problem specifically identifies the fourth
the ; een
positive quadrant’s boundaries: = <0 <2n,
thiva, and Cosine
the Draw a right triangle based on the fourth quadrant reference angle (like the
is positive reference angle in Problem 7.25). Although angle @ in Figure 7-7 is a reference
fourth. angle (and not the original 6 from the problem), it has the same trigonometric
values.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

10 0
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

Figure 7-7
Apply the Pythagorean theorem to
determine the length of the hypotenuse.

V(—5)* + (12) = J25 +144 = J169 =13

5 i ; :
Because tan 0 = ae and tangent =eee the side opposite @ has length 5

and the side adjacent has length 12. It is important to label the vertical side —5,
because you must travel down from the y-axis to reach the end of the segment.
Once you've identified the lengths of all three sides of the right triangle, you can
evaluate sin 6. According to Figure 7-7, the side opposite 0 equals —5, the side
adjacent to 6 equals 12, and the hypotenuse equals 13.
_ side opposite @ — —5
sin@
hypotenuse 13

9 ;
7.27. Ifsind= ar and tan@ > 0, evaluate sec 0.

Note that sin @ is negative in the third and fourth quadrants, and the tangent
function is positive (tan 8 > 0) in the first and third quadrants. Therefore,
the terminal side of @ must fall in the third quadrant in order to meet both Si
conditions. Draw a right triangle using a third-quadrant reference angle for 0 (like
the reference angle in Problem 7.24). Calculate the remaining side of the right i
triangle using the Pythagorean theorem, as illustrated in Figure 7-8.

Jo? -(-2)° = V81-4 = 77

Figure 7-8
Both legs in the right triangle are labeled
with negative values because all points in
the third quadrant have negative x- and
y-values.

The side opposite 6 equals —2, the hypotenuse equals 9, and the side adjacent to
0 equals —J'77. In order to calculate sec 8, you should first calculate its reciprocal:
cos 0.
_ side adjacent to 0 _ —V77
0
i hypotenuse 9

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

101
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry
je

Take the reciprocal of cos 6 to calculate sec 0.

9 9
sec? =—-——
V77
Rationalize the denominator.

seco o=-—pe( 9) =
= V7 ==

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Input a number and output an angle for a change
see
7.28 The function f(@) =sin @ is not one-to-one. As evidence, consider 0, = 7 and
Problem 4.24. 4
0, = = because /(0,) = f(@,) = = each input does not correspond to a unique
output. How, then, can an inverse function exist?

Only one-to-one functions may possess inverses but functions can be defined
creatively to ensure they pass the horizontal line test and thus have an inverse. In
the case of y= sin x, restricting the domain to ==G2—5 produces a graph upon
which any horizontal line drawn across the graph iaerseete it only once (see
Figure 7-9).

Figure 7-9
Restricting the domain ofy = sin x to
a <0 > ensures that it passes the
horizontal line test and is thus a one-to-
one function with an inverse.

Therefore, the inverse function of f(x), pipes pao f° (x)=arcsin x or

f(x)=sin" x, has a restricted range otaeeSarcsinx< Ei

102 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

7.29 A vacation resort in a mountain town has installed a zip line (a sturdy wire, down
which customers in harnesses can quickly descend from high altitudes) to attract
patrons. One zip line is 1,750 feet long and allows its rider to descend from a ski
slope to the ground, a vertical drop of 450 feet. Calculate the angle of declension
of the wire in radians, accurate to three decimal places.

Consider Figure 7-10, which illustrates the given information.

S = Xx
Figure 7-10
The zip line begins on the ski slope at
450 point S and ends at point G on the
1 5750 ground. SG = 1,750 feet (the length of the
zip line) and XG = 450 feet, the vertical
distance from the ground to the top of the
ski slope. The angle of declension of the
G zip line is O°.

You're given information about the side opposite 9 and the hypotenuse of the
right triangle, so apply the sine ratio to calculate 0.
a side opposite 0
hypotenuse
ee
~ 1,750
9
~ 35
To solve for 0, apply the inverse sine function to both sides of the equation.
ae ge9
arcsin (sin@) = arcsin 35
When you
6 =arcsin — veaa ‘ave!’ think
35
“What angles have
Use a calculator (in radians mode) to calculate 0: 6 = 0.260 radians.
this value?” In other
1 wovas, avcces [-> is asking
7.30 Evaluate arccos(-
5}
“What angles have a
cosine value of -> ?”
: 1 2a
Two angles on the unit circle have a cosine value of ——: 8 =— 3 and 0= a However,
4n

only 6 = = i
belongs to the restricted range of arccosine so discard
6 S<2), 2), so
(0 S$< 6
ine (0 th
discard the
solution =
3

7.31 Evaluate arccsc (-v2 ) :

If, arccsc (-v2 ) 0, then csc8 = = . Recall that sin @ is the reciprocal of CK
ee)
o®
P 2
csc 6: sin 0 = ene -~. Therefore, arccsc (-V2) = arcsin (2 . Two angles on the
no

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

103
 Chapter Seven — Fundamentals of Trigonometry

er ; 2 5a 71
unit circle have a sine value of ae He a and @= - . Neither of those angles falls
; a :
aS -*9 << 9}>
in the restricted range of arcsine ( | puta coterminal angle of 6= ot will.
7 : ome
Aoesw't have Subtract 27 from to identify it.
Any Cotevminal
r ae ;
angles that ft

= la >= ou Therefore, arccsc (-/2 )a ar

Because 6 Pa 3m
7,32 Evaluate arctan l.
is less than ts .

it’s too small Lov

Because tangent is defined as the quotient of sine and cosine, the only way angle 0
the interval, and can have a tangent of | is if sin 0 = cos 8. Consider an angle 6 such that
you have to throw cos 9 = sin 9 = c, where cis a real number. Evaluate tan 0.

if out as a possible pioneer cosO ¢

There are only two angles on the unit circle whose cosine and sine values are
equal: 0 = - (where cos 0 = sin 0 = ¥2) and @ = 5 (where cos @ = sin 0 = -~). Of
those two solution candidates, only the first falls within the restricted range of
a
arctangent (- <0< | so arctan | = a

Evaluate arcsin eh
a tl -

Because y= arcsin 6 and y= sin @ are inverse functions, you may be tempted to
Ensnlh
report that they cancel one another out, leaving ae as the answer. Though they
are inverse functions, the restrictions placed upon them to ensure they are one-to-
one invalidate that approach.
Begin by evaluating the expression inside parentheses: ae ee ia

. ( rd ; ,
arcsin| sin —— | = arcsin| ——
6 Z

s : 1
Two angles on the unit circle have a sine value of oa: d= 2 and @ = =, but
neither of those angles fall within the restricted range of arcsine (-2<0< =)
; 11 ,
Calculate a coterminal angle for 6 = a. to find a suitable angle, as demonstrated

in Problem 7.31.

Therefore, arcsin(sin 4) me

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

10 4
 Chapter 8
TRIGONOMETRIC GRAPHS, IDENTITIES,
AND EQUATIONS
Tricky graphs, trig equations,
anda \Aentity proofs

After you have mastered the rudimentary trigonometric concepts of

Chapter 7, you are sufficiently prepared to consider more rigorous, and
significantly more useful, trigonometric principles. This chapter begins
by extending the process of graphing by transformations (discussed in
Chapter 4) to the realm of periodic functions. Deeper in the chapter, you'll
manipulate trigonometric identities, in order to simplify trigonometric
expressions and to verify identities.

Though many students report that proving trigonometric identities is one

of the most memorable topics of a calculus preparation course (due to its
foundation in logical proof as opposed to arithmetic fluency), far more
useful is the ability to solve trigonometric equations, so the chapter will
culminate accordingly.

plicated ine
coma
slightly pate
unctions ave l fc llow
same DASIC :
Even though rvig er + th ey 'l l st il
A vight, vetlectng
Le Punctions from hapr a n a Aown, \ekt a
n
a
: lesafor
es shifting & ; ar tvig iAentiies
youl look
Dor \ sa vlah, the whole bit. Next WMatter what you plug
arooutr axes, Mite hhatr ave Aways Ge wefove YOu ger
AOWS
Vy short equation i k.
eee a
wieones
ple). Youll have +o Soy . dx C ar rhe end of the voe
the Varinore: mn APPEM 7 to solve
started, 7 $0 | listed the way? ‘ills Prom Chaprev
4

ome tvig equations.

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

Graphing Trigonometric Transformations

Stretch and shift wavy graphs
8.1 Sketch the graph of f(@) = 3 sin 6-1.
You can
Bua all the Transforming the standard sine graph (y= sin @) into /(@) = 3 sin 9 — 1 requires
major tvig graphs two steps: (1) multiply sin 6 by 3 (which stretches the graph to heights three times
ngent,
(sine, Cosine, ta as high and as low as the original graph); and (2) subtract | from 3 sin 8 (which
co wm t, we. shifts the entire graph down one unit). Both y= sin 6 and f(@) are graphed in
cotangent, se
ix A,
cosecamt) ™ Append Figure 8-1.
the
at the back of
ook.

1 The dotted graph ofy = sin 0, and the solid graph of

Pigure SIT eee

8.2 The graph of the function g(@) = asin (b: 6+ c) + d has an amplitude of [a].
Verify this is true for the graph of /(@) = 3 sin @—- 1 in Figure 8-1.
IF you Avew
a hovizontal To determine the amplitude of a periodic graph, calculate the difference between
line through the its highest and lowest y-values, divide the result by 2, and then take the absolute
middle of a periodic value. The graph of f(@) in Figure 8-1 reaches a maximum height of 2 anda
graph, the amplitude minimum height of —4.
of the graph would max height — min height
amplitude -| 5
ve the Aistance
Byom that line to
the highest ana 3 Fsf ol
lowest points on 2
the curve. 6|
5 |
2
=3
Therefore, the amplitude of the graph is, indeed, equal to the coefficient of the
trigonometric function: |3| = 3. .

106 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

8.3 Calculate the period of /(6) =~5 sin (20 + 1) -6.

To calculate the period of a periodic function, divide the period of the
untransformed function by the coefficient of the variable in the transformed A Peviodic
version. In this example, the untransformed function y= sin @ has a period of 27. _ dvarh vepeats
To calculate the period of /(@) =—5 sin (20 + 1) - 6, divide 27 by the coefficient
of 0. over. Each a
taal untransformed period of the sie ee
—— —
new p period = coefficient of 0 the saw easuves
€ hovizontal
_2n Aist ance From beginning
Bs :
Z end, which is callea
— the period of the
graph.
8.4 Sketch the graph of f(@) =|tan (6
= *)

°
In order to transform the graph of y= tan @ into /(@), you must subtract 3 from
A
“Avgument”
the argument of the function (which results in a phase shift of : units to the is a fancy way
right). Then, take the absolute value of the result (which reflects any portion
of saying “whatever's
plugged into the
of the graph for which y< 0 across the x-axis). Figure 8-2 contains both the function.”
untransformed graph of y= tan @ and the graph of /(@) = tan(9-2] ;

Fancy
way to Say
pees
hovizontal shi fp”

; The dotted curve represents the graph ofy = tan 0; the solid curve is
Figure 8-2 wu |
the graph of f (0) = tan| @-—— |.
2

8.5 Sketch the graph of g(@) =-sec (-8).

In order to transform the graph of y= sec @ into g(@), you first multiply the
argument of the function by -1, which reflects the graph across the y-axis. Notice
that this has no effect on the graph, because it is symmetric about the y-axis.
However, the second transformation will affect the graph—multiplying a function
by -1 reflects its graph across the x-axis. Figure 8-3 contains the untransformed
graph ofy = sec @ and the graph of g(@) = -sec (-0).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

107
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

Heve ave
the peviods of all six
trig functions: sine = 277,
cosine = 27, tangent = tr,
cotangent = tr, secant =
. The dotted curve represents the graph ofy = sec 0; the solid curve is
2m, ANA cosecant = 24r.
Figure 8-3 the graph of g(@) = —sec (-0).

8.6 Calculate the period and amplitude of h(@) =-4 cos (30) and sketch the graph
over the interval [-27, 27]. a Ue

The amplitude equals the absolute value of the function’s coefficient: |—4| = 4;
this changes the range of the graph from [-1,1] to [—4,4], and the negative sign
eflects the graph about the x-axis. The period of h(@) equals the original period
of cosine (27) divided by the coefficient of 0: = because of this transformation,
three full periods of h(@) fit into the same interval as a single period of y= cos 0.
The graph of h(@) appears in Figure 8-4.

Just Vike

Problem & 3, the

coebficient of @tells
w many pevioas of
you ho i
the new grap Sit into

one period of the ola

graph.

Figure 8-4 The dotted curve represents the graph ofy = cos 0; the solid curve is
the graph of h(0) = —4 cos (30)
.

108 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

8.7. The function f(@) = asin (b: @) + is graphed in Figure 8-5. Determine the
values of a, b, and c.

Figure 8-5 The graph off(@) = asin (b+ 0) +c.

Figure §-5

Use the formula from Problem 8.2 to calculate the amplitude. is also the gvaph of

7757621] +2, You

amplitude =
max height — min height
9
-}aa| 8 can Move the sine
2 2
gvarh a units left lon
rg hy) instena of Flipping
This formula has one limitation—it cannot determine whether or not ashould
be positive or negative. Note that y= sin @ increases at 6 = 0 but f(@) decreases \F upside Aown with a
there, indicating that the graph has been reflected across the x-axis. Therefore,
G0 5a= ->.

The period off(@) is larger than 27 (the period of y= sin @). Specifically, one
period of the graph stretches from —27 to 27; calculate the difference of those
6-values and take the absolute value to determine the period of /(@).

period = |22 — (-2z:)| = |4a| = 4

Use this result and the formula from Problem 8.3 to determine the value of b.
untransformed period
new period = ;
coefficient of 0
2
40 =—
inh ee athe MAX ANA the
- Mh of this graph ove 3
esaS Units (Hhe amplitude) 2
Above ana below c= 2
b=- :
2
To determine the value of c, take the average of the maximum and minimum
values of the graph.

patois
Ora Z
ie 9 ae
3
Therefore, a= “9 =

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

109
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

Applying Trigonometric Identities

Simplify expressions and prove itAentities

8.8 Simplify the expression: cos(—@)- csc (—0).

Cosine is an even function, so cos(—0) = cos 6, but cosecant is odd, so

csc (-0) =-csc 6.
cos(—0)- csc (—0) = cos@: (—csc 6)

The cosecant function is defined as the reciprocal of the sine function.

= 8 1
wot sin0
cos@
sin0
=—cotd

Therefore, cos(—@)- csc(—0) = —cot.

eo sir 3 (0/20
8.9 Simplify the expression:
ae)
sec(—0)

Apply the cofunction identity sin (Z-.] = cos 8 to the numerator; the denominator
is equal to sec 6, as secant is an even function.
alist
sin (F-6)ssBocas

sec(—0) sec
“A cos’ @
ty1/cos@

Reduce the complex fraction by multiplying its numerator and denominator by

cos 0, the reciprocal of the denominator.
cos? @ (cos@
a ie e ee
1 cos
cos0@ 1
If you aeto
multiply ci= 6)by sin® (17/2-0)
Therefore, = cos’ 0.
sec (—0)
-|, you get (o-3}

8.10 Simplify the expression: cot(6= 2 ‘tan (z= a}

The argument of the cotangent function is the opposite of the argument in the
cofunction identities. To remedy this, factor -1 out of the argument.

110 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations
——————— |

ot)
Since cotangent is an odd function cot (-a@) =—cot a. In this case, a = - — 0.

The tangent and cotangent functions (of the same angle) are reciprocals.

cor(0-4) tan2—0]=-1
2 2 i

Rewrite cot @ as the reciprocal of tan 0.

cot@+tan@ = +tan@
tan

8.11 Simplify the expression: cot @ + tan0.

Add the terms together using common denominators.

aa tan@ tand
tan0 1 tand
1 tan”0
=——+
tan@ tand
$ 1+ tan? @
tand

According to a Pythagorean identity, 1 + tan’ 6 = sec’ 6.

When
sec’ 0
veaucing A
tand Lyaction leaves

Dividing by a quantity is the equivalent of multiplying by its reciprocal; the nothing behind im —
reciprocal of tan @is cot 0. the numerator (ov
= sec” @-coté the Aenominatoy, For
that matter), make
Rewrite the expression in terms of sine and cosine and simplify. suve you write \

sear eet. (wot 0) mM the

cos’ @ sind ewpry spot.

ces cos@sin®
= 1
cos @sin@
Because
1
Therefore, cot@+ tan = \ -3x* xX
cos@sin0
Ractovs wre

8.12 Simplify the expression: 1 - 3 sin’ 6 + 2 sin‘ 0. (\ = Cl- 28),

; plug wWnKe= siw’ ga?
factor the rt)
Factor the expression, just as you would factor 1 — 3x + 2x? (in this case, x= sin? @). expression.

1-3 sin?6+2sin‘@ = (1 —sin’ 6)(1 - 2sin’ 0)

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

According to a Pythagorean identity, cos’ 6 + sin’ @ = 1. If you subtract sin’ 0 from

both sides of that identity, you get cos? 6 = 1 — sin’ 9; use that identify to replace
the left factor. According to a double angle identity, cos 26 = 1 — 2 sin’ @; use this
to replace the right factor with cos 20.
= (cos’ 8) (cos 20)
Therefore, 1 — 3 sin? 6 + 2 sin‘ @ = (cos® 8) (cos 26).
ae
Simplify the expression: cot 0 + aoe 0.

Vourcan i the quotient

Rewrite j ion
as a complex fraction in in 6@ and cos 0.
i terms of sin
replace cos 2x ih coté cos6
one of three things: 1 __ sind

ovCOS"
| — x2sin?
— Sin?x x,as Zcos?
Hoe x |4 ee
9 Z2 0
2sin?
4 Appendix C. You
'll use Reduce the complex fraction using the method described in Problem 8.9.
Aiffevent Vers
ions of
Cos 2x Loy Aiffev cos@ (2sin?@\ 2cos@sin? @
ent
Problems. sin@ 1 ” sin@ _ 2°cos 6-sin@ “sit oA G‘ 6
L | San'@ |
2sin® O 1
5
oaat6 |. eee ae a

According to a double-angle identity, 2 sin 6 cos @ = sin 20. Therefore,

cotO + a 6 =sin20.

8.14 Factor and simplify the expression: cos‘ 6 — sin’ 6.

Factor the difference of perfect squares.

that’s cos‘ 9 — sin‘ @ = (cos? 6 + sin? 9) (cos? 6 — sin? 8)
pecause you
According to a Pythagorean identity, cos’ @ + sin’? 0 =1, and a double angle identity
have to go vight states that cos 26 = cos’ 0 — sin? 6. Substitute those values into the expression.
cos 6 units and uP
= (1)(cos 20)
sin 6 units Prom the
ovigin to veach the Therefore, cos‘ 6 — sin* 0 = cos 20.
point (cos 6, sin 8).
8.15 Generate the identity cos? 6 + sin? @ = 1 by examining an acute, positive angle 0
graphed in standard position and its terminal side’s intersection point with the
unit circle.

Draw @ and the unit circle described by the Problem, as illustrated by Figure 8-6.
An angle in standard position intersects the unit circle at the point (cos @, sin 8).
Thus, the horizontal leg of the right triangle in Figure 8-6 has length cos 6 and
x the vertical leg has length sin 0.
F According to the Pythagorean theorem, the sum of the squares of a right
Se triangle’s legs is equal to the square of its hypotenuse, so cos? 6 + sin? 0 = 1. It is
fH no coincidence that the identity is classified as a Pythagorean identity, as its proof
\s depends on the Pythagorean theorem.

112 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

(cos 0, sin 0)

Figure 8-6
A right triangle created by the intersection
point of@’s terminal side and the unit circle.

8.16 Verify the sine double angle identity sin 20= fsin 8 cos 8 using a sum or
difference identity.

The sum-to-product formula for sine is sin (a + 6) = sin acos b = cos asin b.
Rewrite sin 20 as sin (8 + @) and apply the sum formula for sine. (Note that
a= 6=6@ in this example, but aand b need not be equal for the formula to apply.)

sin(@
+8) = sin@cos6
+ cos@sin9
= sin@cos@
+ sin@cos@
= 2sin@cos@

8.17 Evaluate cos > without a calculator, given =Goa

The upside-
The only trigonometric values-you are normally expected to memorize are those Aown “¥" sign means
on the unit circle, so = is a troublesome angle until you note that it is equal to you should write the
the difference of two unit circle angles: 7= aot Apply the cosine difference opposite of the “4”
formula for cosine: cos(a +b)=cosacosb F sinasinb. sign eavliey in the
formula.

TL te eo
= cos —— cos — + sin — sin —

“CNEIEN:
3 4 3 4

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

li3
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

8.18 Verify the identity: 2 -— cos’ 0 — (1 — cos’ @) = 1.

Problems Expand and simplify the expression.

$.18-8.21 ove
AifPevent than 9 =e08*6 — 140086 =1
Problems 8.8-8.17 2—1=1
because they Contain
is
ea Wations, hot
€xpvessions. By applying valid operations to the equation, you have demonstrated that the
equation 2 — cos? 6 — (1 — cos’ @) = 1 is equivalent to the equation | = 1. Because
the latter equation is always true, so is the former, regardless of the -value
substituted into the equation.

8.19 Verify the identity: tan@ + tan’ 6 = 29

7
co

Factor tan 6 out of the left side of the equation.

sec’ 0
tan 6(1+ tan® 0) = oto
Cc
According to a Pythagorean identity, 1 + tan® 6 = sec’ 0.
sec’ 2 0
tan6(sec* 0) = ——
Kaer ) coté
Cross multiply to eliminate fractions.
(tan @) (sec? 8) (cot 8) = sec? 6
Note that cot 6 is the reciprocal of tan 0.
1
tartO «sec? 0: —— = sec’ 0
stastO
1-sec? 9 =sec’ 0

8.20 Verify the identity: sin® 0 cos 6 = cos 8 — cos’ 6.

The greatest common factor on the right side of the equation is cos 6.
sin? 8 cos 6 = cos 8(1 — cos? 8)
Subtract cos’ @ from both sides of the Pythagorean identity cos? 6 + sin? @ = 1 to
generate an equally valid identity: sin* 6 = 1 — cos* @. Use this identity to replace
the parenthetical quantity on the right side of the equation.
sin? 8 cos 8 = cos 0(sin? @)
Multiplication is commutative, so the identity is verified.

sin 20 — cos0@(sin@ — 1)
8.21 Verify the identify: 2 = sin@ + sec’ 6 — tan’ 6.
COs
According to a Pythagorean identity, 1 + tan? 6 = sec? 6. Subtract tan? 6 from both
sides of that identity to generate an equally valid identity: 1 = sec? 9 — tan? 0; use it
to rewrite the right side of the identity.

4 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and equacions

sin 20 — cos0(sin@ —1)

=sin@d+1
cos0

Cross multiply to eliminate the fraction.

sin 20 — cos 0(sin@ — 1) = cos0(sin@ +1)

sin 20 — cos@sin@ + cos@ = cos @sin@ + cos@
You can
stop working as
Isolate sin 20 by adding cos @ sin 0 to, and subtracting cos 6 from, both sides of
SOON AS you get
the equation.
something thats
sin 20 = cos@sin@ + cos @sin@ + cos@ — cos@ Aetuitely true, like a
sin 20 = 2cos@sin@ basic equation (0 = 0)
ov an identity (like
sin 26 = 2 sin 6 cos O in
this problem),
Solving Trigonometric Equations
Solve fov THETA instead of x
This
8.22 Find all solutions to:the equation 3(sin 0 + 1) = sin 8 + 4 on the interval [0,2z:).
Problew, is
asking for all the
Distribute the constant and isolate sin @ on the left side of the equation.
Angles on the unit
ewe that have o
3sin0d+3=sin0+4 Sthe Value of |
3sin@ — sind =4-—3 matter how 2 Me
2sin6 =1 theve ave oy mY
A

sin? = ; aa they've
th,
You are instructed to identify all sohuvions on the interval [0,27); there are two
° wu
such angles whose sine value equals - O= g and = -

8.23 Calculate the exact solution to the equation: V3 cot@ —1=0,

The
Isolate cot # on the left side of the equation.
exact
V3 cot0=1 _ Solution is the
1 Stugle AnSwer
cotd = 5 YOU get Prom ay
verse tig function
Solve for @ by applying the inverse cotangent function. that’s on the
vestvicteg ranges
t
arccot (cot@)
(cot 8) = arccot —= a Aiscussea in
Problem 7.29.
0 = arccot cot —=:
V8
In order to better understand the solution, multiply the numerator and
1 : :
denominator by 5. Recall that the cotangent is defined as the quotient of the
cosine and sine functions.
cos@) 1/2
sin0@ V3 /2
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
115
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

: : 1 ; 3 :
The only angle 6 with a cosine value of 5 and a sine value of a on the restricted
cotangent range of [0,7] is 0 = - .

8.24 Find the general solution to the equation: 4 cos’ 0 - 2 = 0.

Isolate cos? 9 on the left side of the equation.

Dowt forget
the “t” sign when * 4c0s*6=2
ou take an even 1
ae of both sides oF cos’ 6 = 9
on equation.
Take the square root of both sides of the equation.
1
Vcos’ 0 = +t
2
1
cos9 =+—=
V2
Rationalize the fraction and the constant will mirror unit circle values.

To get
Cotevmina]

angles, you just v2

List all the angles on one period of cosine, [0,27), whose cosine is either a
AAA ov Subtract
2a Ovev ana ovey or 92.
2
AIAN (See Prop} ar _% 3m 5a Tm
GRA Teh a
-+I4). That's what
2k” Mees
Indicate that these angles and all of their coterminal angles are valid solutions.
AAA ov subtvact
21 to your heart's @= 5+ 2Qkr, 3 5
+2kx, = + 2k, 2 + 2kz, where kis an integer
Content to get an
tn-nite humbey
8.25 Identify all the points at which the graphs of /(@) = sin 6 and g(0) =csc 0
of answers. intersect... a .

Set the functions equal and use a reciprocal identity to rewrite csc 0.
sin@ = cscO

sin@ = :
sin@
er AAW Cross multiply and solve for 0.
proses FO
eS sin’ 0 =1
eatin
shoula include AL i Vsin? @ =+v1
terminal
core re angles
ke in :
sind=+1
the solutions,
Proislev 9.24. NEC 1 30
d= 9 +2kx, > + 2kr

The functions intersect at 0 = . (where f(@) = g(@) = 1), 0= = (where

f(9) = g(@) =-1), and the infinitely many coterminal angles:

CESE)
SS =)CE)C5}
116 The Humongous Book of Calculus Prelblems
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

8.26 Calculate the exact solution(s) to the equation: tan® 6 = tan 6.

Set the equation equal to 0 and factor.

tan* @—tan@ =0
tan0(tan@—1)=0

Set each factor equal to 0 and solve the individual equations; ensure that you only
include solutions from the restricted range of arctangent, as the problem specifies
exact solutions.
oes tand—-1=0

6 =arctan0 ee
9=0 or 6 =arctan1

ou@
ab
The solutions to the equation are 6 = 0 or 0 = a

8.27 Calculate the exact solution(s) to the equation: 3 cos? 0-10 cos 6+ 3 =0.
Think avout
Factor the expression and set each factor equal to 0. Lhe gy ap y= cos

@,e Ik stretche s From

(cos@— 3)(3cos@—1)=0 = \, Not only
Aoeswt itreach’ it
y = -\ roy

See eer ‘ never oc Wigh

A ev
cos0 =3 or cos@ = a
0 =arccos3 1 than |
6 = arccos 2

The domain of arccosine (which is also the range of cosine, its inverse function)
is [-1,1]; note that 3 does not belong to that interval, so 6 = arcccos 3 is an invalid
é 1 1 3 3
solution. However, —1 < Z < 1, so 0 = arccos tae 1.231 is a valid solution.

8.28 Calculate the exact solution(s) to the equation 2 tan? 6 —- tan 0 — 5 = 0, accurate
to three decimal places.
Dow't
This equation cannot be factored, so apply the quadratic formula instead. YOUNA heve—
use all of the
tan
9 = DNC -42)(-5) Aecimals your
2(2) calculator Spits out
_1+V41 The more you vouna
ane 4 athis Step, the move
i
1-41 1+ -V41 taccurate your nal
6 =arctan 5 , arctan ; Answer will be,

Use a calculator to evaluate the inverse tangent functions.

6 = arctan(—1.35078105935821) 6 ~ arctan(1.85078105935821)
@ = —0.933 P21 078

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

117
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations
EE

8.29 Calculate the exact solution(s) to the equation 3 sin? 6 = -3 sin 0 + 1, accurate to
three decimal places.

Set the equation equal to 0: 3 sin? @ + 3 sin @ - 1 = 0. Because the expression is not
factorable, solve using the quadratic formula.

re —3+,/9-—4(3)(-1)
2(3)
‘ —-3+ 21
sin0 = ———_—_
6

6 = arcsin=e
oat _ (—3#v21
0 = arcsin Por ares

6 = arcsin(—1.26376261583) or 6 arcsin(0.263762615826)
no solution 6 = 0.267

Note that arcsin (—1.26376261583) does not exist because the domain of
y = arcsin @ is [-1,1] and -1.26376261583 < -1.

8.30 Identify all solution(s) to the equation tan 20 + /3 =0 on the interval (-$.2}

Notice that this equation contains the double angle 20 within the trigonometric
function. Begin by isolating the trigonometric expression.
tan20 =—J/3
It is sometimes helpful to divide the numerator and denominator of the constant
1
by 5 when solving equations involving tangent and cotangent.

V3
tan 20 = —— = ————_
3/2
] AZ
sin8 1 V3.
As tan@ = , identify the angle 6 such that cos 6 = — and sin 0 = -—-.
cos 0 a =
29 =-=3
Because the coefficient of @ is 2, you should list twice as many solutions. Whereas
; : : m1 ’
this equation normally has only one solution on -2,2), you should include one
: : : 4
more—the smallest coterminal angle that’s greater than the solution rh
MAee trt=—
27
3 3

List the original solution and its coterminal angle.

Time oU
20 =-—, —
> 8

yo)
: ° : 1 :
Multiply the entire equation by 9 to isolate @ and thereby solve the equation.

pas,
6 a
oo]

118 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

8.31 Identify all solution(s) to the equation 3(sin 36 + 1) — 5 =- 2 on the interval

[0,2z0).

Isolate the trigonometric function on the left side of the equation.

3sin30+3-—5=-2
3sin30 —-2=-2
3sin 30 =0
sin 30 = 0

Identify all of the angles on the unit circle that have a sine value of 0.
30 =0,7
Rather than two answers, list three times as many (because the coefficient of
@ is 3). Calculate two coterminal angles for 9 = 0 and two coterminal angles
for 0=2.

30 = 0,7, 27,32,47,57
Do not be concerned that these answers are out of the interval dictated by the
problem; when you divide each by 3 to solve for 6, they are bounded correctly.
a 2a 40 50
=
ee na
this time aaa La
to each angle since
8.32 Determine the general solution to the equation: tan’ 6 —- 4 sec 0 = —5. that’s the period of
sine.
Rewrite the equation in terms of a single trigonometric function. To accomplish
this, apply a Pythagorean identity: if 1 + tan® 6 = sec’ 0, then tan* 6 = sec’ 6 - 1.

(sec? 0-1)—4secO =—5

sec’ @—4sec0+4=0

Factor and solve for 0.

(sec@ — 2)(sec@ — 2) =0
secO0=2
This
Recall that secant and cosine are reciprocal functions. _ _ ProceAuve
Can
tutveAuce false
cos@ =— AUSWEVS, So Make
YOU Plug your vesultsSuve
thto back
Find all angles on [0,27), one period of cosine, and express the solution in the oviginal equation
general form, as directed by the problem. ANA toss out
anythin
that Aveswt wovk,
Neen ohe d
3 3

8.33 Determine the general solution to the equation: 1 — sin 0 = cos 0.

It is easier to rewrite an entire equation in terms of a single trigonometric

function when at least one of the functions is squared, because it allows you to
apply Pythagorean identities. To introduce squared functions, square both sides of
the equation.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

119
 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations
ee rr

(1-sin@)’ =(cos6)”
1—2sin0 + sin? 6 = cos” 0

According to a Pythagorean identity, cos? @ + sin? 0 =1; therefore, cos’ 6 = 1 — sin’ 6.

Use this identity to rewrite the entire equation in terms of sine.

1-2sin
0+ sin? 6= 1 —sin? 0

Set the equation equal to 0, and solve by factoring.

0+ 2ew ave 2sin? 6 —2sin@ =0
all the angles 2sin0(sin@ —1)=0
that end on the
positive KAXKIS, ona 2sin0 =0 sind -—1=0

ar + Dew ave all the sin0=0 or sin? =1

Roe Sci
the negative Ar>-
a oe 9
Oxkar Vists all of
those angles at The general solution is 9 =0+2ka, 0=2+2ka, or 0= =+ 2k. Condense the
once. WA
notation by combining the first two solutions: 0=0+kz or 0= . + 2ka.
=

fP 8.34 Identify all solution(s) to the equation sin (0

- =|.oo the interval [0,27).

ae Apply the difference formula for sine described in Problem 8.16.

6
sin(
4= 4 sh
Sine
: a a Oe
sin@cos— — cos@sin— = —
3 cy

sino(5) —cos0 v8 oa
2 2 2

Multiply the entire equation by 2 to eliminate fractions.

sind— V3 cos@ =1

Separate the trigonometric expressions and square both sides of the equation.

(sind)’ = (v3 cos@ + 1)

sin? 0 = 3cos? 0+ 9/3 cos@+1

Because a Pythagorean identity states that cos? 6 + sin? 6 = 1, you can conclude that
sin’ @ = 1 — cos? @. Use this identity to rewrite the equation in terms of cosine.
(1— cos” 0) = 3cos? 0+ 2V3 cos +1

120 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eight — Trigonometric Graphs, Identities, and Equations

Set the equation equal to 0 and solve by factoring.

Acos? 0+ 2V3 cos6 =0

2cos6(2cos6 + V3) =0

bre 9cos6 + V3 =0

cos0 =0 2cos0 =—V3

fate oe 5 oe

yt
9 2

' : Gat
The solutions to the equation are 0 = — or —.
6

; The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

121
 Chapter 9
INVESTIGATING LIMITS
to veach!
What height Aces a Punction INTEND
The concept of limits, though typically presented to students prior to the
study of differentiation and integration, was the final component of calculus
theory to fall into place. Though the theory allowing the calculation of
instantaneous rates of change and the determination of area based upon
infinite series existed, they could gain no credibility without a rigorous
and systematic set of theorems concerning the existence and behavior
of infinitely small or infinitely large quantities. The modern (epsilon-
delta) definition of limits bears an undeniable, though less obfuscated,
resemblance to the breakthrough characterization of limits whose discovery
led to the establishment of calculus, and is a foundational concept for much
of theoretical mathematics—even courses of study to which calculus is
merely peripherally related.

Limits ave mportant—veally import

ant T hey’ve the spine that holds
vest of the calculus skeleton upright. th
Basically, a limit is Just a stat ;
that tells you what height a functi
on is headed Lor AS You get ae om
A Specific x-value. It Aoeswt matter
if the function petah ets en
(maybe there's a hole there instead
of a function value ie ‘e ae
7.4). All that matters is that you
can tell wheve the Binepon Reea
to go. This chapter starts veally eas ps
y (youve just looking at graphs of
aoe a4 Aots) and then gets tricky
when it comes time for epsilon-
Secale Ba nS through these,
because it gets easier again when
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits
eT

Evaluating One-Sided and General Limits Graphically

Find limits on a function graph

Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.

9.1 Evaluate lim Uc),
Trace your finger
The positive sign in the limit notation indicates a right-hand limit. As you
along the graph of
—> approach x= 1 from the right, the function approaches (and in fact reaches)
£(«) FROM the vight, not y= 4. Therefore, lim f(x) =4.
TO the vight, and stop x>lt

at the vertical line x

= |. the y-value you
end up with is the
limit,

Figure 9-1
6 The graph of a function f(x).

patspabafta ate
JP a ie]
Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.
9.2 Does lim f(x) = lim f(x)? Justify your answer.
If the left
and vight-hana
limits at an xvalue Problem 9.1 states that lim f(x) = 4. The left hand limit, lim
f (x), also equals 4;
x>1* els

are equal, then a the direction from which you approach x= | along the graph of f(x) is irrelevant
"general limit” with ne as either leads to the point (1,4) on the graph of f(x).
teeny “+” oy “in it)
exists: lima L(x) = 4,
Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.
9.3 Evaluate (-2).

The graph of f(x) contains the point (-2,2), so f(-2) = 2.

124 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits

Note: Problems 9.1-9.9-refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.

9.4 Evaluate lim f (x).
Think
As x approaches —2 from the left and from theright, f(x) approaches aN
of the
lim f (x) =3. function asa
voad, Even though
theve’s a Major
Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph of f(x) in Figure 9-1. pothole in the graph

9.5 Determine the value of c that makes the statement true: lim f(x) = 0. at (-2;3), that’s still
KPO
wheve the road
is leading, so the
The statement requires you to identify the x-value at which the graph off(x)
approaches 0 (i.e. the x-intercept) as you approach c from the left. The correct
limit exists at
answer is c= 3; the function approaches the point (3,0) as you approach x= 3 = ee
from the left.

Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.

9.6 Evaluate f(3).

Two coordinates of interest fall on the vertical line x = 3: (3,0) and (3,—4). Clearly,
(3) cannot equal both 0 and —4, as that violates the fundamental definition of
a function (each input must correspond to exactly one output). Note that (3,—4)
is actually on the graph of f(x), whereas (3,0) is essentially a “hole” in the curve.
Therefore, f(3) =—4.

Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.

9.7 Evaluate lim f (x).

As you approach x = 4 from the left, the graph of /(x) approaches the point (4,-4),
so lim f (x)=—4,

Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1.

9.8 Evaluate lim f(x).
So, lim P(x) ag
As you approach x = 4 from the right, the graph of the function approaches the
Mer exist, elahe
point (4,-5), so lim f(x) =—5. aeee ee eee ay
x>4t the vight- ana
left-hana limits
Note: Problems 9.1-9.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 9-1. ave Aiffevent aS x
9.9 Find two values of k such that the following statement is true: APPYOAChEes 4.
lim f(s lim J ix):

As demonstrated by Problems 9.7 and 9.8, the left- and right-hand limits of S(x)
as x approaches 4 are unequal; thus, k= 4. As for the other correct value of k,
notice that one-sided limits are unequal at x = 3: lim f (x) =0 but lim f(x) =—4.
Therefore, k= 3 or k= 4.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

125
 Note: Problems 9.10-9.11 reference the function g(x) defined below.
2 ceo
Oe Le
9.10 Graph g(x) without using a graphing calculator.

Plugging Factor the numerator of the function.

2 into the meena (a 2)
Aenominator g(x) ee
MEANS YOuUA end
UP Aividing by zeve Note that the numerator and denominator contain the same factor, but before
which is not d you eliminate it to reduce the fraction, take note of the domain restriction
allowea.
dictated by the denominator: x # 2.
(2x + 8)(x2)
g(x)= gad
g(x) =2x +3, ifx#2

2 x? —x—-6
The graph of y= oa (pictured in Figure 9-2) is simply the graph of
y=2x+3 with one difference—there is a hole in the graph when x= 2, due to

the restriction x # 2.

2 x" —x-6
2

The graph of g(x) Cee

= naan

notice the hole at (2,7).

Note: Problems 9.10-9.11 reference the function g(x) defined in Problem 9.10.

you
tuto 2x +3pluthe
gx =2 oe)
Simplified version
of 9(x)
you get the =cov22)vec+3 = 7
w teh 's9(2)
Substituting x = 2 into the function produced an indeterminite result: g(2) = 0°
(Note that zero divided by itself does not equal one.) However, you can determine
t limit,
Youll use this lim g(x) based upon its graph in Figure 9-2. Although the function is not defined
technique in
Problems IQ. |I-10 when x= 2 (due to a hole in the graph), g(x) clearly approaches the same y-value
.
from the left and from the right: y= 7.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

126
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits

9.12 Given the piecewise-defined function h(x) defined below, evaluate lim h(x) and
“Sim h(x). ie
x0 ’

h(x) x, x<0
x)=
vx, x20

Consider the graph of h(x) in Figure 9-3, To generate this graph, first plot y= x’,
but only draw the portion of the graph for which x < 0—the portion of the graph
that is left of the y-axis. Technically, this graph segment should end with an open
dot on the y-axis, because x is less than but not equal to 0. Next, graph the function
y= Vx on the same coordinate plane. Because its domain exactly matches the
restricted domain assigned to it by h(x) (x 20), the graph appears in its entirety,
including a solid dot on the y-axis because the restriction x 20 includes 0.

Figure 9-3
x, x<0
The
graph Ms)=f ea

As x approaches 0 from the left and the right, h(x) approaches y= 0. Therefore,
lim A(x) = lim h(x) =0.
x20" x>

Anything
9.13 nea iecwi
piecewise-defined d function j(x) defined
function j(x) defined belbelow, luate os
evaluate lim Jj(x) and eriae
ee iA ted

x>-2t : by the top vule, so

use it to fina the left-

joe (x+3)'—4,
—x +5,
x<-2
xo =2
hana limit. Anything
vight of x = -2 is AetineA
by the bottow vule,
0 that’s wheve the
Calculate the one-sided limits as x approaches —2 by substituting x =—2 into both >
vight-hana limit
of the rules that define j(x).
comes from.
lim j(x)=(-2+3)'-4
ee
lim, j (x) =—(-2)+5
dam

=1-4 =2+5
=7

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

127
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits

9.14 Evaluate lim }*L

x>0 x

x”
If x > 0, the graph of f (x) = HIwill look like Figure 9-4.

aT

Figure 9-4 The graph off (x) = Hlmatches the graph ofy = 1 when x is a positive number.

Any positive number divided by itself is 1, so when x > 0, f(x) = 1, and it is clear
from the graph that lim f (x) =1. However, if x < 0, the graph of f(x) looks like
Figure 9-5. te

When
x is negtive, Ix|
is the opposite of x.
Fov example, if
x = -S, then
Figure 9-5 The graph of f (x)= Hlmatches the graph of'y = —1 when x is a negative number.
Ix] = |-ST=S.

A number divided by its opposite equals —1, so when x < 0, f(x) =-l and
lim f(x) = 1. Because lim f (x) # lim f (x),lim Hldoes not exist.
x? x x>0 x

128 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits
-_————e_ i ue i

Limits and Infinity

What happens when x ov P(x) gets huge?

9.15 Evaluate lim tan@ and lim tan@.

6->(32 /2)- 6->(32/2)"

Consider the graph ofy = tan 6 in Figure 9-6.

4 4 4 4
! | |
;
i 4 \ |
1 | | 1
| 3 |
1 | : | |
1 | I 1 .
' ; Figure 9-6
The graph ofy = tan 8,
: Xn
bi 31/2 N 1/2 m2 1 anf 2 with asymptotes at 0 = re

| I =A | | ifk is an odd integer.

i \ 5 | 1
I I : | l
\ | | 1 a
| | $3 | \ Limits
ave veal
' | 4 | |
4
numbers, and
{ { { | 09 is not a: veal
As @ approaches a from the left, the tangent graph increases without bound, so
number. It Aoeswt
2 make sense to say
im. tan@ = 0. However, as 6 approaches > from the right, the function values “Le limit is that
decrease without bound, so lim tan@=—». Note that a “limit” of © or —© is it’s infinitely
eee 0330 /2*
== Ons: unlimited.”
actually an indication that a real number limit does not exist and a justification for
the nonexistence of a limit.

9.16 Based on Problem 9.15, describe the relationship between infinite limits and
vertical asymptotes.

If lim
f(x)= or lim f(x)=—© (and cis a real number), then x= cis a vertical
asymptote of /(x).

9.17 Evaluate lim er +3.

Graph y=e** +3 by applying two transformations to the graph of y= é::

a horizontal shift of 2 units to the right and a vertical shift of 3 units up, as
illustrated in Figure 9-7.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

129
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits
pe

Figure 9-7
The graph ofy = en? + 3.

The untransformed graph of y= e has a horizontal asymptote of y = 0 (the x-axis),

so shifting the graph up 3 units results in a new horizontal asymptote of
y = 3. As 0 approaches —%, the graph gets infinitely close to, but never intersects,
that asymptote. Therefore, lim e** + 3 = 3. Note that lime** + 3 = ©, because the
our ree ae
Coscia function increases without bound as x gets infinitely large.
‘limits at infinity”
when x gets veally 9.18 Based on Problem 9.17, describe the relationship between limits at infinity and
Positive ov veally horizontal asymptotes.
hegative (x > oe | EO ae
Ov X —-—60),
Iflim f(x) =c or lim f(x) =c (and cis a real number), then y= cis a horizontal
asymptote of f(x).

Note: Problems 9.19-9.21 refer to the graph of g(x) in Figure 9-8.

9.19 Evaluate lim g(x).

Figure 9-8
The graph of a function g(x) and its three
asymptotes.

130 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 eee easann ene UP Chapter
DS Nine
senile — Investigating Limits
Shas eal

As x increases infinitely, the function approaches the horizontal asymptote y = —3.

Look at the
Therefore, lim g(x) =—3.
right edge of the
Note: Problems 9.19-9.21 refer to the graph ofey in Figure 9-8. Ivarh—you can tell
that 96x) is getting
9.20 Evaluate lim1 g(x). closey ana closey ie

As x becomes more and more negative, the function approaches the horizontal
asymptote y = 5. Therefore, lim g(x) =5.

Note: Problems 9.19-9.21 refer to the graph ofg(x) in Figure 9-8.

9.21 Does lim g(x) exist? Justify your answer.

In order for a limit to exist, the corresponding one-sided limits must exist
and be equal. According to the graph of g(x), as x approaches —1 from both
the left and the right, the function values decrease without bound; therefore
iim g(x)= iim g(x) =, Although the limits are the same, they do not represent
a finite limit (see Problem 9.15 for further explanation). Because g(x) does not
possess afinite limit at x =—-l, lim g(x) does not exist.

9.22 Given a function f(x) such thatlim f (x)= or lim f (x) =—®, how many unique
values of k are possible? If lim f(x) =c or lim f(x) =c, how many unique values
of care possible?

According to Problem 9.16, iflim f (x) = oor lim f (x) = —o, then a vertical
asymptote of f(x) exists at x= k. The first part of the question, then, asks you to other words, at
determine how many unique vertical asymptotes a function can possess. There
are no limitations on this number—a graph could have an infinite number of
vertical asymptotes. In fact, four of the trigonometric graphs have infinitely many
vertical asymptotes; the graphs of y= tan 0 and y= sec @ have vertical asymptotes
at x=—— (where n is an odd integer), and the graphs of y = cot 6 and y= csc 6
have vertical asymptotes at y = nz, where nis an integer. Therefore, k may have an
infinite number of unique values.
Most
As for the second part of the question, if lim f(x) =c or lim f(x) =c, then y= cis
functions
a horizontal asymptote of the function (according to Problem 9.18). A function
only have
may have, at most, two horizontal asymptotes, one which the function approaches one hovizontal
as x gets infinitely positive, and one which it approaches in the negative direction. asymptote, if any.
Therefore, chas a maximum of two unique values. Fov instance, rational
functions have the
same limit at oo
ana -o° (see
Problem

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

I3
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits
anak ste eae echt. Sanita meena rene

x? +6x—16
9.23
° Evaluate :li
im, xe a
In Chapter |3,
you'll figure out
the Aivection of a
function MA Moy, e Factor the numerator of the fraction.
Satistying way—using
— (%+8)(x-2)
SNS Of Aevivatives lim ———-———
x>-3* 5 + 3

instead of Plugging in Any value that causes the denominator to equal 0 but not the numerator represents
numbers like -2.99994
a vertical asymptote of the function (see problem 4.29); in this problem such
ANA -3.0000]. a value exists: x =—3. According to Problem 9.16, the limit of a function, as x
approaches a vertical asymptote, either equals © or —%. The answer depends upon
the function and the direction from which x approaches the asymptote.
To determine whether the values of a rational function increases or decreases
without bound, substitute a value slightly larger than —3, such as x = —2.999, into
the function.

fam (Xt 8% =2) _ (=2.999+8)(2.999 =2)

set iex kd —2.999 +3
_ (5.001)(—4.999)
0.001
= —24,999.998

As x approaches —3 from the right, the function values are becoming infinitely
negative. Therefore, lim (x+8)(x—=2) __
eos x3

2x7 —5x+6
9.24 Evaluate_ lim
Poe On x2

According to Problem 4.31, if the degree of a rational function’s denominator is

greater than the degree of its numerator, the function has a horizontal asymptote
9x? —5x +6
of-y ='0. Therefore, lim—,—_,--—— = 0.
Noe — ie ONE Ror e

9.25 Evaluate xowte are

lim 6mm
2*——"—5
If the Sx Gx"
—
highest powers in
the numerator and
Aenominator match, According to Problem 4.32, if a rational function contains a numerator
Aaivide the coefficients and denominator of equal degree, the function has a horizontal asymptote
attached to these
powers to get the limit equal to the quotient of their leading coefficients. The leading coefficient of
aS K approaches +oo the numerator is 5 and the leading coefficient of the denominator is —6, so
and -oo,
_ be —9x4+1 . 5x* Ox] 5 : ; so
iis Nereaeepmmseer yates ae (Rational functions have the same limit
Bre OK) Lear! ODN mata
as x >0o and x >—o.)

132 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits
eee

Note: Problems 9.26-9:27 reference the function f(x) defined below. Note that a, b, c, d, and k
are real numbers. (D+ a)(2—6)
UA aGerk)
9.26 Evaluate lim f(x).

Expand the products in the numerator and the denominator.

Qx* — Qbx+ ax — ab
PEG Fy ay a
The degrees of the numerator and denominator are equal, so the limit at infinity
equals the quotient of the leading coefficients, as explained in Problem 9.25.
(Only compare the powers of x when determining the degree, because a, b, ¢, d,
and kare constants.)

_ 2x? —2bx +ax—ab 2

nS
x20 3cx* —ckx+3dx—dk 3c

Note: Problems 9.26-9.27 reference the function f(x) defined in Problem 9.26.
9.27 Identify all values of n such that lim f(x) = © or lim f(x) =—©. If an
xvalue makes .
An infinite limit indicates the presence of a vertical asymptote (see Problem 9.16). the numerator
To find values of x that make the denominator equal 0, set both factors of the AND the Aenominator
denominator equal to 0 and solve. equal 0, it usually
cx+d=0 3x—k=0 means there’s a hole
cxn=—d or ave k in the graph, not a
a k vertical asymptote,
eit ae so a limit still
exists theve.
It is not sufficient merely to identify these x-values—you must also ensure they do
not, in turn, make the numerator 0 as well. Set the factors of the numerator equal
to 0 and solve.
2X +a=0
i rae,
x=—-a or ee
a
a
2

Therefore, lim f(x)=—© or © (it’s not possible to determine which because

x>-d/c

you don’t know the signs of a, b, c, d, and k) and lim, f (x)=—o or ©, as long as
k a
neither ee ele equals 9 OF b.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

133
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits

Formal Definition of the Limit

Epsilon-Aelta problems ave no fun at all

9.28. The formal definition of limit contains the expression |Loa LI <€. Interpret
this statement geometrically.

The absolute value ofa difference is often used to describe the distance of
One the quantities that are subtracted. Accordingly, the expression |i (x) — L| <€é
other important
states that the distance between a function f(x) and a constant L is less than the
thing—this is the constant. You can also conclude that ¢ > 0, because ¢€ is greater that a quantity
VERTICAL Aistance within absolute values (which must be nonnegative).
between a function
AnA a limit ie
9.29. The formal definition of a limit contains the expression “0 <|x —a|<6.”
Interpret this expression geometrically.

Like the expression in Problem 9.28, this expression also describes a distance.
It states that the distance between x and the constant ais less than a constant
called 6, which must be a positive number. Unlike Problem 9.25, the expression
This time youve
explicitly states that the distance between x and a cannot equal 0, so x # a.
measuving a hovizon-
tal Aistance.
9.30. The formal definition of a limit (also called the epsilon-delta definition due to
the variables customarily assigned to it) states that lim f(x) =L if and only if for
Heve’s each real number ¢ > 0 there exists a corresponding real number 6 > 0 such that
an ntevpveta- 0 <|x- a| <6 implies that |f(x) — L|<e. Interpret this theorem geometrically.
Hon: “1 you trace
your finger alon g the
The limit of f(x), as x approaches a, is equal to Lif the following requirement
graph of Lx) and your
is met: assuming the function f(x) and the limit L it approaches are within a
finger is Jetting close to ate eo fixed distance € of one another, x and the value ait approaches must be within a
ae along the x-axis corresponding fixed distance 0.
F better be getting
closer to a Function
height of y = L as well 9.31. Calculate the value of 6 that corresponds to € given lim (2x +1) =13, according
ov theve's ho Jimit as - to the definition of limits. oS
APPVOAChEs a.”

According to the definition of limits (stated in Problem 9.30), you must find 6 that
corresponds to € given lf(x) = L| <€. Substitute f(x) and L into the expression.
You Aout
r(x) S 1 =
veally need
the full version
of the expression (2x +1)-13|<e
(0¢|x-¢| <d) as |2x—-12|<e
long as youve caveful Your goal is to generate an expression for 6 that mimics the expression |x —6| <6
not to let x = 6-—the (since a= 6). Factor 2 out of the left side of the inequality and isolate the absolute
Aistance just needs value expression.
to be a positive
number.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

[3 4
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits
ee eee

é
Therefore, |x — 6| < 2 Compare that result to the expression |x — 6| < 6 to conclude

that Oo= a
2

x —Tx+ 10 = 3,
9.32 Calculate the value of 6 that corresponds to € given lim
according to the definition of limits. os x=2

Substitute f(x) and L into the € expression in the limit definition.

|f(x) - L| <e

Sa
x* —7x+10
eel
(25) <ێ

x? —7x+10
+3|/<eé
dear.

Simplify the expression on the left side of the inequality using the common
denominator x— 2. J
x? —7x +10 =(==2)
aa Sg Soe <é
x-2 l\x-2

x? —7x+10+3x—6
|<)!
x—2

x? —4x+4
SS
x—-2
It’s
okay to
Factor and simplify.
cancel the terms
(ee anes), as long as you Aont
xo
<€E
let x =2.

|Ix-—2l<e

By comparing the statements |x— 2| < € and |x— a| < 0, you can conclude that 0 = €.
Remember,
to €€== 0.0001, lim(15—4x) =—9
that iim
, such such that aye ais
oe the
9.33 é
Identify a value of 0 that corresponds ds to U.
i th finition of limits.
Pe es de approaches in the
limit, so in this
problem a= 2.
Although the value of¢ is specifically stated, begin this problem using the same
method described in Problems 9.31 and 9.32—substitute into the € statement of
the limit definition.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

135
 Chapter Nine — Investigating Limits

[f(x)-L|<e
(15 — 4x) —(—9)| < 0.0001
|24 — 4x|< 0.0001

Factor —4 out of the expression within the absolute value symbols; note that
factoring a negative number out of a difference reverses the order in which the
terms are subtracted.
|-4(-6 + x)|< 0.0001
|-4(x —6)| < 0.0001
|-4|-|x — 6] < 0.0001
4|x — 6|< 0.0001
0.0001
|x —6|<
4
|x — 6| < 0.000025
By comparing the statements |x— 6| < 0.000025 and |x— a| < 6, you can conclude
that 6 = 0.000025.

if 9.34 Identify a value of 6 (accurate to two decimal places) that corresponds to ¢ = 0.01
a given lim (x? + 3) = 4, according to the definition of limits.
@®
6
Substitute known values into the € expression of the limit definition.

|
f(x)- L| <€

|(x? +3)-4|<0.01
|x? -1|<0.01
|x+ 1||x — 1|<0.01
Unlike Problems 9.31—9.33, the expression on the left side of the inequality is not
immediately in the form |x— a| < 0. In order to reach this form, begin by assuming
that 6 < 1, which is reasonable because 6 should represent an extremely small
distance. If6 < 1, then |x+ 1| < 1, which means that -1 < x+ 1 < 1. Subtract 2 from
The smallest x
each of those expressions to get -3 <_x— 1 <-1. Therefore, |x- 1| < 3.
can be is -|.9997..., ANA
that number minus | is Your goal is to produce the expression |x— a| (which equals |x + 1] because a=-1)
-2.19919119, which is less in the middle of the compound expression. Recall that |x— 1] < 3 and substitute 3
into the inequality.
|x —1||x +1|<0.01
3|x +1|< 0.01

Ix +1) < oe
3
If 3|x+| is less
than 0.0| and is Therefore, 6 = a = 0.003.
bigger than Ix-||, then
Ix-II Ix+I] is also less
than 0.01.

136 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter 10
EVALUATING LIMITS
of the function
Calculating limits without a graph
Though the formal definition of a limit provides the fundamental
foundation, it is highly impractical to apply epsilon-delta proofs in order to
verify that limits exist. In fact, one of the assumptions of such proofs is that
the limit is already known. In order to calculate the vast majority of basic
limits, you need only apply a few basic techniques or identify an elementary
limit theorem.

IP you had to Avaw a graph for eve

ry single limit you weve asked to
calculate, it woula get olA pretty
fast, Graphing calculators make thi
a lot easiev, not only because they
can graph fastey, but because th
can Ao vidiculously complicated cal ae
culations instantly. However, you ao
vey be allowed to use them on quizze e
s and tests Lor this re : et
Besides, unless the limit is a veally obv
ious number (like 2 ov 4 S) ae mn
Buswers can be lousy. Suve you could
Find out that a fear: au ou
‘S approximately |3.228757, but ist
it better to know that the limit is
EXACTLY SVT instead of that meaningless
string of Aecimals? Decimals
le good Lov checking an auswey, but not
so gooA Lov the eed aie
This chapter shows you ways to Find
limits that ave technology-free, ;
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits
po

Substitution Method
As easy as plugging in fov x

10.1 Evaluate lim (x? Okt 2) ;

x4

Real
Notice that substituting x = 4 into the expression results in a real, finite value,
AS in ‘Veal
which indicates that the substitution method is applicable.
wumbey,” not veal
AS in “not Lake”
lim(x*,— 3x +2)=4*—5(4)+2=16-124+2=6

10.2 Evaluate lim oe

Substituting x = —1 into the expression results in a real, finite value.

1
lim 3* = 3°* =—
oe 3

10.3 Evaluate lim arctan(Inx).

Remewmbey,
In x and e* ave
twvevse functions, so Substitute x = einto the expression In x. Note that In e= 1.
In = x (see Problem lim arctan (Inx) = arctan (Ine)
$730). In this problem,
x= 1 (une=In el) = arctan(1)
solne= |, A ; A
According to Problem 7.32, arctan] = z , so lim arctan(Inx) = Zz:

Note: Problems 10.4—10.6 refer to the functions f(x) and g(x) as defined by the table:

Table 10-1: Although only selected values offunctions f(x) and g(x) are given, f(x) and g(x) are
continuous for all real numbers.

10.4 Evaluate lim(/(x)—3g¢(x)).

The limit ofa sum (or difference) is equal to the sum of the individual limits.

limy(f(2)—39(2))
=lim 6)~fim3g

138 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

The limit ofa product is equal to the product of the limits.

= lim f (x) — (tim3)(tim g(x))

= lim f(x) 3timg(x)

Substituting —-1 into the expression results in a real, finite value.

= f(-1)-3¢(-1)
= 5-—3(-7)
= 26

Note: Problems 10.4-10.6 refer to the functions f(x) and g(x) defined in Problem 10.4.

10.5 Find the value of k for which lim

g(x) does not exist.
f(x)

If k= 2, calculating the limit requires you to divide by 0, which is not a valid

operation. know that
_ g(x) g(2)_—4 FCI)
= 5ana
“t f(x) FQ) 0 9!) = -7 because
those ave the

The value cS is not a real, finite value, so lim g(x) does not exist when x= k. numbers in the
0 xk f (x) xX=-| column Lor
f(x) ana 9(x).

Note: Problems 10.4—10.6 refer to the functions f(x) and g(x) defined in Problem 10.4.

10.6 Evaluate limi. (g (x)).

Note that g(3) = 2; substitute this value into the expression.

lim f(g(x)) = f(¢(3))= FQ)

Therefore, lim f (g(x)) = f(2)=0.

Note: Problems 10.7-10.10 refer to the piecewise-defined function h(x) defined below:

4-x°, x<-l
h(x) —10, x=-1
G5 4—-x°, -l<x<2
6—-5x, x22
Think
10.7 Evaluate lim h(x). of h(x) as four
vules that tell you
what h(x) is, based on
According to the piecewise-defined function, the expression /4 — x* generates the what you PLUG IN for x.
values of h(x) when x<-l.
The input x = -3 falls
in the top category
lim h(x) =4- (-3) =4-(-27)=31
(x <-|).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

139
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits
a —

Note: Problems 10.7-10.10 refer to the piecewise-defined function h(x) defined inProblem 10.7.
10.8 Evaluate lim h(x).
x

According to the piecewise-defined function, the expression 6 — 5x generates the

values of h(x) when x = 2.

lim h(x) =6—5(11)=6—55 =—49

If you plug
x= =hO00linte
h(x) to estimate Note: Problems 10.7-10.10 refer to the piecewise-defined function h(x) defined in Problem 10.7.
the left-hana limit, it
Falls in the fivst input 10.9 Evaluate lim h(x). oo
category: x <-|. 1p
vou plug in x = -0.99q
to estimate the vight- Even though h(-1) = 10, that is not the limit as x approaches —1. If a limit exists at
x=-—l, the left- and right-hand limits as x approaches —1 must be equal. Note that
hana limit; it Ralls in
the thiva
h(x) is defined by the expression 4 — x’ as x approaches —1 from the left and the
categ ory:
right, so substitute x =—1 into that expression to evaluate the limit.
aN < 6212%
lim h(x)= lim h(x)=4—(-1) =441=5
x>—1 x>—1"

Note: Problems 10.7-10.10 refer to the piecewise-defined function h(x)defined in Problem 10.7.

10.10 Evaluate lim h(x).

The rule defining h(x) changes when x= 2. For inputs slightly less that x = 2, h(x)
is defined as 4 — x’. Substitute x = 2 into that expression; the result is the left-hand
limit as x approaches 2.

lim h(x) =4—(2) =4-8=-4

For inputs slightly greater than x= 2, h(x) = 6—5x. Substitute x = 2 into that
expression to determine the limit as x approaches 2 from the right.

lim h(x) =6—5(2)=6-10=-—4

Because the left- and right-hand limits are equal as x approaches 2, the general
limit exists: lim h(x)=—4.
x>2

140 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits
eee

Factoring Method
The -fivst thing to try if substitution Aceswt wovk

Note: Problems 10.11-10.12 refer to the function f(x) defined below:

Pewecsete)
_ (x—4)(x +6)
You
10.11 Evaluate lim f(x). cant plug
x = 4 into the
fyaction be-
Simplify the expression by canceling out the matching factors in the numerator cause youll get
and the denominator. 0/0, which is callea
4; (x4) (x +6) ; an “indeterminate”
value. Basically,
that’s math’s way of
Now substituting x = 4 into the expression will not return an indeterminate result: saying “Right now,
lim (x+6)=10. Therefore, lim (x=4)(x+6) _
x—4)(x+6 | have no iden
x—4 what 0/0 is
equal te.”
10.12 Graph /(x).

The functions f(x)= (x

—4)(x+ * =x+6 are equivalent except at
—4)(x+6) and f(x)

x= 4, as f(x) is undefined atthat value, but f(x) is not. (Recall from Problem
10.11 that f (x) is the reduced version of the rational function j(x).) Therefore,
their graphs have equal values except at x = 4; both are a line with slope 1 and y-
intercept 6.
Although f(x) is undefined at x= 4 (which means f(4) doesn’t exist), lim f (x) =10
according to Problem 10.11, so the function approaches a height of 10 as x > 4
from the left and the right. Therefore, the graph of f(x) contains a “hole,” as
illustrated by Figure 10-1.

Figure 10-1
The graph of f (x)=GoaGs)
contains a hole at (4,10).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

141
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits
fe a a

x° —x?
10.13 Evaluate lim P
x>0 x

Substituting x = 0 into the expression returns an indeterminate result. Factor the

numerator and reduce the fraction, thereby creating a new rational function for
which the substitution method isa valid approach.

a Ax” x x (4x° — 1) mee 3 i 3 ee, pee es

Ler im —— 5 — = lim(4x —1)=4(0) 1=-1

— 4x® — x?
Uheretore; [itis == 2
x>0 x

> + 5x — 36
(0.14 Evaluate lira
ee ee
If you can't fac-
tov 8x’ - 26x + |S by Factor the numerator, reduce the fraction, and evaluate the resulting limit using
experimenting, you can substitution.
factor it by Aecomposition—
flip back to Problem 2.27 _ (x-4)(x+9) (x4) (x+9) :
lim ———————-= lim——————_= lim (x — 4) = -9-4=-13
fov move Aetails. x2—9 x+9 x>—9 Ko #2=9

8x* — 26x +15

10.15 Evaluate li
valuate lim 4 Gs

Factor the numerator, simplify, and apply the substitution method.

tna (4wind) (2858) id eld) Gea ae (oe eya (el Segoe as
eae 4x —3 Soe 4x<3 eae ss a 4 4 2 2

2 —_—

Therefore, lim pre Oe = et

x>3/4 4x —-—3 2 ;

2 ae ———-

10.16 Evaluate bip| ES 2 7

x1 x—-l x+1

Notice that the substitution method fails only for the left expression. Recall that
the limit ofa sum is equal to the sum of the individual limits.

_ (7x? -10x+3 2-—7x . 7x? -10x4+3 . 2-—7x

lim |———————— + = lim ——————+ lim
xl ial a xl x=] rex a.

Factor the left expression and substitute x = 1 into the right expression.

142 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

“tim(2#—3M@-D
,2-700)
x] am] (1)+1

= Tim(7
=lim(7x —3)+ wa :
=7(1)-3-2 ie
5 : a weve equal
=4— > to 0, x would be
i approaching
= sae
Zs a 0

5 which is not
Therefore, lim ee + aa 7x = 3' possible.
xl xe 1 ar 2

ee 2
ot. ae FOaN=—4a-bx— 124) . lv
10.17 Evaluate _jim : es given a # 0, oh

Factor the numerator by grouping.

_ ax’? +3ax —4a°bx —12ab _ ax(ax+3)—4ab(ax +3)
Lt
Hn axt3 x2—3/a ax +3
_ (ax-4ab) (ax*3)
oa aes Problem 2.2¢
it you Aon't know
im (ax — 4ab)
how to Ao this,
Substituting x = oe for x now results in a real, finite value.
a

= -*) —4Aab
Leena
3
=— 2 —Aab
In
eee Chapter 14,
2.9 arte ne youll use L’Hépitall’s
Fe eeae eee vule to figuve out
x>-3/a ax+3
limits like these
3
without having to
Fo a voaiaie ira
, x>-2 x +2

Factor the sum of perfect cubes in the numerator.

xr +8 (x +2)(x* —2x +4) This is

m — = lim ———
os 2 | RER M2 a formula you

cue
shoula mewmovize:
9 /
(52) (x — 2x +4)

(x? -xy + y*). Look at

=] a)
im (x? — 2x +4) Problem 2.25 fov
=(-2)" -2(-2)+4 move info.
=I?
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
143
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

> 48
Therefore, lim a =12.
22-2 x +2

37 18
10.19 Evaluate lim AO S ee ‘i
x3 = 9

See Substituting x =—3 into the numerator and denominator results in 0° Therefore,
Problems 2.19 -3 is a root of both functions (y = 2x° — 7x? - 33x + 18 and y= x? - 9). All functions
and 2.19 if you
with a root of x= a must contain the factor (x— a). Therefore, (x —(—3)) = (x +3)
need a vefreshey
is a factor of 2x° — 7x? — 33x + 18. Use synthefic division to identify the remaining
on synthetic
Aivision, two factors; factor the difference of perfect squares within the denominator.

-3| 2 -7 -33 18
—6 09° —I15
213 6 0

Factor the quotient: 2x? — 13x+ 6 = (2x-1)(x-6).

_ 2x? —7x? —33x+18 | (x+3)(2x—1)(x—6)

ae x —9 wee (x +3)(x—-3)

Note that x + 3 is a factor of the numerator and the denominator, so it can be

eliminated.
(+3)
(2x-1)(x-6)
aCe
(Co
_ (2x-1)(x-6)
= lim ———————.
x>-38 x= 3

Substituting x = —3 into the expression results in a real, finite value.

LCG oohNieeth Gee

ss = ees =G Gaus
Secine Gee
Therefore, lim enNSoe = acd ;
x>-3 x —9 2

64x° — 8x" — 366x +135

Calculate the exact value of li 5
This is aA nice way
13/8 48x° + 86x —23x—6
of saying “Don't even
think about using your Substituting x ==> into the numerator and denominator produces the
calculator to figure out
indeterminate result 0° Apply synthetic division.
as Problem, because
3
youll get a Aecimal =| 64 -8 -366 135 | 3 48 86 -23 -6
\ustead of a fraction 8 Ve
ana I'll know you 24° 6 -185 | 18 39° 56
Coulaw't do it by 64 16 —360 0 | 48 104 16 0
hana.”

144 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

Rewrite the original limit statement in factored form.

aon Of8 — 8x" +366x+135 _

FSO
|. OO(x—3/8)(64x" +16x — 360)
x#3/8 48x° + 86x" —23x—6 — 3/8 (x —3/8)(48x" + 104x +16)
The greatest common factor of both quadratics is 8.

(8x —3)(8x* + 2x — 45)

= in ——_——____—_
*73/8 (8x — 3)(6x" + 13x +2)
Multiply the linear factor (x—- 3/8) by 8.

£7578 (x —3/8)(8)(6x" + 13x +2)

Reduce the rational expression and substitute x = 3 into the result.

(8x=3) (8x? + 2x — 45)

=°3/8(8x—3) (6x? +13x +2)
8x? + 2x
—45
SS ee era.
x>3/8 6x" +13x+2
_ 8(3/8)° +2(3/8)—45
ma! 8) +13(3/8)+ >
g c4
ne j a ne B and ¢4 ave in
eee ee
eo) TAS) na
Common Aenomin
54 ae a) EOYs:
df Be) ied
9 6 360
—+— ——

eae ade s
4dee 312,128
64

ergs
i

a64 To
Dividing by a fraction is equivalent to multiplying by its reciprocal. simplify, Aivide
the top ana
BAS 04! ypottom by |.
8 494
= ae 080
8,952
1,380
247

aries ee et: 64x° — 8x" —366x+135 __1,380

STING 38/8 48x + 86x —23x—6 247

ee
The Humongo
cccus ha
Book l
of Calculus
A Problems
145
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

+ +b
10.21 Under what conditions does in KIVeE) =f, if a, b,c, and Lare real
xe x = 6

numbers and ¢<0<a<b?

From the statement ¢c<0<a<b, you can conclude that a, b, and care distinct

(unequal) numbers, aand bare positive numbers, and c is a negative number.

A wumber Substituting x = c into the expression causes the denominator to equal 0 (since
Avia ; :
e tee aye c—c=(). If the numerator does not also equal 0 when x= ¢, then x= cis a vertical
pete nee ous an
asymptote, but 0/0 asymptote to the graph of y= ree:
(x+a)(x+5) |
and either L= @ or L=-®, neither
usually means a
of which is a real, finite number.
hole on the gvaph.
Therefore, one of the two factors in the numerator must equal 0 when x= cin
order for a limit to exist. Set both factors equal to 0, substitute x= cin both
equations, and solve.
x+a=0 x+b=0
cta=0 or ct+b=0
c=—a c=-b
Thus, fin SFE HO)= L if cis either the opposite of a or the opposite of b.

Conjugate Method
Break this out to Aeal with troublesome vadicails

10.22 Simplify the expression: (Vx + 3)(Vx = 3) :

Apply the FOIL method to multiply the factors. (See Problem 2.13 for an
explanation of the FOIL method.)

Youa (Vx +3)(Vx —3) = Vx -Vx — 3Vx + 3Vx + 3(-3)

be taking the = Vx? — iy 8)
squave voot of
=x-9
a negative
It is not necessary to write |x{—9 even though Vx" is typically simplified as |x|.
number. Notice that the original expression is invalid when X< 0, so it is appropriate to
assume that x > 0 and omit the explicit absolute value indicators in the final
solution.

The x—16
10.23 Evaluate
valuate lim
eed :
Conjugate of
Vx —4 is VR+4.
Just change the sign 16-16 0 ; :
Substituting x= 16 results in =— , an indeterminate value. To apply the
between the y.adic)
conjugate method, multiply the numerator and denominator by the_conjugate
Vx, ANA the of the denominator. This method enables you to apply the substitution method
wumber (4),
without altering the value of the function or its limit.

E noun
Calculus Problem
Book ofEET
The Humongous TT ITE PE s
146
 Chapter
ee Ten — Evaluating
eeeLimits

ieee. YTS Ae ea
lim = lim
x16
[yy—4 x16 Afa Saray

Multiply the denominators using the method of Problem 10.22. To speed up the
simplification process, do not expand the product in the numerator.

_ (x-16)(vx +4)
aidfreee,
x16 x—16

Notice that the term x—- 16 appears in both the numerator and denominator;
reduce the fraction by eliminating it.

mapx16 etex16Malad)
=lim (Vx +4)
x16

=J/16+4
=8
Therefore, lim saiha! = 8.
wel «fog — 4.

10.24 Evaluate lim ————. a

net Bt 2x
This
time the
Substitution produces an indeterminate result, so apply the conjugate method conjugate is
as described in Problem 10.23. Multiply the numerator and denominator by the
conjugate of the numerator and simplify.
3
met —* oy -2+V=« (-2-V-*)
See ehh (-2-V-x)
= Yim AER +ANx =BNE =VCH)
mend (8 + 2x)(-2- J-x)
To facilitate simplification, do not expand the product in the denominator.
Multiply only the part of the fraction that contains the conjugate pair.

rn 4+ 2l>x=2l—x —(-x)
4 (8 +2x)(—2—/-x)
4+x
E464 2x)(—2- J—x)
Factor 2 out of the expression 8 + 2x in the denominator.

AKK
lin a
49 (LK) (-2— =x)
= lim
1
==-49(-9— J—x)

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

147
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

Substitute x = —4 into the expression.

o il
2(-2-/-(-4))
rs 1
~ 9(-2-V4)
1
8
—2+J-x 1
Therefore, lim a
x-4 8 42x 8.

—5
10.25 Evaluate lim : :
a> x

The The conjugate method is not necessary to evaluate this limit. Instead, rewrite the
Square veot of = radical expression using a rationalexponent.
equals x!2, eb (5)
nA ~
5 x= 5 8°53 (x —5) 1/2 =

To calculate the quotient of exponential expressions with the same base, subtract
the powers.

= lim(x—5)"”? = lim(x—5)'”” = limvx —5

x25 x>5 x>5

Substitute x = 5 into the expression to calculate the limit.

lim Vx -5 = /5-5=J0=0

10.26 Evaluate the limit: lim — x — x

:

Multiply the numerator and denominator by Vx —6 +1, the conjugate of

Vvx-6-1.
vx—6-1 Vx-6-1 Vx-6+41
You coula also
Soa aah ae a ae tee
factor -| out of = tim (x-6)-1
7-x im the Aenowmi- er Pee x)(Jx = 6 +1)
nator to get -(x - 7). eee
You'll end up with the
same final answer.
=a) (de
641)
Factor —1 out of the terms in the numerator to reverse their order. This allows you
to reduce the fraction.
; = x
“ay (de=641)
el
= lim
EoE nS Gia

143 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits

Apply the substitution method.

sat| at 1
Venti viel 2

—19
10.27 Evaluate the limit: linn ——————
ae
x19 5 — x +6

Apply the conjugate method using the expression 5+ Vx+6.

lim 9
— 19 i 19 Stvxt6
Sos xt 6 iit5—Vx+6
oe 5+x +6
oes 19) (5+Vx+ 6)
eld 25 —(x+6)
(x -19)(5+Vx+6)
SL ee ey
x19 19-x

Factor —1 out of the denominator in order to reduce the fraction, as previously

demonstrated by Problem 10.26.

wig SE) (64 98) =—(6 + VB)=

Special Limit Theorems
Limit formulas you shoula memorize

10.28 Evaluate ae , if cis a positive real number.

The degree of the denominator is 2, and the degree of the numerator is 0O— Basically,
technically, c=c+x° =c:1. According to Problem 4.31, when the degree of the any finite num-
numerator is greater than the degree of the numerator, the limit at infinity equals bev Aividea by a
0: lim =0. humongous infinite
x7ny
number equals 0.

sin oe
10.29 Evaluate lim
0
That
formula works
sinx
A common limit formula states that in = =1,™ ultiply the numerator and only if x approaches 0
x and the value inside
denominator by 7 in order to force the denominator to match the argument of
the sine function
sin 70.
matches the
60 6-0 @ 7 Aenominator,
e 7sin 70
: 6-070
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
149
 Chapter Ten — Evaluating Limits
pe |

The limit of a product is equal to the product of its limits.

= (iim7)(tim le z)
6>0 6>0 870

es eas

Therefore, lim amg =e

6-0 «6

10.30 Evaluate lim

Euan :
9-0 20

Like Problem 10.29, this problem requires the knowledge of a common limit
Multiply cosx —1
formula: lim =0. Again, your goal is to match the argument of the
oth parts of
the fraction by 4, trigonometric formula and the denominator of the expression. As the denomi-
not just the bottom, nator of the expression is far easier to manipulate than the argument of cosine,
ov youll change the force 20 to become 86 by multiplying the numerator and denominator by 4.
function and its
limit. —]
cos 80 — *
im cos 80
lm) [im
ea
5 tim Meos86-) _| =4:-0=0
ese bop TN gery NEE 0>0 6>0 86

x(In8)

10.31 Evaluate lim fi

+ *) .
x0 xX

Rewrite the function so that it more closely resembles a common limit:

x

lim ta *)= e. According to exponential properties, an exponential expression

x20
x
In othey Wovds, raised to a power is equal to the original base raised to the product of the powers:
you shoula eithey ab a? 1
VECO9NIZe It oy CL you Lf (x) | x [(F()) |. In this problem, f(x) = fi
+ *}a=x,and b=I1n 8,so
Aon Yecognize id) 1 x(In8) 1 [ins 4

Mewmovize it lim t
ate *) = lim (i:
+ *)|;
x>o iy xXeO x

The power rule for limits states that lim f(x)* = (iim f(x)).
So the l i In8 1 x ins

exponent In lim (2) | ]|

x00 x

is not inside the

limit anymove—the ome 1
As stated earlier, lim t= ‘|=e,
limit is vaisea to
x 1 x In8
that power of
hinf1+4) | mile)"
lS x00 x

Perse y= In xand y= & are inverse functions, In (e )=e'™* =x. Therefore,

e =8.
n

earth sir oo
150 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter II
CONTINUITY AND THE DIFFERENCE QUOTIENT

ka io le gr ap hs an a a pr ev ie w of Aevivatives
Unovea
Though limits are exceedingly useful, there are few calculus applications
that make explicit use of them. That does not imply that limits are
unimportant, but that they are typically one feature of a far more
substantial concept—continuity. The graph of an everywhere continuous
function is best characterized by this property: it can be drawn without
lifting your pencil from the graph. The predictable behavior of continuous
graphs guarantees the functionality of key calculus theorems, such as the
intermediate value theorem, and substantiates meaningful conclusions,
such as the difference quotient.

Continuous functions Aowt have any undetined points, asymp

totes, o
breaks im the graph—they've just run-of-the-mill Ones that,
like ¥
shoulda be unbroken, un-potholea, ana certainly un-suddenl
y- enaAing-in-a-
: ie
litt. IF a Punction is continuous at every x in its Aomain
‘its ou call
the function "everywhere continuous.” That Aceswt ee
the nae
Aomain has to be all veal numbers, only that the
function is ues
evevywheve it is Aefined. Once you understand continuity
, it’s time to
stavt finding Aevivatives using the Aifference auotient Ee
if it is
extraovdainavily painful to Ao so. (Not because it’s hava, ee
because youll
Find out theve ave much shovtev ana easie: v ways to take devi .
” evwat ives
Aiscussea in Chapter |2.)
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

Continuity
Limit exists + function AefinedA = continuous
A Vimit
tells you what 11.1 If f(-2) = 7, what other conditions must be met to ensure f(x) is continuous at
height a function =~2?
INTENDS to veach.
If the function is
If f(x) is continuous at x= c, three conditions must be met:
continuous, that
means not only AiA (1) lim f (x) = L, , such that L, is a real number
the function intend (2) f(c)=L,, such that L, is a real number
to get theve, it (3) L, =I,
actually got
Because f(-2) = 7, condition (2) is met. In order for f(x) to be continuous at
x = —2, the function must approach 7 as x approaches —2: lim f (x) =7.

11.2 A function r(x) is defined by the set of ordered pair listed below. At which
value(s) in the domain of r(x) is the function continuous?

r(x): {(-2,6),(, 7),(4,6)}

A function defined as a finite set of discrete points is not continuous at any of

those points. In order to possess a limit at x = c (one of the qualifying conditions
for continuity at x= c), a function must approach the same value as x approaches
cfrom the left and from the right. It is impossible to approach c from either
direction, as the function is undefined immediately to the left and right of x = c,
and no finite number of points could remedy that.

Which of the following trigonometric functions are continuous?

y= cos 6,y= sin 0, y= tan 0,y= cot 8, y=sec 0, y= csc 0

This question is posed in a purposefully vague fashion. You may be tempted to

classify y = tan 6, y = cot 0, y= sec 0, and y= csc @ as discontinuous because their
graphs contain vertical asymptotes. Not only do graphs lack function values
This is at vertical asymptotes, they also have infinite limits, so all the conditions of
kind of a trick continuity are violated.
question, unless you
vemembevead that
However, it is only appropriate to judge a function’s continuity over the interval
functions avewt Cou-
SiAeveA Aiscontin- for which it is defined. The functions y= tan @ and y= sec 6 are undefined at
hous at x-values ka
x =—— (when kis an odd integer), and y= cot 6 and y= csc 6 are undefined at
youve not allowed
x =ka (for any integer k). These, not coincidentally, are the x-values for which
to plug in,
the functions don’t meet the requirements of continuity.

Therefore, the most appropriate answer is that each trigonometric function is

continuous over its entire domain.

152 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
8

11.4 At what value(s) of xis the greatest integer function, y=[x]], discontinuous?

The greatest integer function, whose graph appears in Figure 11-1, outputs the So [¢.2] =6
greatest integer that is less than or equal to the IPC, Serco
aa [25]= Z,out

I-13] =-2, not -1.

The output is the biggest
integer LESS than the
input, and -| 7 -\%3.

Figure 11-1 The graph of y=(x], the greatest integer function.

Though y= [x]] is defined for all real numbers, at each integer j, lim[x] 4 lim [x].
ers x>jt

Specifically, im (+1)
+1=lim [x]. Because a general limit does not exist at each

integer in its domain, y= [x]] is discontinuous at those values.

Types of Discontinuity
Holes vs. breaks, vemovaile vs. nonvemovarble

Note: Problems 11.5-11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2.

11.5 Is f(x) continuous at x = -3? Explain your answer using the definition of
continuity.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

153
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

Figure 11-2
The graph of a function f(x).

Pi

Because lim, f(x)# lim, f(x), the general limit lim f(x) does not exist. Even
though the function is defined at x = —3, the absence of a limit means that f(x) is
discontinuous there.

Note: Problems 11.5-11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2.

11.6 Is f(x) continuous at x =—1? Explain your answer using the definition of
continuity.

Yes, f(x) is continuous at x=—l, as lim f(x) = f(-l)=1.

Note: Problems 11.5-11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2.

11.7. Is f(x) continuous at x = 1? Explain your answer using the definition of

continuity.

No, f(x) is discontinuous at x= 1, because lim f (x) is not a finite number:

limf (x) = 0 and lim f (x)==—, Furthermore, /(1) is not in the domain off(x).
The
function hevey
intersects the Note: Problems 11.5—-11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2.
Vertical line x = L,
SO as fow as P(x) is 11.8 Is f(x) continuous at x= 4? Explain your answer using the definition of
Concevned, ey continuity.
Acesu't exist,
No, f(x) is not continuous at x = 4 because lim f(x) =5 but /(4) = 0. The limit and
function value must be equal in order to classify f(x) continuous at x = 4.

154 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

Note: Problems 11.5—11.13 refer to the graph of.f(x) in Figure 11-2.

11.9 At what value of x does the graph of f(x) exhibit one-sided continuity (i.e., the
graph is continuous only as you approach x from the left or from the right)?

The graph off(x) is continuous from the right at x = —3, because

lim, f (x) = f (—3) =-1. One-sided continuity differs from standard continuity in
ee

that the general limit need not exist; it is sufficient that a one-sided limit at that
x-value exists and is equal to the function value.

Note: Problems 11.5—-11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2.

7

11.10 At what value of x does the graph of f(x) exhibit point discontinuity?
Point
Aiscontimuity
If lim f(x) exists but does not equal /(c), f(x) is said to demonstrate point discon- happens when a
tinuity at x= c. Whether or not f(c) actually exists is irrelevant. In Figure 11-2, curve has a hole
lim f(x) =5 but /(4) = 0, so f(x) exhibits point discontinuity at x = 4 (and still in it Dut Aoesnt
would even if {(4) were undefined). actually break into
two Aiffevent
Note: Problems 11.5—11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2.

11.11 At what value of x does the graph of f(x) exhibit jump discontinuity? Think
of the func-
If lim f (x)= L, and lim f(x)= L, (where L, and L, are real numbers) tion as a sidewalk.
butei # L,, then flx) exhibits}jump discontinuity at x= c. In Figure 11-2, It’s callea “Sump” dis-
continuity because
lim f (x)=2 but lim,f(x)=-1, so f(x) exhibits jump discontinuity at x =—-3.
youa have to jump
at x = -3 if you
wanted to stay on
1.12 At what value of x does the graph of f(x) exhibit infinite discontinuity? the sidewalk.

Iflim f (x) == 0 or limf (x) = — oo (i.e., when a function increases or decreases

—>C
without bound near avertical asymptote), f(x) is said to demonstrate infinite Some books
discontinuity at x = c. In Figure 11-2, f(x) exhibits infinite discontinuity at x= 1. call it “essential

Aiscontinuity”
Note: Problems 11.5—-11.13 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-2. instead of “infinite
Aiscontinuity,” but
11.13 Classify each instance of discontinuity in the graph of f(x) as either removable or they're the Same
nonremovable. thing.

Functions that are discontinuous despite the existence of a limit (i.e., functions
with point discontinuity) are said to be “removably discontinuous,” because
redefining the function to correspond with the existing limit would, effectively,
remove” the discontinuity from the function. The graph of f(x) possesses

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 155

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
Ee ee

removable discontinuity at x = 4, because replacing f(4) = 0 with (4) = 5 would

make f(x) continuous at x= 4.
It
would “All in
On the other hand, discontinuity caused by the nonexistence of a limit (i.e. jump
the hele” at the and infinite discontinuity) is classified as “nonremovable,” as redefining a finite
point (4,5) on the number of points will not “remove” the discontinuity. Because no general limits
graph. exist on the graph of f(x) at x=-3 and x= 1, f(x) is nonremovably discontinuous
at those values.

Note: Problems 11.14-11.16 refer to the graph ofg(x) in Figure 11-3.

11.14 Identify the x-values at which g(x) is discontinuous, and classify each instance of
discontinuity as point, jump, or infinite.

Figure 11-3
The graph of g(x) has horizontal
asymptote y = 2 and vertical asymptotes
x=-2Zandx=2.

The graph of g(x) exhibits infinite discontinuities at x = —2 and x= 2, point

discontinuity at x= 0, and jump discontinuity at x = 3.

(x) is Note: Problems 11.14—11.16 refer to the graph ofg(x) in Figure 11-3.
vemovarly dis-
continous at x = 0 11.15 At what value(s) of xis g(x) nonremovably discontinuous?
because Nivea g(x) = |
(even though 9(0) is
Because g(x) has no general limit as x approaches —2, 2, and 3, g(x) is
undefined).
nonremovably discontinuous at those x-values.

g(x) is Note: Problems 11.14—-11.16 refer to the graph ofg(x) in Figure 11-3.
continuous from
the LEFT because 11.16 At what value(s) of x does g(x) exhibit one-sided continuity?
the LEFT-hawa limit
equals 9(3). The function g(x) is continuous from the left at x = 3, because
lim g(x)
=g(3) = 2.

156 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

11.17 Given the piecewise-defined function h(x) defined below, identify any value(s) of
x at which h(x) is discontinuous and describe the discontinuity exhibited.

Agha 3xx— — Xxx”, x <-1

6x + 2, x>-1 Polynomial,
vational, tvigon
o-
metric, exponentia
The function h(x) is comprised of two polynomial functions, y = 3x—- x* and l
ANA logavithwmic
y = 6x + 2, both of which are continuous over their entire domains. Therefore, functions ave
the only x-value at which h(x) could be discontinuous is x = —1, where the rule always
Continuous ovey
defining h(x) changes from the quadratic to the linear equation.
theiv
entive Aomains,

In order for h(x) to be continuous at x =-—1, the limit as x approaches —1 must exist
and it must be equal-to h(-1). To determine if the limit exists, substitute —1 into
both formulas; if the results are equal, lim h(x) exists.

Substitute x =—1 into 3x — x”: | Substitute x =—1 into 6x + 2:

3(-1)—(-1)° =-3-(1)=—4 ! 6(-) +2 =-—64+22—4

Therefore, Jim h(x) = jim h(x) =—-4, so lim h(x) =-—4, Notice, however, that
h(-1) is undefined. According to the definition of h(x), the quadratic rule
y = 3x—x° applies when x<-—Iand the linear rule y = 6x+2 applies when x>-I.
No rule addresses the case of x =—1, so h(—1) does not exist, and h(x) is discon- Changing
tinuous at x=-l. one of the
inequality signs in
Because a limit exists for h(x) as x approaches -1, this is an example of point h(x) would make it
discontinuity, which is removable. continuous. Replacing
< with < ov 2 with >
woulda mean
11.18 Given the piecewise-defined function f(x) defined below, identify any value(s) of
hl) = -4, which
x at which f(x) is discontinuous and describe the discontinuity exhibited.

joel
woulda make h(x)
x’ —5x+3, x2 continuous.
x —12, x>2

Notice that f(x) is comprised of two polynomial functions, both of which are
continuous over their entire domains; therefore, the only location at which /(x)
could be discontinuous is x = 2. Begin by evaluating /(2).

f(2)=(2) -5(2)+3=4-10+3=-3

In order for f(x) to be continuous at x= 2, lim f(x) must also equal -3. Use the
method described in Problem 11.17 (substituting x = 2 into both rules of the
function) to determine whether or not the limit exists as x approaches 2. Notice
that, by calculating /(2), you've already substituted x into one of the functions.
Simply evaluate the remaining function at x= 2.

y=x° -12=(2) -12=8-12=-4

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157
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
fa

Even Therefore, lim f(x)=—3 but lim f(x) =—4. Because the left- and right-hand
x2” x>ot
though the limits are unequal, the general limit lim f (x) does not exist and h(x) has a
limit Aoeswt exist nonremovable jump discontinuity at x= 2.
AS K Approaches
2, the vight- ana
left-hand limits ave
11.19 Determine the value of c that makes the piecewise-defined function g(x)
FINITE, so theve’s a everywhere continuous. :
jump Aiscontinuity, (x) V2x—c, x<0
INFINITE one-sided
MG ——

e 3x7 +1, x«2=0

limits ave a sign
of infinite
Aiscontinuity, The function g(x) is comprised of a radical expression and a quadratic expression,
both of which are continuous over their entire domains. Therefore, the only
location at which g(x) may be discontinuous is at x = 0. Begin by evaluating g(0).

Continuous
_ over its entive g(0)=3(0) +1=0+1=1
Aomain,
This result represents both g(0) and lim g(x), since y = 3x? + 1 generates the
function values for all x’s to the right of x = 0). If g(x) is to be made continuous
at x= 0, the left-hand limit as x approaches 0 must equal the right-hand limit.

The Calculate the left-hand limit by substituting x = 0 into ¥2x —c.

eq uation equails

| because you just lim g(x) =1

aD"
Aiguvea out that
¥2(0)-—c =1
eee HX) =1
in
—
a Ley,
lines up, so you sh V-c =1
oula
Substitute that Solve the equation for c.

(Je) =" 2

—c=]
c=-1

When c= -l, g(x) is continuous at every real number.

& : oa
11.20 Calculate the value of k that makes A(@) continuous over the interval (-3.2) :
‘odNo ase
2(tan6 +1), Goa
h(@)=
pangs . n(kd—D, b>
woulda mean the 4
left- ana vight-hana
limits ave $
aid ee ee In order for h(@) to be continuous at x = oF , Substituting x = os into both
the function value pieces of the piecewise-defined function should produce the same result.
because the top vule
includes 6 = a 2{tan{ = }+1}=tan(e-(-2) 1)

158 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
ee ee

Solve for k.

2tan(—) +9 =tan(==—1)
4 4
—kn
2(-1)+2= tan{= -1]

0= tan(= _ |
4

arctan0 = arctan an(= _ i

4 : : gO
When k=—-—, h(@) is continuous over (-2.) :
1X Behe

11.21 Calculate the value of c that makes f(x) everywhere continuous.

jo In(8c — 2x),
In(x + 2c),
x<7
xe7

Substitute x= 7 into the expressions and set them equal. This effectively forces
the left- and right-hand limits to be equal at x = 7, which in turn forces f(x) to be
continuous there.
In(3c —2-7°)
= In(7+2c)
In(3c — 98) = In(7 + 2c)

Solve the equation for c. In order to eliminate the natural logarithmic functions, Look at
exponentiate the equation using e. Problem 5:34 if
gintse-98) = gin(74#2c) youve not suve what
exponentiate means,
3c —98 =7+ 2c
ov why you use e.
c=105

When c= 105, f(x) is continuous for all real numbers.

11.22 Calculate the values of aand } that make g(x), as defined below, everywhere X e
continuous. ; ©
x", x<—-4 ne

g(x)=yax+b, —45x<5 f A,
Vx+31, x25

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

159
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

In order to ensure that the functions y= x? and y = ax + bhave the same limit as x
set them equal.
es Vescoes approaches —4, substitute x = —4 into both and
res
at x = -4, you
Cay aces
plug that into the fa ey ht
two function vules
that contain -4 in
their boundavies ana ee The functions y= ax+ band y= Vx+31 must also have matching limits, as x
set them equal. Do approaches 5.
the same thing for ax +b=Vx+31
a(5)+b=V5+31
5bat+b=6

You now know that —4a + b= 16 and 5a+ b= 6. Solve the system of two equations in
two variables to calculate aand b. To solve the system using elimination, subtract
the equation —4a + b= 16 from 5a+ b= 6.
5a + 5b = 6
4a —- b = -16
9a = -10 i:
10
¢ = -—
9
Substitute a into either equation in the system to determine the corresponding
value of b.
5at+b=6

5 (-= +b=6
9

a +b=6
9
pa Bt,9 309
ieee
1
9
1 : 2 ;
When a= cna and b= ou , g(x) is continuous over its entire domain.

11.23 Given a function f(x) that is continuous over the closed interval [a,b], what -
conclusions can be drawn about d, if dis a real number in the closed interval
[f(a).f(o)]? :

According to the intermediate value theorem, there must exist a

value cin the closed interval [a,b] such that f(c) = d.

11.24 Apply the intermediate value theorem to verify the following statement:
Given the function f (x) = x’, there exists some number c on the interval [-1,3], such that
f (c) = 5.9243186704, : oS

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160
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

You can only apply the intermediate value theorem to functions if they are In
continuous over a specifically identified closed interval. In this case, f(x) = x* isa
other
polynomial function whose domain is all real numbers, so f(x) is continuous on
wovds, you
any closed interval, including the interval specified: [-1,3]. Once continuity is
assured, evaluate f(x) at the endpoints of the closed interval.
can plug any veal
number into x’ and
f(-1)=(-1f =1 f(3)=(3) =9 youve suve to get
a veal number
For any real number din the interval [1,9], the intermediate value theorem guar- back out.
antees that there exists a value con [-1,3] for which f(c) = d. Notice that the
relatively absurd number 5.9243186704 falls on the interval [1,9], so some value c
on the interval [-1,3] exists such that f(c) = 5.9243186704,

11.25 A calculus student is adamant that the intermediate value theorem

is fundamentally flawed. Locate and explain the logical flaw in his It
“counterexample” below. Would take
The function g(x) = sec x ts a trigonometric function, and like all a lot of guts to
trigonometric functions, is continuous over its entire domain or any piece suddenly announce
of that domain, including [0,7]. Ifyou evaluate the endpoints of the that youa Aisprovea
interval, you see that sec 0 = 1 and seca =—1. Therefore, according to the a calculus theorem
intermediate value theorem, I can-choose any number d from the interval that’s been around
[-1,1], such as the number 0, and some other number c must exist in the
Pov eons, Aow't you
interval [0,2] such that sec c = 0. However, g(x) = sec x never equals 0! think?
Therefore, the intermediate value theorem is not necessarily true, especially
in the case of trig functions.

Although each trigonometric function is, indeed, continuous over its entire
domain, g(x) = sec xis not continuous over the entire interval {0,7 ]—it is un-
defined at x = —. Therefore, the intermediate value theorem cannot be applied.
2

The
11.26 Use the intermediate value theorem to prove that the number ¥20 exists and
has a value greater than 2 but less than 3.
problem asks
you to show that
V20 is greater
Given a function /(x) that’s continuous on the closed interval [a,b], any number than 2 but less
d between f(a) and f(b) has a corresponding value c between aand b such that than 5, So you have

f(© = d (according to the intermediate value theorem). In this problem, f(x) = x’, to prove that the
a= 2, b= 3, fla) = f(2) =8, and f(b) = f(3) = 27. Thus, for any value d you choose in endpoints Aowt give
the interval [8,27] (such as d= 20), there exists a corresponding c in the interval you 20 when you
[2,3] such that f(c) = 20 (c= 3/90 ). Because f(2) = 8 and /(3) = 27 (and neither of plug them into
them equal 20), 3/90 actually belongs to the interval (23). L(x),

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

161
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
eee

If 11.27. Use the intermediate value theorem to verify that h(x) = (x-3)?-7 has a root
YOU weve between x= 5 and x= 6.
wet at > p.m,
NA avy arc p.m.,
then at Some point Because h(5) =—3 and h(6) = 2, the intermediate value theorem guarantees
that d= 0 (which belongs to the interval [-3,2]) will correspond to some c in the
between S and 6 p.m interval [5,6] such that h(c) = 0. In other words, there’s some value c between x= 5
YOU Jot out of the } and x= 6 that makes the function equal 0, and is therefore a root of the function.
Pool. At some point
Note that this problem does not ask you to find c—the intermediate value
between x = 5 Pel theorem is an existence theorem that merely guarantees the existence of c but falls
x= 6, $(x) got out of short of actually identifying it.
the negative,
11.28 If f(x) is continuous over the interval [0,1] such that /(0) and /(1) also belong to
the interval [0,1], prove that there exists some value cin [0,1] such that f(c) = ¢.

Your goal is to demonstrate that f(x) = x for some xin the interval [0,1], which is
the equivalent of demonstrating that f(x) — x= 0 for some xin [0,1]. To simplify
later calculations, write the difference as a new function, g(x) = male a UT
NCL
attempt to verify that g(x) has a root in [0,1].

If f(x) is a continuous function over [0,1], then g(x) is continuous as well—the

difference of continuous functions is, itself, continuous—so you can apply the
intermediate value theorem. Begin by evaluating g(x) at the specified endpoints,
much like you evaluated h(5) and h(6) in Problem 11.27.

fovima) name: the

g(0)= f(0)—0 ge
Fixed point theovew,
This warrants closer inspection. Remember that both /(0) and /(1) are between
0 and 1, so they’re positive numbers. If /(0) is a positive number, then so is g(0),
because g(0) instructs you to subtract 0 from a positive number, which won't
Actually,
change its value. On the other hand, g(1) must be a negative number. Remember,
they've
f(1), like /(0), is a positive number less than 1, so f(1) - 1 must be a negative
nonnegative
number.
numbers, so they've
either positive ov
If g(0) > 0 and g(1) < 0, then you can choose d= 0, and according to the
0, but if either one
intermediate value theorem, some c must exist in [0,1] such that g(c) = 0.
equals 0, youve Essentially, once you find function values that have different signs, you can
alveady proven conclude that a continuous function must cross the x-axis somewhere between
that 9(x) has a 0, those function values, thereby possessing a root between them as well. Therefore,
ana the proof is g(x) = f(x) — xhas a root in [0,1], and thus c= f(c).
alveady ovev!

162 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
eee

The Difference Quotient

The “long way” to find the Aevivative

11.29 Explain the relationship between differentiation and calculating limits.

Derivatives are indelibly tied to limits at the most foundational level—derivatives

are defined as limits of specific fractions called “difference quotients.” The most
common difference quotient is a formula containing “Ax” (read “delta x”) used to
calculate the general derivative f'(x) ofa function f(x).
f'(x) = lim f(x+Ax)— f(x)
, Ax-0 Ax

In order to quickly evaluate a derivative for a specific x-value, a second version

of the difference quotient is sometimes employed, one which contains a constant
(like cin the formula below) representing the value at which you are evaluating
the derivative.

f'(c) =lim
f()-fl)
x >c
The
thvee most
common ways to
Note: Problems 11.30-11.33 refer to the function f(x)= 7x’.
dicate a Aeviva-
11.30 Use the definition of the derivative to find f’(x). tive ave P(x), y’,
and ay/Ax.

Apply the general difference quotient, as described in Problem 11.29. To do so,

first substitute x + Ax into f(x) = 7x’, then subtract f(x) = '7x* from the result, and
finally divide by Ax.
f (x + Ax)
—f(x)
f'(*) = lim ek
a: 7(x+Ax) —7x?
ress) Ax Write
(x + Ax) i“ aS
Expand the expression (x + Ax)*. Note that Ax should be considered a single value,
(x+Ax)(x + Ax)
not the product A-x. Therefore, (Ax)(Ax) =(Ax)", not A?x. and use the FolL
methoa.
= lim
7(x? + 2xAx + (Ax)? )— 7x?
re
— WK +1 4eAnt
7(Any aK
a orcs eee Pull
Ax>0 Ax the greatest

_ Pee er
14xAx+7(Ax)? common factor out
ee
Ax>0 Ax of the numerator,
Just like we aia back
Evaluate the limit by factoring. in Problem 10.13 when
_ ee
Ax(14x+7Ax) theve wevew't any
Ax>0 Ax triangles in the
== lim (14x + 7Ax) problems yet.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

163
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
a

Substitute Ax = 0 into the expression to evaluate the limit.

=14x+7(0)
=14x

Therefore, if f(x) = 7x’, then f'(x) = 14x.

Note: Problems 11.30-11.33 refer to the function f(x)= 7x.

11.31 Calculate f'(3). :

According to Problem 11.30, f’(x) = 14x. To evaluate f'(3), substitute 3 into the
derivative function.
f'(3) = 14(3) = 42

Note: Problems 11.30-11.33 refer to thefunction f(x)= 7. ee

11.32. Given ais a real number, calculate f'(a-4).

Replace the x in the derivative formula with the quantity (a— 4).
f'(x) =14x
f'(a—4) =14(a-4)
f'(a—4) =14a—- 64

To Note: Problems 11.30-11.33 refer to the function f(x)= 72.

Find the
Aevivative at 11.33 Use the specificvalue difference quotientto calculate f "(3y and verify that the
a solution matches the solution to Problem 11.31. . =
SPEcific number
x = 3), either
(like
use the
Ax>0 formula (like Substitute f(x) = 7x? and c= 3 into the difference quotient.
Problem 1130)
plug
ana then
3 into the Answer f'(c) = lim
_f@-L0
(Mile Problem
11.3 |), ov
JUst use the x ee 7x?
—f(3)
formula (like f'(3)
=lim x3
Problem
arg
|32), : mi 7(3) 2

a -b =(a t+ ba -) Factor the numerator completely, including the difference of perfect’squares that
arises once 7 is factored out of the quadratic expression.

164 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient
eee

este -9)
wee eS
_ 7(x+3) (x3)
eka Chagas
= lim 7 (x + 3)
=7(3+3)
= 42

Therefore, f'(3) = 42, a result that matches Problem 11.31.

Note: Problems 11.34-11.36 refer to the function g(x) = x° — 5x + 9.

11.34 Use the definition of thé derivative to find g’(x).

Make suve
Apply the general difference quotient formula, as demonstrated by Problem 11.30.
you plug x + Ax

e'()= Him g(x+Ax)— g(x)

Ax
into beth of the
x's in 9(x).
_ [(xt+ Ax)’ -5(x+
Ax)+9]—(x? —5x +9)
co Ax

Simplify the expression, expanding (x + Ax)? and distributing —5 and -1.

: [x? + 2xAx + (Ax)? —5x—5Ax+9]—x* +5x—9

= lin i
Ax>0 Ax
At
= tim BE +xx t(Ax)*SS 4Be—BAxt9<T
= ee Ax
this point in
“vA Aiffevence

_. 2xAxt (Ax)? —5Ax smenent problem,

ee Ax everything inside
these parentheses
Apply the factoring method to evaluate the limit. heeds to have Ax

_ De (2x + Ax —5) in ik. I one of your

= lim ——-——_—— terms is missing a
Ax>0 DK
= lim
lim(2x+Ax—5
(2x | Ax, 90 back
fix the ana
wis lis
=2x+0—-5 before you go
=2x-5 on,

If g(x) = x° — 5x+ 9, then g’ (x) = 2x-5.

Note: Problems 11.34—11.36 refer to the function g(x) = x — 5x + 9.

11.35 Evaluate g’(-2).

Substitute x = —2 into the derivative function from Problem 11.34.

g'(x)=2x-5
g'(-2)=2(-2)-5
g'(-2)=-9
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
165
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

Note: Problems 11.34—11.36 refer to the function 8(x) =x’ — 5x +9.

11.36 Use the specific difference quotient to calculate g’(—2) and ae verify the
solution to Problem 11.35.

Use the method described in Problem 11.33, this time using the function
g(x) = x°-—5x+9 and the constant ¢=-2.

g'(c) =lim g(x) ~ 8)

ee)
xc OOHa

(x? —5x+9)—[(-2)" —5(-2)+9]|

= lim

(x? —5x+9)—[4+104+9]
= lim
xo-2 Rete
x” —5x—-14 ag
= lim ——_
x>-2 x+2

Use the factoring method to evaluate the limit.

_ (x—7)(x+2)
= lim ——————*
x2 x2
im CD GD
x>—2 gre

Se
sa
=-9
Therefore, if g(x) = x°- 5x +9, then g’(-—2) =—9, which matches the solution to
Problem 11.35. 5

Differentiability
When does a Aevivative exist?

11.37 The derivative describes what geometric characteristic of a function’s graph?

The derivative of f(x) at x= c, written f'(c), is equal to the slope of the tangent line
to f(x) at the point (c,f(c)).

11.38 Describe the relationship between the continuity of a function and its
Diffeventiability _ differentiability.
implies continuity,
If a function is differentiable at x= c, it must also be continuous at x = c. The con-
verse is not true: a function continuous at x= cis not necessarily differentiable at
x= c, See Problem 11.41 for an example of a continuous but nondifferentiable
function.
|I—
——
166 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

Note: Problems 11.39-11.42 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 11-4.

Ve
oe
11.39 Given tim
LALO) - jimLO-LO) 1 oes f'(6)= 5?Whyor whynot? YR;

Pose mer you vecognize

eee f
the difference
AWotient Lrow

Peet 6
oe
Pa ag ne
The graph of the piecewise-defined
femme
th ee Tee
Function fx) € Aevivatives of

4, x<0 of the functi on, tie

FL, 0<x<2 ones that have ¢ a

(1/2)x +4, 4<x<6

x” —(23/2)x+40, x26

For a
plecewise-
The given left- and right-hand limits represent the left- and right-hand deriva- Aefinea
tives of f(x) as x approaches 6. According to the information given, function to be
Aaiffeventiable at
= iG) <4 5 1
Be eye) =—, so the derivative of y= x" — = +40 equals — when x= 6. an xvalue “break
x>6* ee 6 2 2 2
point” (like a 0, Z,
— f(6 1 1 1
Additionally, tim LEO) a 9 , so the derivative of y= a" +4 equals 9 at 4, ov © in Figure
x76 be
||-4), the left- ana
x= 6, vight-hana limits as
x approaches c must
Because f(x) is continuous at x= 6 (which is another matter entirel , but the equal £(0), ana the
left- ana vight-
function is continuous because lim f(x)= lim f(x) = f(6)=7) and the left- and
x>6- x>6* hana dAevivatives
right-hand derivatives are equal at x= 6, f(x) is differentiable at x = 6; specifically,
(oat
r'(6)=5-
as x approaches
c must be
equa.

Note: Problems 11.39-11.42 refer to the graph off(x) m Figure 11-4.

The

11.40 Given LDL — jg LO-LO 1 does f'(4)= 5?Why oF why not?

lim ——————
Aevivative of
a lineay function
xt y= x47 x
is the slope of
the line.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 167

 Chapter Eleven — Continuity and the Difference Quotient

While the left- and right-hand derivatives of f(x) are equal as x approaches 4, f(x)
is discontinuous at x = 4. Though alimit exists (limf(x) =6) , {(4) is undefined,
which results in point discontinuity. Therefore, f'(4) does not exist—in order for
a function to be differentiable at x= c, it must also be continuous at x= c (as stated
in Problem 11.38).

a
Not:Problems 11.39-11 42 entothe
graphofAD in
1 Figure1
M14.

:ML.
a‘Given LORI) Nan ig
eee
ae 7
OO, ah eval

Although f(x) is continuous at x = 2, the left- and right-hand derivatives are not
equal as x approaches 2. Therefore, f(x) is not differentiable at x= 2 and f’(2)
does not exist.

Nae:Problems
P il.39-1142refertothe
eh “) inn Figure14.

;I,42 Given‘im:
_f@)- £00)_
ace

Notice that /(x) is discontinuous as x approaches 0 because the right hand limit
lim f (x) =1 does not equal the left-hand limit lim f (x) = f (0) =4. Although the
Ending right- and left-hand derivatives of f(x) are equal as x approaches 0, the right- and
a chapter left-hand limits of f(x) are unequal as x approaches 0, so f'(0) does not exist.
with two trick
questions th a vow
is just vude.

168 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter 12
BASIC DIFFERENTIATION METHODS

the four heavy hitters fov finding Aevivatives

Though conceptually gratifying andafitting culmination of prior limit

ly evaluation techniques (most specifically the factoring method), calculating
math talk, derivatives by means of the difference quotient is, at best, prohibitively time-
“nontrivial” consuming and, at worst, nontrivial. It behooves a student of calculus to
means “pretty
hava,”
embrace procedural algorithms once an underlying concept is understood,
as the determination of derivatives is but one of the foundational skills to |
be learned in this course. Undoubtedly, the investment of time required to
truly master archaic limit expressions is not proportional to the worth of
such an undertaking.

The difference quotient is only

900A Lov calculating easy Aeviva
i | mean veally, veally easy Aev ti
ivatives. If youve trying to fina he
Aevivative of x? the Aiffevenc e
e quotient is ho big Aeall, but
a Do you vea what « +
lly feel like expanding (x +Ax)°?
time to me, In this chapter, you'
It ne sound like i cen
ll learn to fina Aevivatives wit
vesovt to the Aiffevence hout ei to
Quo tient,

Diffevent tec hniques apply in Aiffeven

t Civcumstances, so you'll leay
how to Aif
feventiate Puuctions that ave
vaised to nee multi a b
Cate: functions, Aividea by other
functions, and Pape ba ]
into) other functions. But befove 5
all that you need to leavn how
Aevivatives of functions that aren't polynomials. Ae
the
If you have trouble e
problems in the frst sec tion of the chaptey, flip back to App
endix oe
contains all the impovtant Aeviva
tive formulas.
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

Trigonometric, Logarithmic, and Exponential Derivatives

Mewmovize specitic formulas for these functions

12.1 Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) = sin x.

This !
Means you
The derivative of the sine function, as well as the derivatives of the other five basic
can ignove the
trigonometric functions, are used throughout calculus and should be memorized:
coefficient of a f(x) = cos x.
’

function when you

take a Aevivative.
Ounce you figure out 12.2 Differentiate with respect to x: y= 5 tan 0.
what the devivative
is, just multiply
it by the The derivative of a function multiplied by a constant is equal to the constant
‘coefficient. multiplied by the derivative of the function.

[e r@]=* S10] :
Multiply the derivative of tan 6 by 5.
dy d
=i = (tang
ie ea
= 5(sec’ 6)
=5sec?0

12.3 Find the second derivative of y = cos x, with respect to x.

Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x. (Note that the derivative
d
ofy with respect to y is written oo »)
x
dy
== SIN
dx

2
The derivative of heis written St . As explained in Problem 12.2, the derivative
x
of (—1)-sinx is equal to (-1)-“(sinx).
x
a’
oat
a ce ((<3) dy (ina)|
hee
2 (ad

, = (—1)[cos x]
If y= cos x, then — =—CcOsx.
0

170 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

——— Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation eshous

12.4 Differentiate with respect to 0: y = sec 6 — csc 0.

The derivative ofa difference is equal to the difference of the derivatives. (The
same is true for the sum of derivatives, but is not true for the product or the
quotient of derivatives.) the derivative of
dy sec@ aud subtvact
_ = “(seec0)
76 —“(csc6
“(esc ) ‘
the devivative of
= (sec 0 tan0) —pa 0)
= secOtan0+
csc Acotdé

12.5 Given g(x) = 4", find g(x)

Take the
The derivative of the exponential function ais a* (Ina), the function itself times
Aevivative of 4*
the natural logarithm of its base.
again while ignoving
e'(x)= (4° )in4 In 4 (because it’s a
constant). You'll get
a(n) (In4)-—(4") the same thing you
=(In4)-(4* -In4) got the ivst time:

=(In4)° -4*

12.6 Differentiate with respect to x: y= 4é.

Recall that the derivative of an exponential function is the function itself times
Because
the natural logarithm of its base.
In x and & ave
Des aeSee
tnverse £
dx dx ra That means
= 4(e* -Ine) oe abe
=4(e*-1)

d
This problem demonstrates an important differentiation formula: —(e*) =e": &is
its own derivative.

12.7 Differentiate with respect to x: y= log, x.

1
Note that ~(log,x) = ; the derivative ofa logarithmic function is the
x x:Ina
- 1 ae :
reciprocal of the logarithmic argument (*)divided by the natural logarithm of
x
d
oe l087%x)= x(In7) |
the base (In a). Therefore, —(

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

171
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods
Jp_

12.8 Differentiate with respect tox: h(x

This
is another Apply the formula discussed in Problem 123%
Wwpovtant Aeviva-
tive formula to
mewovize: if £(x) = In x,
then x) = +.

The Power Rule

A shovtcut for differentiating x"

12.9 Differentiate with respect tox:y=Be.

Pull
the exponent The power rule for differentiation provides a simple method of differentiating
Aown in front of
the x, ana multiply a single variable (with or without a coefficient) that is raised to a power:
i
tb by the coefficient 7 (m") = (n . a)x" :
(i? there is one), dy =(3-5)x°7
The new power will dx
be one less thay = 15x?
the ola One,

12.10 Differentiate with respect tox:f(x) =%. . :

The expression x° has an implied coefficient of 1, so the coefficient of f'(x) is

9:1=9.
f'(x)=(9-1)x
= 9x°

12.11 Differentiate with respect to x:g(x) =-6x.

Remember to subtract one from the exponent when applying the power rule,
even when the exponent is negative. In this problem, x will be raised to the
—4—1=-5 power.
g'(x)=(-4)(-6)
= 24x

_ 245
x

172 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods
TE

wor
: ee 6
12.12 Differentiate with respect to w: y=—. But
w Aout leave
negative
Rewrite the function using a negative exponent. exponents ina
Final answey.
1
y=6°w-

Apply the power rule. Note that this function is written in terms of w, not x, so the
d d
derivative of y is e's instead of bo
dw d.X

dy
= ees (-1-6)w
ae —-1°6 ==]

=-6w”

ae w*

12.13 Differentiate f(x) = 2 with respect to x.

Even though /(x) contains only a constant, it can be written with an x-term.
Because x° = 1, multiplying 2 by x’ does not change its value: f(x) = 2x’. Apply the
power rule.
f'()=(0-2)x°" In
= 0x7! these two
problems, the
power vule helps
=0, ifx#0 you figure out
the Aevivative, but
The domain of f(x) is all real numbers, but the power rule cannot determine it stops just shovt
the derivative when x= 0. Consider the graph of f(x), the horizontal line y= 2. of giving you the
Horizontal lines have a slope of 0 for all real numbers, so f’(x)—the slope of the whole answer. In both
tangent line to /(x)—equals 0 for all real numbers, including x = 0. cases, the power vule
cant calculate the
dAevivative when
12.14 Use the power rule to differentiate f(x) =—6x with respect to x. Generalize the x = 0, 0 you have to
solution to construct a corollary of the power rule concerning the derivatives of vesovt to looking at
linear terms. the actual graphs
of the functions
ana figuving out
Include the implied exponent of 1 when writing the function: f(x) =—6x'. Apply what the slope of
the power rule. the tangent line
f'(x) =1-(-6)x"* is when x= 0.
= —6x°
=-6 ifx#0
Therefore, the derivative of a linear function is the slope of the line. Although the
power rule leaves f'(x) undefined at x= 0 (because 0° # 1), the slope of the line
f(x) =—6x is -6 for all xs, including x= 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

173
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

12.15 Differentiate h(x) = ax’*! with respect to x, assuming aisa real number.

Apply the power rule.

h'(x) =(a+1)(a)x?" = (a? + a)x*

12.16 Differentiate with respect to x: y= yx”.

In
Rewrite the function using a rational exponent.
case you
forgot,
oe = ax" = (qx).

See Problem 2.10 fov Apply the power rule.

move information. 2) = (2
; ee
dx \3

Subt
ubtract leerom th e ti
rationa ] exponen t =—-l==——==
3 3 3 3 : =

dx
(2) 3
2
Ce

It is equally correct to write your solution as a radical: =p However,

That dx 33/x
means you shoula rational solutions are usually presented in rationalized form.
get viA of the
vadical in the 2 2 Vx? os?
—o%n?
Aenominator, 39x 3x fy? 33/3 8x

: 1
12.17 Differentiate with respect to t: y= a ’

Recall that 2 is the implied radical index when no other index is specified.

Apply the power rule.

dy
=—-t1 (-1/2)-1
dt 2
dele
2
=nI
-

174 ~ he Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Se

12.18 Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) =x (Vx* Lah ) N a

Rewrite the radical expressions using rational exponents.

f(x) at yt/® (x*/® 2s,x°/7)

Distribute x 1/2 through the parentheses. AAA the

= (2/2)(x"”)—(8')(0"”)
13/10 __ Ree
©€xPponents when
youve multiplying
aa bn
Two things with the
The derivative ofa difference is equal to the difference of the individual same base:
derivatives. Calculate those derivatives using the power rule.

f'(x)Se <(x8"") - £ (yi8/14)

dx

= 18 (13/10)-1 __13 asa

10 14
< 13 as/a)-04/14)
= 13 3/10)-(0/10)

10 14

= 13 s/o we 13 nd
10 14
13 5/10
— aa ye ea
LS
10 14x'/"*

In
other
The Product and Quotient Rules words, mul-
tiply the first
Differentiate functions that ave multiplied ov Aividea function by the
Aevivative of the
secona one, then
12.19 Differentiate with respect to @: y= sin @ cos 0. aad the secona
function multiplieA
by the Aevivative
The derivative of a product must be calculated using the product rule, stated
of the fivst
below.
one.

(f(x): g())= S@)- 8) + g(a) £9)

To apply the product rule formula, set /() = sin 0, g(@) = cos 6,f'(@) = cos 6, and aa

pt comes from the

D = 5(6)-9'(0)+ (0): f°) double angle iAentity
cos’6 — sin’6 = cos26.
= sin@(—sin@) + (cos@)(cos@) Look it up in Appendix C
= cos’ 9 — sin” 6 ov flip back to Problems
=cos20 8.12 and §.|4 Pov
examples that use
this t\Aentity.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

175
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

"12.20 Differentiate with respect to x: y=

2* cotx.

Apply the product rule, as described in Problem 12.19. To apply the product rule
formula, set f(x) = 2* and g(x) = cot x.

D = f(x)e'(x)+ 2) /'@)
= 2* (—csc’ x) + cot x (2* : In2)
= —2* csc? x + (In2)2* cotx

12.21 Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) = 2x°¢- Wee+ Ox o :

Rather than differentiating each term separately, first factor e out of the
This expression.
way, you f(x)=e (2x° — 7x? +10x—1) :
only have to Ao
Now f(x) is written explicitly as the product of two functions: ¢ and
the proAuct vule 2x° — 7x? + 10x- 1. Apply the product rule.
once. If you take the
Aevivatives of the
f'(e=e*- =(2x? —7x? +10x— 1)+ (2x* — 72?+10x-1)-(¢’)
terms sepavately,
you'll have to apply =e “(6,2—14x+10)+(2x*
—7x? +10x —1)(e*)
the proAuct vule
three times. Distribute e through both quantities and simplify the expression by combining
like terms.
= 6x7e* —14xe* +100 + 2x%e* — 7x76" +10xe* —e*
= 2x36" + (6x7e* — 7x76" )+ (- 14xe* + 10xe* )+ (10e* - e*)
= 2x°¢" — x76" —4Axe* + Qe*

R. 2 Problem 19. y ad the power ae to> determinethat

a 00)=I
15s",
Use the ~
. _producy rule to verify this toh ae

Interpret 5x* as the product f(x) g(x), where f(x) = 5 and g(x) = x°

“(f)e())
d
= f@)e'@)+ 6) £"(8)
d 3 d 3 3 d

= 5(3x? )+ x° (0)
=15x7 +0

= 15x?

176 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

: ; é
oe cos x
12.23 Differentiate with respect to x: y=
3x°
That's
the bottom
The derivative of the quotient h(x) = fx) is calculated according to the quotient
rule, defined below. g(x) of the fraction
Hes the derivative
h'(x) = g(x) f'(x)— f(x) g's) of the top minus the
top Himes the Aeviya-
(g(x) tive of the botteuw
To apply the quotient rule, set f(x) = cos x, g(x) = 3x, f’(x)=—sinx, and g'(x)=3. all Aividea by i
d d bottom Squavead,
<(S) a 3x* 7 (cosx)—(cosx) = (3x) _ 3x(—sinx)—cosx(3) _ —3xsinx
—3cosx
ei oe (3x)° 9x? Ox?

Reduce the fraction by factoring —3 out of the numerator.

5 —8(xsinx+cosx) _ _ xsinx + cosx
B 3x? 3x?

Use the
In
12.24 Differentiate with respect to x: y= eed) formula from
Problem |2.23,
setting P(x) = In x
Apply the quotient rule. ana 9(x) = x.
d d
ad| x7 (inx)—(Inx) 7 (x)

dx (x)?
“(*)—(Inx)(1) According
x
= peek paca ; to Problem (235,

the Aevivative of In
= —InX -
= ToS ee
me x? x

I>Ins

Tiewith respect to x: f (x)=;

12.25 Differentiate
4? — 9x? 5x —19 X ye
nee O oe
a
Apply
,
the quotient rule
Aste
to set up the derivative and use the power rule to
YB;
differentiate the individual polynomials.

(4x? — 9)(3x? —4x —5)—(x° — 2x? — 5x —12)(8x)

f'(x)= (4x7 -9)
_ 12x 16x — 47x? + 36x + 45 —(8x* — 16x" — 40x" — 96x)
Z 16x* — 72x? +81
_ Aut — Tx? +132x
+45
46x* — 72x? 481

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

177
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

é
12.26 Verify the trigonometric derivative using the quotient rule: “pian 6) = sec 0.

As the problem implies, you must first rewrite tan 6 as a quotient.

d d A
<(and)= |
cos
Theve
avent any Apply the quotient rule.
Aervivatives in
d d
the Aenominator of cos 0 » ENB)
76 sin 9)anesind eeat
70 6028 ence)
the quotient rule—
just the oviginal (cos@)"
Aenominatov _ cos6(cos@) — sin6(—sin@)
7 cos’ 0
S cos’ 6+ sin? 6
cos 0

According to a trigonometric identity, cos? 0 + sin’ 6 = 1.

ee
cos’ 0
= sec” 0

Note: Problems 12.27-12.29 refer to the functions f(x) and g(x) and their derivatives, f'(x)
and g'(x). All four functions are differentiable on (-,~) and selected values are listed in the
table below.

, De ao) te |
81916
£0) aRhee
PORTE alae
1

rei T[3 [=2[5[6-1

eG) 2[0[spe]
i[6
d
12.27 Evaluate aa 5a ()) atx=1.

Look
in the thiva The derivative of f(x) is f'(x) and the derivative of —5g(x) is —5g"(x).
column fvow the
vight. It gives you alll 2 abel a nena)
the function values
when x = |. Substitute x= 1 into the expression and use the above’table to determine that
f'Q) =-1 and g'(1)= 12.
£U)-5e()=C4)—sG2)
=-1-60
=-61

178 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods
4

Note: Problems 12.27-12.29 reference the table of values provided in Problem 12.27.

12.28 Evaluate (/g)'(2).

This problem asks you to differentiate f(x): g(x) and then substitute x = 2 into
your answer. You cannot simply multiply /'(2) by g’(2)—you must apply the
product rule.

(fe) (2) = f(2)-2'(2) +g(2)- "(2)

= (-1)(1) +(6)(-3)
=-19

Note: Problems 12.27-12.29 reference the table of values provided in Problem 12.27.

12.29 Evaluate [E|(-—1).

As this derivative is the quotient of two functions, it requires the quotient rule. When
A WUMervator
[£]ap seat) has its own
f LAGyy Aenominatoy (3/2
has a Aenominatoy
= oo
(1/2) of 2), move that
ee a et Achominatoy Aowy
__ 3/2 ANA multiply it by the
81 Aenominator of the
wes whole fraction:
162 2(81) = 162,
1
"54

The Chain Rule

Differentiate functions that ave plugged into functions
You
can assume
12.30 Assuming f(x) and g(x) are differentiable functions, differentiate /(g(x)) with that ‘Aiffeven-
respect to x. table” means “if-
feventiable over
theiv entive do-
According to the chain rule, the derivative of the composition of functions /(g(x)) mains,”
equals f'(g(x)) - g'(x). In other words, the derivative of the “outer function” f(x)
evaluated at the “inner” function g(x), which is then multiplied by the derivative
of the inner function g’(x).

ee ee
|
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
179
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods
J]

12.31 Differentiate y = (2x- 3)? using the power rule and then verify the result using
the chain rule.

Expand the polynomial using the FOIL method and differentiate.

y= 4x? 12x49
Ddxd = 8x-12
thumb: If the
function youre It is helpful to rewrite y= (2x — 3) as a composition of functions before
differentiating has differentiating it. The linear expression 2x— 3 is squared, sod in essence, you’re
something besides substituting 2x— 3 into the function x’. The function being substituted is the
x plugged into it, use “inner” function, g(x) = 2x— 3, and the function it’s substituted into is the “outer”
the chain vule. For function, f(x) = x’. Note that f(g(x)) = f (2x —3) =(2x —3)°. Use the chain rule to
calculate the derivative of f(g(x)).
example, x* Acesnt
veauive the chain
vule, but anything
else squavea will, like
[p(e@)]=F'(e@)-'@)
(3x), («x + 7), ana
The derivative of f(x) = (x)? is f'(x) =2(x); therefore, the derivative of
flg(x)) = (g(x)) equals 2(g(x)).

<[(ex-3)']=2(¢))- 2’)
Substitute g(x) = 2x-—3 and g’(x) = 2 into the expression.

<[(@x-3)' ]=2(2-8)-2= (4x~6)-2= 84-12

The power and chain rules produce identical derivatives: * [f.(g (x))] = 8x —-12.
x

12.32 Differentiate with respect to @ and simplify the result: y = Vsec0.

Rewrite the function using a rational exponent.

This
just means y =(sec6)'””
Boras: Fey Because the function sec 0, not just the single variable 6, is raised
toa power,
you must apply the chain rule. Rewrite the function, indicating the composition
have to Ao this > within explicitly. Note that the inner function is g(@) = sec @ and the outer
tf you understand function is f(@) =0"?.
what's going on, but it
helps if the chain
y= f(g(9))
vule confuses 99yey
7S (8(9))-8'(8)
you.
Differentiate /(@) using the power rule: f'(6) = sou

798) 8)
dy _1

iso “Ne Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods
ae eee RN

Substitute g(9),=sec 6 and g'() = sec 6 tan @ into the chain rule formula.

d 1 s
= 9 (sec8) '’? «(sec tan)
_ secOtand
2(sec0)'””

You can reduce the sec 0 factors by applying exponential properties:

(sec6)'
=(sec0)'"’” =(sec0)'”” = Jsec 8,
(sec 0)”

dy _ vsec@ :tané
dé 2

12.33 Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) = In(sin x).

Because a function is substituted into the natural logarithm function instead of

a single variable, you must apply the chain rule. Differentiate the outer function
In x, leaving the inner function sin x inside that derivative. Then multiply by the The
derivative of the inner function: Aevivative of
1 d the natural log
f'(*)= —
sinx
+—(sinx)
dx of something equals
1 | divided by that
= ——(cosx)
sin x something. (In this
COs x case, the “something”
is sin x.)
sinx
=cotx

12.34 Differentiate with respect to x: g(x) =¢ 4x+1

Remember
e* is tts own
Because the exponent of eis a function (4x + 1), not a single variable like x, you Aevivative, so the
must apply the chain rule. Aevivative of e to
some power (in this
g'(x)= eS (4x41)
' — Biel yh ard 4 ae]
case 4x + |) equals e
=e*t.4 to that power times
the Aevivative of
=4e"4x+1 that powev.

12.35 Differentiate with respect to x: y = csc (ea)

/ The
Apply the chain rule formula such that f(x) = csc x and ginj=e Aevivative of csc x is
“CSC K Cot x. Make suv
e to
{Ty
dx (g(x) |= s'(e())-2'() Substitute e**! Poy x i
=d [
csc(ae )]aes ees )cot (e ). <(e*") both csc x ANA cot x.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

d
According to Problem 12.34, shee tee,
=—csc(e***")cot(e#"")- 4e4x41
er

= —4,%41 csc Cae )cot (e#")

12.36 Differentiate with respect to x: “f (g(h(x))).

Begin by differentiating the outermost function, leaving everything “inside it”

alone, and then multiply by the derivative of the quantity “inside.”

“Lie )]= /Le@)]- Le]

Notice that “Lela (x))] also requires the chain rule.

d
ql glee) ]= 8 (a(x): h(x)
Therefore, <[f(¢(()))]= s'Le(@(a))]:'(AG))- 0G).

12.37 Differentiate with respect to @: 7(0)= -8sin{cos5 :

Apply the method outlined in Problem 12.36; begin by differentiating the

outermost function.
ON d
4#( (@\=—3
) cowa4 ‘ry:feos
cos{ A4

Differentiating cos— also requires the chain rule.

There
7'(8)= ~8cos{co
ave two ss.}-|-sin $--£(2)]
negative signs
in heve that ave Note that lho: sO <(36)=3:
sovt of hava to see. 2 ae d0\2 Za
MultiplieA together,
they make the
final answer
positive.

62e 12.38 According to the quotient rule, a is

2B ee ee
Nd ()g (x). Because
: WF No hen 3 5 dx
zi g(x) . (g(x)) 8
dividing and multiplying by a reciprocal are equivalent operations, generate the
o ce
quotient rule formula by differentiating f(x)-ao) with respect to x.
g(x

182 “The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

Rewrite g(x) using.a negative exponent.

1 mA
f(x) Fa FO Le] Heve
ave the steps
Apply the product rule.
Pov finding that
4 fp t5\= sc)2[(0@) Leo £0)
d 1 d if -1 Aevivative:

16966)
In order to differentiate [g(x)]“, you must apply the chain rule.
= (—I)L9(x)T~ + 9’(«)
Pas 9'(x)
cSjoo]
2 foe f'(x)
(g(x)
Rewrite the derivative, eliminating the negative exponent.

Lol '(x) el 1 er
10h Eo ae!
__ fe’), £'@)
(g(x) &)
The least common denominator is (g(x))’.

__ fex)g'(x)
, f') gl)
(g(x)) g(x) g(x)
__ fee)
|fe
(g(x)) (g(x)
According to the commutative property, you can reorder the terms.

_ Sfe)g(x) _ f&)g'(s)
(g(x) (ge)
_ a(x) f'(e)— fg’)
(g(x)

12.39 Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) = x° cos 2x.

Because f(x) is the product of two functions, you must apply the product rule.
The
, ee Bits
f'(x)=x
= re [cos 2x]+ cos 2x _—
—— re (x ) Aevivative of
Cos 2x is ~2sin 2x.
If You AiAw’t get the
Use the power rule to differentiate x° and the chain rule to differentiate cos 2x.
2 out front, you forgot
f' (x) =x? -—sin2x- 2+ (cos 2x)(3x") to take the Aevivative
= —2x° sin 2x + 3x” cos 2x
of the inner function,

eS nO
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
183
 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

12.40 Verify the solution to Problem 12.39 by differentiating f(x) = x° cos 2x using the
quotient rule. :

You must first rewrite f(x) as a quotient—otherwise, the quotient rule won’t apply.
To do so, utilize a reciprocal identity, rewriting cos 2x as
sec 2x
: fel

SAN sec 2x
x?

~ sec 2x
Apply the quotient rule.

ne sec2x: (2°)=x" (sec2x)

5) eeee
(sec 2x)°
TESCO 2X: 3x" —x* +sec
2xtan 2x -2
- sec” 2x
_ 8x° sec 2x — 2x° sec 2x tan 2x
: sec” 2x

Factor sec 2x out of the numerator and reduce the fraction.

Ape Le Ae
f'(x)= seeZx |3x” — 2° tan 2x |
If —+—= —— seeZx ‘sec 2x
because they have & 3x” — 2x* tan2x
common Aenominators, sec 2x
you can work back-
Write the derivative as two separate fractions, each with denominator sec x.
wava and say that
At~LZ a 2
'@=— x?
sec 2x
9x tan2x
sec 2x

Rewrite the function in terms of sine and cosine: =cos2x and

x

f'@)=3"{ sec 2x — 2x° tan 2x(

sec 2x

a (3x? cos 2x) _ 2x es (cos 2x)|

cos 2x

= [3x? cos 2x |a ae Oa EES

cos2x
= 3x” cos 2x — 2x° sin 2x

12.41 Differentiate with respect to x: j (x) = (=)Inx,

Because (x) is a product of functions, you must apply the product rule to
differentiate it.

184 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods

sy d

se
j' (x) = (=):
ay ln) +(Inx): <(= Heve’s
. how you get that
x 1-x Aevivative:
The derivative of =, requires the quotient rule <( x
x
les oe
= aes
: Fis yanS
r=[(2\3}}+[oo(*5 ‘)
ax

en
e
(Inx)(1— x)
(e)(e")
oe1+Inx-—xlInx
x
é

12.42 Differentiate with respect to 0: y = (sin 30 tan 36)

Apply the chain rule such that 6” is the “outer” function and sin 36 tan 36 is the
“inner” function.
d
a = 12(sin 30 tan 30)" < (sin 30 tan 30)
d
Apply the product rule to calculate Goin 30 tan 30)

= 12(sin30tan36)' - sin30: <(tan30) + tan 30°<,(sin20)|

Differentiating tan 30 and sin 36 requires the chain rule

d d
= 12(sin30tan36)" -[sin30 - sec” 30° ae(36) + tan 30+ cos 30:<-(30)|

= 12(sin30tan36)" - [sin 30: (sec’”30) -3+ tan 30: (cos 30) 3|

= 12(sin30tan36)" - (3sin 30 sec” 30 + 3tan 30cos 30)

Note: Problems 12.43-12.44 reference the functions f(x) and g(x) and their derivatives, i
and g' (x). All four of the functions are continuous and differentiable on (-~,%), and a few of
their values are listed in the table below

12.43 Evaluate (fg) (—2).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 185

 Chapter Twelve — Basic Differentiation Methods
ee

This is
Note that (fo g)(x)= f(g(x)).
just the
chain vule. You've
daiffeventiating
(fog) (-2)= f'(e(-2))-e'(-2)
the outer function £ According to the table, g(-2) = 1, so f’(g(-2)) = f'(1).
leaving 9 alone, ana
then multiplying by = f'(1)-g'(-2)
the dAevivative =(-1)(2)
of 9. =—2

Note: Problems 12.43-12.44 reference the table of values provided in Problem 12.43.
f(x)
12.44 If h(x)= eae , evaluate h'(2) accurate to five decimal places.
In(g(x))
Because h(x) is a quotient, you must apply the quotient rule.

In(g(x))-(e") ef ~[in(g@))] -
Ai (x) = —— Itt? ——
[in(g(x))]
Differentiating e f°) and In(g(x)) requires the chain rule.
The
Aevivative in(g(«))- f(a)2 -8'(2)
of e to the £(x) h'(x)=
power is e* times the [in(g(x))]
Aevivative of the power,
Evaluate the derivative at x= 2.
f(x). The Aevivative
of In(9(x)) is | over 9(x)
In (g (2 )) -e - f' (2)—/ £2)
times the Aevivative h'(2) os : g(2)
of the function [in(¢(2))]
youve legging:
9 (x).
Evaluate the functions using the table of values from Problem 12.43.

fs(1n6)(e*)(-3)-(")(2)
(In6)°
=o ln Owed
as e 6e
(In6)°

Use a calculator to determine that h'(2) + —0.63505.

186 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter I3
DERIVATIVES AND FUNCTION GRAPHS
gvaphs
What signs of Aevivatives tell you albout
Once you've mastered the procedural skills required to differentiate, your
next objective is to explore uses and applications of derivatives. The
most rudimentary and immediately gratifying application is the corre-
spondence between a function’s behavior and the signs of its first and
second derivatives. Specifically, this chapter investigates how the signs
of f(x) describe the direction of f(x) and how the signs of f"(x) describe
the concavity of f(x).

In a nutshell, you'll be Finding fivst anA sec

ond Aevivatives of a
func
tion, Aiguving out whether these Aeviva
tives ave positive ov neaqati
Fov vavious values of x, and then leavning
why the heck that sien a
matters. Howevey, befove you con Aelve inte
any of that, you need to
vemember how to find critical numbers—a
skill that (alone tt ov nob) fist
Popped up in the veview section of the book
, in Chapter 3. :
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

Critical Numbers
Numbers that break up wiggle gvaphs

13.1 If ais a critical number offix), evaluate f(a).

If ais a critical number of f(x), then either ais a zero of the function (meaning
f(a) = 9) or the function is discontinuous at a (meaning f(a) does not exist).

13.2 Identify the critical numbers of y = 2x? - 21x + 27.

there's
nothing you All polynomial functions, including this quadratic, are continuous over their
com plug in for x entire domains; the domain of this function is (-~,«). Therefore, the only critical
that will make the numbers will be its roots. Identify those roots by setting y = 0 and solving the
function undefined, equation.
like negatives inside
squave voots ov 2x" —21x+27=0
zevoes in Aenomi-
(2x —3)(x
-—9) =0
nators.
2x—-3=0
x-—9=0
3 Or
x= x=9

3
The critical numbers ofy = 2x? - 21x+ 27 are x= 9 and x= 9.

13.3 Identify the critical numbers of f(x) = x cos x.

Note that f(x) is the product of two functions (one polynomial and one’
trigonometric), both of which are continuous over their entire domains.
Furthermore, x’ and cos x are both defined on (—%,%), so f(x) is everywhere
continuous. Therefore, the only critical numbers of f(x) are its roots.
x? cosx =0
oo
x=) cosx =0
Vic =t 0 or _ ka k ddi
ve ieee an o integer

Therefore, f(x) has infinitely many critical numbers: x = 0 and

ot St Ul 8 ba
X=
gg
— —
99" ga

18g The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

x -9
13.4 Identify the critical numbers of h(x)=
Ox? +30x +25 A voot of
the numerator Is
also a voot of the
Zeroes of the numerator are roots of the function, and zeroes of the denominator whole fraction.
represent undefined values of h(x). In both cases, those x-values are critical
numbers, so set the numerator and denominator equal to 0 and solve.

x -9 -(
9x” + 30x + 25
If x is
The numerator is a difference of perfect squares, and the denominator is, itself, a a voot of the
perfect square. Factor both and set all three unique factors equal to 0. (No need Aenominatoy, h(x)
to set the repeated factor in the denominator equal to zero twice—you'll get the is undefined at x
same double root both times.)
because youve
(et Oe 3) Aividing by 0.
(3x +5)(3x +5)
3x+5=0
x+3=0 x-3=0 ne ne
— or ae or x=
5
<=——
3
ne : 5
The critical numbers of h(x) are x=-3, x= a? and x= 3.

a xe
13.5 Identify the critical numbers of g(x) = oe

Use the method described in Problem 13.4: Set the numerator and denominator
of a rational function equal to 0 and solve both equations to determine the critical
numbers.
Inx =0
x—1=0 Inx 0
Oreeéan =e
=]
x=e’ =]
Like
The only critical number of g(x) is x= 1. Certainly, x = 1 cannot be both a root and Problems 10.11
‘ ana
an undefined value. (If x= 1 is a root then g(1) = 0, and 0 is a real number, not an 10.12.
: 0
undefined value.) This problem represents an indeterminate case: gQ)= 0 :

Previous examples suggest that indeterminate values represent “holes” in the

function—point discontinuity at which a limit exists. Regardless, the function

is undefined (and therefore discontinuous) at this x-value, so x = 1 isa critical

number of g(x).

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189
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

SN iP 13. 5 Given the function f(x)= (x + 4)(2x- 9), create a new function f (x) such that
@2@ f(x) has three critical numbers: x =-4, x= 5 and x= 8, andis equivalent to
eINS f(x) at all x 48.

(x +4)(2x —9)(x—8)
Consider the function f (x) = , the rational function
as
—8 cian | waSre,
defined such that f(x) = ro(2 <-4. Multiplying
f(x) by ais will not change
x
its function values, since x— 8 divided by itself, like any nonzero quantity divided
Rao
by itself, equals 1, and f(x):1= f (x). However, the expression ae 3 does carry

with it one restriction: x can no longer equal 8. Therefore, f (x) is equivalent to

, Since
PE) == f(x) for every real number x # 8, including matching critical numbers x = —4 and
£(x) has a hole
9 : xed se,
at x = §. other S However, since f(x) is undefined at x= 8, that x-value is a critical number
than that, it looks
exactly like the unique to f(x).
gvaph of F(x).

13.7 Identify the critical numbers of the function j(x), graphed in Figure 13-1.

ee
Cet
ceSG
tt Ay Figure 13-1
The graph of a function j(x).

The critical numbers of a function are the values at which the function equals 0 or
is discontinuous. A function equals 0 at its roots, which are also the x-intercepts of
its graph. Because j(x) intersects the x-axis at x = —5, —3, and 4, those are critical
numbers of 7(x). A function is discontinuous at any holes, breaks, or vertical
asymptotes on the graph, so j(x) also has critical numbers x = —4, 1, and x= 2.
Therefore, 7(x) has a total of six critical numbers: x = —5, —4, —3, 1, 2, and 4.

190 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

Signs of the First Derivative

Use wiggle graphs to Aetevmine function Aivection This
is not

Note: Problems 13.8—13.11 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 13-2. “pusywovk'—
theve’s a point
13.8 Sketch the tangent lines to f(x) at every integer value of x on the interval to this, so Ao it
[-8,8]. cavefully. Pay
close attention to
the signs of the
tangent slopes. Do
the lines slope up
to the vight ov
Aown to the
Figure 13-2 left?
The graph of a function f(x) that’s
continuous and differentiable over its
entire domain, (— , ©).

This problem requires you to draw 17 tangent lines, all of which are illustrated in
Figure 13-3.

Figure 13-3 The tangent lines tof(x) at x = —8, Hhi=b, 1% 607,18:

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

191
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

a Problems 13.8-13.11 refer to thegraph of,F(x)tin Figure oe

13.9 On what intervals do the tangent lines drawn in yabied 13.8 have positive
slopes? What tangent lines have negative Hopes Oslopes?

A line with a positive slope increases in height as x increases. In other words, as

you travel from left to right, a line with a positive slope heads in the positive
direction. Notice that the tangent lines at x = —5, —4, -3, -2, 4, and 5 have positive
slopes.

Lines with negative slopes slant downward as you travel along the line from left
to right. In Problem 13.8, the tangent lines at x = —9, -8, -7, 0, 1, 2, 7, and 8 have
negative slopes. Horizontal lines have a slope of 0. Therefore, the tangent lines at
x =—6, -1, 3, and 6 have slopes equal to 0.

Note: Problems 13.8-13.11 refer

to the graph off(x) in Figure 13-2.

13.10 Based on your answers to Problems 13.8 and 13.9, describe the relationship
Trace between the direction of f(x) and the sign of its derivative as you travel along the
your finger x-axis from x=—9 to x= 9.
along the graph
from left to vight,
Whenever your Recall that the derivative is defined as the slope of the tangent line to a curve.
Finger i \s going up, the
Travel along the graph of f(x) from left to right. Whenever f(x) is increasing
at an x-value, the tangent line at that x-value has a positive slope. On the other
tangent line Avawny
hand, whenever /(x) is decreasing at an x-value, the slope of the tangent line
theve has a positive (i.e., derivative) is negative there. The slope of the tangent line to f(x) equals
slope. When your 0 at a relative maximum or a relative minimum, when the graph changes from
finger goes Aown, increasing to decreasing or from decreasing to increasing.
the slopes ave
negative, Note: Problems 13.8-13.11 refer to the graph af(x)in Figure 13-2.

13.11. Draw a sign graph for f’ (x).

LES is anumber line that identifies the intervals upon which a function
is positive or negative. To construct one, begin by identifying the critical numbers
Also callea for the function. Remember, you are constructing the sign graph of f'(x), so
a “wiggle graph,” the critical numbers are the x-values at which the slope of the tangent line to the
because the sign of graph, f'(x), equals 0: x =—6, -1, 3, and 6. (There are no values for which f(x)
P(x) helps you figure is undefined, as Figure 13-2 describes f(x) as everywhere differentiable.) Plot the
critical numbers as points on the sign graph, as illustrated by Figure 13-4.
out which way £(x)
is “wiggling,” up ov
Aown. <+—@—_+—__+—__+_
+ @ _+_}++_+_@ _+_+ _@ >
7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Figure 13-4 The four critical numbers off'(x) split the number line into five
distinct intervals.

The critical numbers act as boundaries that define these intervals: (—9,-6),
(—6,-1), (-1,3), (3,6), and (6,9). The sign ofa function can only change at one of
its critical numbers (though, at some critical numbers, the sign will not change).
ee

192 “Me Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

According to Problem 13.9, the slopes of the tangent lines to f(x) (i.e., the values
of f'(x)) are positive on (—6,-1) and (3,6). Similarly, f'(x) is negative on the
intervals (—9,-6), (-1,3), and (6,9). Write the sign that describes f'(x), either “+”
or “-,” above each interval to complete the sign graph, as illustrated by Figure
6 ”

13-5.

Figure 13-5 The sign graph off'(x).

Note: Problems 13.12-13.13 refer to the function f(x) = 3x’ — 4x + 2.

13.12 Construct the sign graph of f’(x).

To create the sign graph for f’(x), you must first find the derivative: f'(x) = 6x— 4.
Now set the derivative equal to 0 and solve to determine its critical number.
6x —4=0
6x =4
4 2
ea ee
6 3

As Figure 13-6 illustrates, this critical number splits the number line into two
; 2 2 : : .
intervals: (-Pg and a . To determine the sign of each interval, choose

one “test value” from each interval and substitute them into f’(x). Note that x = 0

belongs to the left interval and x= 1 belongs to the right interval.

f'(0)=6(0)-4=-4 f'() =6(1)-4=2

Because f'(x) < 0 for x= 0, the left interval should be negative; similarly, the right
interval (2, is positive because f'(x) > 0 for x= 1. The completed sign graph Even though
appears in Figure 13-6. you plug only one
test value from each
intevval into £ («), all

ra AP the other values in

each interval will give
you the same sign, +

, f'()
ov - that the test
value aia.

Figure 13-6 The sign graph off'(x) = 6x — 4.

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193
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

Note: Problems 13.12-13.13 refer to the function f(x) = 3x’ — 4x + 2.

13.13 On what interval (s) is f(x) increasing?

According to Problem 13.11, f(x) is increasing whenever its derivative is positive.

2 :
Problem 13.12 indicates that f’(x ) > 0 on the interval (2.»} Therefore, f(x) is
increasing on the interval = 0}

Note: Problems 13.14-13.15 reference the graph of g'(x) in Figure 13-7.

13.14 On what interval(s) is g(x) increasing?

Figure 13-7
The graph of g'(x), the dertvative of some
function g(x).

This question does not ask where the graph is increasing, as the graph represents
In other wovds, the
the derivative of g(x), not g(x) itself. Instead, note where the graph of g’(x) is
intervals wheve 9/(x) is
positive, as those intervals correspond to the intervals upon which g(x) increases.
above the x-axis.
Since g'(x) is positive on (—%,—4)U (0,5), g(x) is increasing on those intervals.

Note: Problems 13.14-13.15 reference the graph ofg' (x) in Figure 13-7.
Relative
extvema ave 13.15 Identify the relative extrema of g(x).
humes in a function
graph. Relative max
A function has a relative extreme point (i.e., a relative maximum or a relative
Points ave the highest
minimum) when a function changes direction. Consider this: ifa function
peaks of mountains, changes from increasing to decreasing at x= a, then its graph will reach a peak at
ANA minimums ave
x= a. While this may not represent the absolute maximum value of the function, it
the lowest points of is the highest function value reached by any x close to a.
valleys.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

19 4
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

Relative extrema can only occur at a function’s critical numbers, and are
indicated by a sign change in the derivative of the function.

Notice that at x =—4 and again at x= 5, the graph of g(x) changes from positive to out the sign
negative—it crosses from above to below the x-axis. Therefore, g(x) has relative gvaph. If the
maximums at x=—4 and x=5, as g(x) changes from increasing to decreasing Signs avound a
at those x-values. At x= 0, g(x) has a relative minimum, because its derivative critical number
changes from negative to positive at x= 0 (indicating that the direction of g(x) ave aiffevent, it’s
changes from decreasing to increasing there). a velative extveme
point. If the change
is from + to —itsa
13.16 If Figure 13-8 is the graph of f'(x), the derivative of some continuous and
max, and if the
differentiable function f(x), at what x-value(s) will f(x) reach a relative
minimum? A relative maximum? change is from
-totitsa
min.

Figure 13-8
The graph off'(x), the derivative of some
function f(x).

The graph of f'(x) intersects the x-axis at x=-1 and x= 4, so those are the critical Because
numbers of f'(x). Note that f’(x) changes from negative to positive as its graph tt hits, but
crosses the x-axis at x =—l. Therefore, f(x) has a relative minimum at x= -I, as it Aoesn't cross,
will change from decreasing to increasing there. That is the only relative extreme the x-axis,
point for f(x). At x= 4, the only other critical number of f’(x), the derivative does
not change sign—it is positive both before and after x= 4. Therefore, f(x) has no
relative maximum points.

13.17 Find and classify the relative extrema of g(x) = 4x° — 15x° + 12x—-8.

Differentiate g(x). /
g (x) = 12x? — 30x+ 12

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

195
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs
po

This derivative is defined for all real numbers, so its only critical numbers are its
roots. Set g’(x) = 0 and solve.
12% = 3077 1270
6 ac
2x? —5x+2=0
(2x —1)(x-—2)=0
1
=—,2
nae
Construct a sign graph for g’(x), as illustrated by Figure 13-9.

+ ft
=
_____ f—__—
+ >
1
9 2 g' (x)

Because
Figure 13-9 The sign graph of g'(x) = 12x? — 30x + 12.
the sign of 1
9 (x) changes According to the sign graph, g(x) changes from increasing to decreasing at x = 9°
Prom positive to resulting in a relative maximum, and g(x) changes from decreasing to increasing
negative. The vier a
2 at x= 2, resulting in a relative minimum.
opposite happens
at x=2.
13.18 Find and classify the relative extrema of h(x) =-8x9 + 11? + 35x-19.

Differentiate h(x).

h'(x) =—-24x? + 22% + 35

This quadratic is defined for all real numbers, so its only critical points are its
roots. Set h'(x) = 0 and solve using the quadratic formula.

—24x? +29x +35 =0

ee ae
eee
2(—24)
ee eet v3.84
—48
—22
a ame
+ 62
—48
-84 ereeee!
40
—48 —48
7 poe5
4 6
eC)

Construct a sign graph for h’(x), as illustrated by Figure 13-10.

196 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

2 i
6 4 h(x)
Figure 13-10 The sign graph of h'(x) = 24x? + 22x — 35.

: 5
According to Figure 13-10, h(x) changes from decreasing to increasing at x =——,
resulting in a relative minimum, and changes from increasing to decreasing at
x= 4 , resulting in a relative maximum.

Signs of the Second Derivative

Points of inflection and concavity

Note: Problems 13.19-13.20 refer to the function g(x) = 18x’ — 39x’ + 8x + 16.

13.19 Generate the sign graph of g"(x).

Use the method described in Problem 13.12, although you should use the second
derivative, g”(x), instead of g’(x).

g'(x) =54x? —78x+8

g" (x) =108x — 78

Set g”(x) equal to 0 and solve for x.

108x — 78 =0 Divide
108x = 78 sie top ana
We ottom by ¢.
SSS
108
13
3
18
13
The critical number divides the number line into two intervals: (-
co =) and Make
sure you plug
(~ Choose one test value from each interval (such as x= 0 and x= 1,
the test values inte
respectively) to determine the sign of g"(x) for each interval. 9''(x), not 9/(x). Label
the sign graph 9'(x)
g"(0) =108(0) — 78 = —78 g" (1) =108(1)
—78= 30 so it’s cleav what
/
derivative youve
1 :
Therefore, g"(x) <0 on (- 2) and g"(x) >0on (=) , as illustrated by the talking about.

sign graph in Figure 13-11].

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197
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

—
ooaint nansoletinaes EEL ONE
+ 82
13 +i
18 g(x)
The Figure 13-11 The sign graph of g"(x) = 108x — 78.
concavity
of a function
chavges at an 13.20 At what x-value(s) does g(x) have an inflection point(s)?
inflection
point,
If the sign of g"(x)—and therefore the concavity of g"(x)—changes at one of its
critical numbers, that number represents an inflection point on the graph of g(x).
: 13
In Figure 13-11, the sign of g”(x) changes from negative to positive at x= fa:
So, the
function indicating an inflection point of g(x) occurs at x= qa0
9(x) has an
inflection point if
the critical number
Note: Problems 13.21-13.23 refer to the function f(x) = sin 3x.
of its SECOND
DERIVATIVE 13.21 Identify the x-values of the inflection points of f(x) on the interval
Ma =|
Se

chawges sign.

Find f"(x).
f'(*) = 30s 3x
f" (x) =—9sin 3x
Look at
Identify the critical numbers of /"(x) by setting it equal to 0 and solving for x.
Problem #:3|
iP youve not suve —9sin3x = 0
how to selve trig sin3x =0
equations Containing 3x = 0, 2,27, 37,427,572
3x instead of just
2 4a Dar
x. That equation R == = a,

looks a lot like 3 3 5 3

this one,
Eliminate x-values outside of [2.2].

1 2
C= aa
a3
IU
Choose test values from the intervals (#2) (| ee
GS aMiyo
generate the sign graph in Figure 13-12.

—tr —\.
+ St
—- pd
+
w we 20 nN 5a
6 3 am 4
Figure 13-12 The sign graph off"(x) =—9 sin 3x over the interval 2.2 :

—_———. qo —_—

198 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function idl

Because the sign of f"(x) changes at all three critical numbers, each represents
W200
the location of an inflection point of f(x): x= = a : Ue

Note: Problems 13.21-13.23 refer to the function f(x) = sin 3x.

13.22 Based on the sign graph generated

by Problem 13.21, indicate the intervals on
which /(x) is concave down.

A function is concave down on the same intervals its second derivative is negative.
: :
According to Figure 13-12, f"(x) is: negative
; wt a 27
on (2) and (=x), so f(x) is‘
concave down on those intervals.

Note: Problems 13.21-13.23 refer to the function f(x) = sin 3x.

13.23 Based on the sign graph generated by Problem 13.21, indicate the intervals on
which /'(x) is increasing.

Although /"(x) is the second derivative of f(x), note that it is also the first Just like the
derivative of f’(x). Therefore, the sign of f"(x) also describes the direction of signs of P(x) Aescribe
f'(x). According to its sign graph, f"(x) is positive on the intervals (=.=) and the Avvection of L(x),
the signs of P(x)
4 , So f'(x) must be increasing there.
Aescribe the
Aivection of x),

Note: Problems 13.24—-13.25 reference the graph of h' (x) in Figure 13-13.

13.24 Identify the x-values at which the relative maximum(s) of h(x) occur.

Figure 13-13
The graph of h'(x), the first derivative
of some function h(x) defined on the
interval [—9,°°).

a
ne 4
The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob
lems
199
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

Relative extrema of h(x) occur when h'(x) changes sign at one or more critical
Because
numbers. The function h’'(x) has critical numbers at its x-intercepts (x = —7 and
a function
x= 2) and wherever it is undefined; however, h'(x) is continuous and therefore
has critical
defined over its entire domain [-9,%).
numbers wherever
it equals 0 (ov is Note that h’(x) is positive (above the x-axis) on the interval (—9,—7) only; it then
Aiscoutinuous). crosses the x-axis and is nonpositive for x > —7. Therefore, h(x) changes from
increasing to decreasing at x = -7, indicating a relative maximum. (Although the
graph of h'(x) intersects the x-axis at x = 2 it does not cross the axis, so there is no
sign change at x = 2 and no relative maximum or minimum point occurs there.)

Note: Problems 13.24-13.25 reference the graph of h'(x) in Figure 13-13.

13.25 On what interval(s) is h(x) concave up?

If you've confused, The function h(x) is concave up wherever its second derivative, h"(x), is positive.
Problem 13.2] ex- The sign of h"(x) also describes the direction of h'(x). Because h'(x) is increasing
plains why that’s on the intervals (—9,-8) and (—4,2), h"(x) is positive on those intervals, and
tue. therefore h(x) is concave up on those intervals as well.

Note: Problems 13.26-13.28 refer to the graph off"(x) in Figure 13-14.

13.26 On what interval(s) is the graph of f(x) concave down? —

Figure 13-14
The graph off"(x), the second derivative
of some function f(x).

The graph of f(x) is concave down on the same intervals that f"(x) is negative (i.e.,
below the x-axis). Therefore, f(x) is concave down on (—,—3)U(I,«).

200 ““< Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs
me merece nae CARL

Note: Problems 13.26-13,28 refer to the graph off"(x) in Figure 13-14.

The
13.27 Which is greater: f’(-2) or f’(0)? sign of £"(x)
Aescvibes the
Aivection of (x).
Note that f”(x) is positive on the interval (-3,1), so f'(x) must be increasing
over the entire interval. If f(x) increases between x = —2 and x= 0, then
IP P(x) goes up as you
travel from x = -2
F'(-2) < f'(0). to x = 0, then £0)
is higher than
Note: Problems 13.26-13.28 refer to the graph off"(x) in Figure 13-14. £'(-2).

13.28 Identify and classify the relative extrema of f’(x).

The relative extrema of a function can only occur at the critical numbers of its
derivative. The only critical numbers of f"(x) are its x-intercepts: x =—3 and x= 1. Youve
looking for the
Because f"(x) changes from negative to positive at x = -3, f'(x) changes from max's and miw’s of
decreasing to increasing, indicating a relative minimum. Additionally, f"(x) P(x), which has a
changes from positive to negative at x= 1, so f'(x) changes from increasing to Aevivative of Px),
decreasing there, indicating a relative maximum.

13.29 Describe how the second derivative test classifies the relative extrema of a
function g(x).

Plug a critical number of g'(x) into g"(x). If the result is positive, then the
critical number represents a relative minimum of g(x). If the result is negative, it
represents a relative maximum of g(x). If, however, the result is 0, no conclusion
can be drawn, and a sign graph must be used to determine the direction of g(x)
to the left and to the right of the critical number.

13.30 Identify the relative extrema of f(x) = x* + x* - x+ 9 and classify each using the
second derivative test.

Find the critical numbers of f(x).

f' (x) = 3x? +2x-1

SUES The actual

eae numbers youll get
3x —-1=0 Aowt matter, only
ieorh as whether they ave
= 3 a positive ov negative.

ee
Substitute those critical numbers into f"(x) = 6x + 2.

f'(-1) =6(-1)+2=-4
1 ; ey 1
Because f”|—|> 0, f(x) has a relative minimum at x =—, according to the second
derivative test. Similarly, f(x) has a relative maximum at x =-—1 because f”(-1) < 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
201
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

13.31 A parabola with a vertical axis of symmetry has standard form f(x)= a(x—h)? + i
Assuming a< 0, where does the relative maximum of f(x) occur? Use the ao
derivative test to verify your answer.

Differentiate f(x) and identify the critical numbers of f'(x)

TO practice . f' (x) =2a(x—h)

: working with these 0 = 2a(x —h)
NAS of pavabolas, 0
check out Problems 7 +h=x
6.1 And 6.2.
‘ h=*
ae Substitute x= hinto f"(x). d
just
a constant "(x)= 2a-7 (xh)
and 0 divided by
Any NonZevo number
f"(x)=2a71
f"(A) — 9a
equals 0.
No matter what x-value is plugged into the second derivative, f"(x).< 0—the
problem states that a< 0, so 2a is negative as well. Therefore, according to the
Theve
eae second derivative test, f(x) has a relative maximum when x= h
avent any
sin P(x) = 2a,
so no matter what Function and Derivative Graphs
x ts, the second How ave the gvaphs of £ f, and £" velatea?
Aevivative at
that x-value is
Za. 13.32 A function and its derivative are graphed in Figure 13-15. Determine which
graph represents f(x) and which represents /’(x)

Figure 13-15
One of the functions graphed herei
is he
derivative of the other.

The
soliA cuvve cow’p
be the Aevivative
because the
Acttea Curve is not
always i lncveasing
when the solia curve Notice that the solid graph decreases along its entire domain and the dotted
iS positive. graph is negative along its entire domain. Because f'(x) is negative when f(x) is
decreasing, f'(x) is the dotted graph and f(x) is the solid graph in Figure 13-15

202 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function SEP

13.33 A function and its derivative are graphed in Figure 13-16. Determine which
graph represents g(x) and which represents g’(x).

Figure 13-16
One of the functions graphed here is the
derivative of the other.

The solid graph is g(x) and the dotted graph is g’(x). The solid graph reaches a
relative maximum at x =—7. Meanwhile, the dotted graph intersects the x-axis as
it changes from positive to negative at x =—7. Therefore, the relative maximum of
the solid graph is reflected by a critical number sign change in the dotted graph.
Similarly, the solid graph changes from decreasing to increasing at x = 2, and the
dotted graph again intersects the x-axis at x= 2, this time changing from negative
to positive to reflect the direction change of the solid graph.
This Hme
you have the
13.34 A function and its second derivative are graphed in Figure 13-17. Determine gvaph of a function
which graph represents h(x) and which represents h"(x). ana its SECOND
Aevivative.

Figure 13-17
One of the functions graphed here is the
second derivative of the other.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

203
 Chapter Thirteen — Derivatives and Function Graphs

The solid graph appears to be concave up on the interval (—3,3), but the dotted
graph is negative for those x-values. Therefore, the dotted graph cannot be the
second derivative of the solid graph, as intervals on which h(x) is concave up must
correspond to intervals on which h"(x) is positive. On the other hand, the dotted
graph appears to be concave down from roughly x = -2 to x= 2, and the solid
graph is negative for those x-values. Therefore, h(x) is the dotted graph and h"(x)
is the solid graph.

13.35 Match the functions j(x), 7'(x), and j"(x) with their graphs in Figure 13-18.
&
»

Figure 13-18 ’ :
The graph of a function j(x) and its first
and second derivatives.

Each time the thick graph reaches a relative maximum or minimum, the dotted
graph intersects the x-axis. Furthermore, each time the dotted graph reaches
So, the a relative maximum or minimum value, the thin graph intersects the x-axis.
(Actted) Aevivative Therefore, the thick graph is j(x), the dotted graph is j '(x), and the thin graph is
equals 0 whenever the j"(x).

(thick) function has a

hovizontal tangent line,

gous Book of Calculus Problems

20 4 The Humon
 Chapter |4
BASIC APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Put youv Aevivatives skills to use

Though a conceptual understanding of how a function and the signs

of its derivatives are illuminating and worthwhile, the concepts are
very rudimentary. In this chapter, you will progress beyond direction
and concavity, using derivatives to identify equations of tangent lines,
approximate roots, and evaluate difficult limits. The skills of Chapter 13
are not to be shelved, however, as you will apply them to the extreme value
theorem, and then again in Chapter 15 as you optimize functions.

Even though understanding what

the Aevivatives of a function tell
about that function's Aivection
ana Cconcawity is handy, it’s rete
all that interesting. However, Aev ms
ivatives can be used Povmove
Puvpos
es, and in this chapter, you'll eee
find out that Aevivatives ra
tasks tha t used to be hava actually qui ae
te simple. For example, you ;
Vases to estimate the voots of
a function like L(x) = x’ - AxP
which vefuses to be factored and + fae II ae
a can't be solved by completin
squave ov the tae
quadvatic formula (becouse
it’s obviously not a Bia ti
Sire ssc. You'll even use Aeviva
tives to find limits that vequiv
specific tricks ea bs
back in Chapter 10, but will now
be Significantly easi
thanks to something called UHépit
al’s vule. pee.
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

Equations of Tangent Lines

Point of tangency + Aevivative = equation of tangent

Problems 14.1-14.2 refer to the function f(x) =-—2x’ + 5x — 9.

14.1 Ifline dis tangent to f(x) at x=-l, identify the point of tangency.

The point of tangency lies on the graph off(x) when x=—l, so evaluate f(-1) to
find the corresponding y-coordinate.
PVE = 21) og
=-2(1)-5-9
=—16
The point of tangency is (-1, f(-1)) = (-1,-16).

Problems 14.1-14.2 refer to the function f(x) =—2x’ + 5x — 9.

14.2 Ifline lis tangent to f(x) at x=-l, identify the slope of J.

Calculate the derivative of f(x) using the power rule and evaluate f’(x) at x=—1
to determine the slope of the tangent line at the point identified in Problem 14.1:
(-1,-16).
f' (x) =—-4xe
+5
f'(-D=-4(-))
+5
f-D=9
The slope of tangent line Jis 9.

14.3 Write the equation of the tangent line to some differentiable function g(x)
at x= a. ;

The point-slope formula is the most expedient way to determine the equation of
the tangent line. It requires two components: a slope mand a point (x,, 7) on the
line.

y—y =m(x—x,)
Begin by substituting the x-value a into g(x) to get the corresponding y-value:
g(a). The point of tangency, (a, g(a)), is located on both the curve and the tan-
Substitute gent line. Substitute that point and g’(a), the derivative of g(x) when x= a, into
these values the point-slope formula. The result will be the equation of the tangent line to g(x)
into the formula: at the point g(a).
K = ay = ala),
and m= g(a). y— g(a)=g'(a)(x—a)
It is customary to solve for y when writing the equation of a tangent line, although
it is not required.

y= g'(a)(x—a)+ g(a)

206 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation
SURE

14.4 Using themethéd outlined in Problem 14.3 (and the values generated by
Problems 14.1 and 14.2), write the equation of the line tangent to
J(x) =-2x° + 5x-9 at x=-1.

Substitute the point of tangency (x,,y,) = (-1,-16) and the slope of the tangent line
m= 9 into the point-slope formula.

y~ = m(x—x)
y—(-16) = 9(x—(—1))
y+16=9(x+1)
Solve the equation for y.
y+16=9x+9
y.= 9x —'7

5
14.5 Determine the equation of the tangent line to f(x) = 3 cos 2xat x= ae

You

that CoS Sar =

5 3
Evaluate f ak Prom mMemovy—it
’s a
Dasic unit Civcle
5a 57 angle. All
“if= % 3cos(2 =) of the angles you need
to mewmovize ave in
é 3cos|=) Appendix B.

aS
2
Differentiate f(x) using the chain rule. Don't
forget to multiply
by the Aevivative of
fgss-(=sn2x)2
2x, the imner function,
f' (x) =—6sin
2x That's where this 2
comes from,
Evaluate f’ (=),

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

207
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation |

Substitute (x, ») s (=.5] and m=3¥3 into the point-slope formula.

The
3 57
fractions —-—=3 3 ee

have the same y~'9 (> =)

Aenominatoy, So 1523
yo 5= vie
you shoula combine 6
them, 3
y= Bye +2 SNS

3—52~v3
PEPE

The Note: Problems 14.6 -14.7 refer to a differentiable function g(x) defined for all real numbers,
function is and include the selected function values in the table below.
Aetined for ALL
REAL NUMBERS, not 14.6 Estimate g’(4).
Just 3, oid, 4, Ss; Oona
S.IS. These ave just
five x-Values ana
what You get when eG)[9[116[125]3]-04)
you plug each one
into 9(x). Not much information is given about g(x), so you must make the best use of
the limited values given. Remember that the derivative represents the slope
of the tangent line at a specific x-value. The best geometric approximation of
the tangent ine a= stan line connecting the points (3.7, 11.6) and
(4,12.3), because x = 3.7 is closer to x = 4 than any other known x-value. Calculate
If you the slope of that secant line by dividing the difference of the y-values by the
cant fund the difference of the x-values.
tangent slope, e
make Aue with a g'(4)= =
nearby secant a ;
slope. ee
0.3
= 23

Note: Problems 14.6 -14.7 refer to tables of values provided in Problem 14.6.

14.7. Estimate g’(5).

Use the same technique demonstrated in Problem 14.6. The closest x-value to
x= 5 is x= 5.15, so the best approximation of g’(5) is the slope of the secant line
passing through (5,3) and (5.15, -0.4).
(5 ae -0.4-3
go) = 5
e$4
~~ 0.15
~—296

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

20 8
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

Note: Problems 14.8 and 14.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 14-1.

14.8 Estimate f'(—6) and write the equation of the tangent line to f(x) at x=-6.

Figure 14-1
The graph of an everywhere differentiable
function f(x).

There is no single correct answer to this problem, as very little information is

known about /(x). You could use the method of Problems 14.6 and 14.7—estimate
f(-5) = 4.8 and then calculate a slope based on the points (—6,-5) and
You
—5,-4.8).
coula
Students savvy with graphing calculators could use even more complex means to EATS ny
approximate the derivative. However, any method is entirely based on estimation statistical
and the accuracy of one valid technique is difficult to prove better than another. plot, genevate a
The most straightforward way to approximate the derivative is to sketch the vegvession Curve, AnA
tangent line at x = —6 (as demonstrated in Figure 14-2) and calculate its slope. then Aiffevrentiate
that curve at x = -6.
That's a lot of work
to Ao for an answer
that’s still just
an estimate,
though.

Figure 14-2
The graph off(x) and a best
guess at its tangent line at the
point (—6,—5).

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209
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

It appears that the tangent line drawn in Figure 14-2 passes through (2,—4), so
This calculate the slope of the line using that coordinate and the point of tangency
(-6,-5).
is the same —5 —(-4)
fovmula from Sterne.
Problems |4.6 ana mes
|4.7: MW = o=e
-- = : 8

Note: Problems 14.8 and 14.9 refer to the graph off(x) in Figure 14-1.

14.9 Estimate f'(5) and write the equation of the tangent line to f(x) at x=5.

Draw a tangent line to f(x) at x= 5, as illustrated by Figure 14-3.

Figure 14-3
The graph off(x) and a best
guess at its tangent line at the
point (5,-1).

The tangent line drawn appears to pass through (3,2); use that point and the
point of tangency (5,-1) to calculate the approximate derivative.

m
_-1-2

\ or 14.10 The equation of the tangent line to f(x) = ax? + bx— 3 at (—4,-31) is = 9x5.
@@ Determine the values of a and 0.

You are given f(—4) =—31, so substitute those values into the function.
f(—4) =a(—4) +b(—4)-3
—31=16a—4b-3
—28=16a—4b

210 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

Ke Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation
oa |

Differentiate f(x). Because ais a real number, you should treat it like any other
coefficient—take the derivative of x* and multiply it by a. The
line DS
f' (x) = 2ax+ ae T, is im slope-intercept
Note that the tangent line y = 9x—- 5 has slope 9, 8o f'(—4) = 9. form VY=wmx+ ),
wheve M=F and
f' (—4) = 2a(—4) +6
9=-8atb
D&S. Theislope is
its <coef-ficient
You now have two equations, —28 = 16a- 4b and 9 = —8a+ b, each containing two
unknowns (aand 6). Solve the system of equations to determine the solution.
One approach is to solve the second equation for b (b= 9 + 8a) and substitute it
into the other equation.

—28 =16a—4b
If you need to
—28 =16a—4(9+ 8a) veview solving systems
—28 = 16a — 36 — 32a of equations look at
8 =—16a Problems |.29-|39.
1
cies
2
Substitute @into either equation of the system to determine the corresponding
value of b.
9=-8at+b

9=-8 (-;)+b
a
9=4+5
5=b

Therefore, the equation of f(x) with the correct values of aand bis
f(x)=-5% +5x-—3.

The Extreme Value Theorem

Every function has its highs and lows
In
14.11 If j(%) is a continuous on the interval [a,b], what is guaranteed by the extreme
other words:
value theorem?
theve’s one
function value
The extreme value theorem guarantees that /(x) possesses both an absolute that’s higher aAnA

maximum and an absolute minimum on [a,b]. The absolute extrema are not one function value
guaranteed to be unique, however. In other words, f(x) may reach its absolute that’s lower than
maximum or minimum value more than once on the interval, but it will not
the other function
surpass either. / values on the
interval,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

211
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

14.12 At what x-values can the absolute extrema guaranteed by the extreme value
theorem occur, given a function /(x) continuous on [a,b]?
Remember,
if cis a critical
number of £'(x), then + Absolute extrema occur either at an endpoint or a relative extreme point on the
either 20) = 0 ov LO) interval.
Aces not exist.

14.13 Identify the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f(x), the function
graphed in Figure 14-4.

Figure 14-4 :
The graph off(x), which is continuous
on the interval [-4,6].

The highest y-value reached by f(x), y= 5, occurs at x= 6, the right endpoint of the
interval; the lowest y-value reached by f(x), y = —3, occurs at the critical number
x=-2.

14.14 Identify the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of f(x) = 3x°- 12x+5
on the interval [1,4].

According to Problem 14.12, the absolute extrema occur at endpoints of the

interval or relative extreme points of f(x) (which must be located at critical
numbers of f'(x)). Set f’(x) = 0 and solve for x to identify critical numbers of f’(x).

f' (x) =6x—-12

0=6x-12
12=6x
2=x

The absolute extrema of f(x) could occur at x= 1 (an endpoint), x= 2 (a critical

number of f'(x)) or x= 4 (an endpoint). Substitute each of those x-values into f(x)
and determine which generates the maximum and which generates the minimum
function value.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

21 2
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation
ee eee eees eee

f(Q) =3(1)* -12(1) +5 f (2)=3(2)° —12(2)+5 | f(4)=3(4)' -12(4) +5

=3-19+5 = 3(16)—48+5
=5

The absolute maximum of f(x) on the interval [1,4] is 5; it occurs at the right
endpoint, x= 4. The absolute minimum value of f(x) on the interval [1,4] is —7; it
occurs at x= 2.

14.15 Identify the absolute maximum and the absolute minimum of

g(x) = -3x° + 4x? - 1 on the interval [0,1].

Calculate the critical numbers of g’(x).

Make suve
—9x" + 8x = g'(x) you plug them
into g(x) NOT 9/(x).
x(—9x+8)=0
Youve looking for the
-—9x+8=0
biggest and smallest
x=) or x==
9
FUNCTION values (not
DERIVATIVE values),
Evaluate g(x) at those critical numbers and at the endpoints of the interval. even though the
Notice that x= 0 is both an endpoint andacritical point, so you need to calculate critical number
a total of three function values.
comes from £(x).

-s(22
g(0)=—3(0)' +4(0)?-1 ie©256
512 g(l)=-3(0)"+4(1)°-1
0+0-1
=0+0- == a +——-]
=o 512 768 243 ma
243° 243-243
_ 13
_ 243
13 8
The absolute maximum of f(x) on [0,1] is 9043 ;it occurs at x= 9 . The absolute
minimum of f(x) is—1, occurring at x= 0, the left-hand endpoint of the interval.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

213
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

Newton’s Method
Approximate the zevoes of a function

14.16 Identify the formula used in Newton’s method and explain what is meant by an
“iterative” calculation. .

Some An iterative calculation is used to produce a sequence of values, one at a time, so

textbooks that each successive value is based on one or more of the values that precede it. It
call this the
requires an initial value (often called a “seed value”), which'is substituted into a
Newton-Raphson
formula to generate a new value, which is then substituted back into the formula,
method.
and the process repeats. Newton’s method approximates the roots of functions.
Based on some initial seed value x,, it generates x, (a better approximation of the
root) based on the formula below.

You then substitute x, into the formula to generate x,, substitute x, to generate x,,
and repeat the process until the desired degree of accuracy is achieved,

The
Note: Problems 14.17-14.19 refer to the function f(x) = x° — 3.
closer the
seed value is 14.17 Perform one iteration of Newton’s method to estimate a root of f(x) using a seed
to the actual Valle Ol x= 4,
voot, the fewer
the iterations
vequivea to veach Substitute x, = x, = 4 into the formula for Newton’s method to determine x,,, = x.
an accuvate Note that /(4) = 4? - 3 = 13 and f'(4) = 2(4) =8.
answey. bay ‘diy f(x)
Xo =X ’
f'(™)
13
mc

_ 32-13
8
_19
as
1
Therefore, x, =—— is closer to the positive root of f(x) = x*- 3 than the original
seed value x, = 4.

Note: Problems 14.17-14.19 refer to the function f(x) = — 3.

14.18 Apply Newton’s method using x, from Problem 14.17 to generate x,..How
accurately does x, estimate the root of f(x) = x*- 3? Use a calculator to represent.
the function and derivative values as decimals.

214 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

, 19
Substitute n= 2, n+ 1=3,and x, = = = 2.375 into the Newton’s method formula.

f (2.375)
x, = 2.375 —
f' (2.375)
(2.375)° —3
= 2.370
2(2.375)
2.640625
a eh fh eee
7 4.75
= 1.81907894737 Youve
In order to determine the accuracy of x,, subtract it the actual root, 3.
less than one-
tenth away from
v3 = 1.81907894737| = (08703 the actual root
Therefore, x,has an accuracy of 0.08703. after onlytwo
itevations,

Note: Problems 14.17-14.19 refer to the function f(x) = x’ — 3.

14.19 Calculate two iterations of Newton’s method to estimate the root of f(x), this
time using a seed value of x, = 2. Determine the accuracy of x,.

Substitute x, = 2 into Newton’s method.

Now calculate x, given x, = 1.75.

7 2 f'(x)

=1.75—- f(1.75)
Mere
f'(.75) Aescribes
2
__0.0625
ay
ANCE awo,
om the actu
al
AM"Swev, an
= 1.98214285714 d Aistance
ave Measur
edin
Positive "Um ;
Determine the accuracy of x, by subtracting it from the actual root, V3. bers—thats
why You y eed aA
[v3 —1.98214285714| = 0.25009 Val es, bsol ute

Typically, seed values closer to the actual roots produce more accurate
approximations more quickly, but that is not always true. According to Problem
14.18, the seed value x, = 4 more accurately predicts the root than the seed value
x, = 3 from this problem, if two iterations of Newton’s method are performed for
both.

ei
The ngous Book of Calculus Problems
Humon 215
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

14.20 How do you apply Newton’s method to a function with multiple roots? ae

If a function contains more than one root, approximate each separately, being
careful to choose a seed value that is as close as possible to the root you are
tracking each time. Note that f(x) = x? - 3, the function in Problems 14.17-14.19,
has two roots: —/3 and a) . The seed values of x = 2 and x= 4 will, after multiple
iterations, tend toward the root x = V3. In order to approximate the negative
root, you will need to choose a negative seed value, such as x, = —2.

oF THUMB:
14.21 What are the two most common reasons Newton’s method fails to calculate a
Keep an eye on
root?
each iteration
ana make suve the
aifference between If the seed value x, is too far away from the root, Newton’s method may fail to
each x, ana the locate it; each iteration will produce values that are farther and farther apart
K,, & generates (rather than closer and closer together, like in Problems_14.17-14.19).
ave closer together
than x, and x,_,. IE Newton’s method cannot estimate non-real roots. If a function (such as
h(x) = x° + 3) does not intersect the x-axis, it has no real roots; Newton’s method
not, pick a better
cannot calculate imaginary roots.
seed value and
stavt ovev. *

Calculate x = 4/21 accurate to five decimal places.

If you cube both sides of the equation and set it equal to 0, you create a function
g(x) whose root is 3/91.
x= ( 21 i
Just x? = 21
because x°-21=0
the voots
of W(x) ave Because the root of g(x) = x° — 21 is the value you are seeking, apply Newton’s
imaginary, that method to determine a decimal approximation. You're not given a seed value, so
Aoesnt mean you must choose an appropriate value for x,. Because 9/8 =2 and 3/27 =3 uot
they've hava to fina: must be between 2 and 3. Furthermore, 3/21 will be closer to 3 than 2 (because 21
x +3=0 is closer to 27 than 8). As such, x, = 3 is an appropriate seed value.
x = -3
Vx? = V3 Lets)
ae tis : g'(3)
6
= 3 — —
27
=3-0.2
=2.7

EEE EEE eee

pe
he Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
216
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

Repeat the process until two consecutive iterations produce equal values for the
first 5 decimal places.
x, = 2.75905185...
x, = 2.75892418... The
x, = 2.75892417... actual
value of 72] is
Because x, and x, have the required number of matching decimal places (in fact, 2.758924|7639 so in
their first seven decimal places match), $/21 = 2.75892 according to Newton’s
only four itevations,
method.
Newtow's method
alveady had it
vight to & Aecimal
14.23 The function g(@) = sin 30 — 2 cos 20 has two roots on the interval [0,3], one
approximately @ = 0.5 radians and the other approximately 0 = 2.5 radians.
places!
Calculate both roots accurate to five decimal places.

You must apply Newton’s method twice, once with a seed value of 0, = 0.5, and Make
once with a seed value of 0, = 2.5. Differentiate g(@) using the chain rule. suve your
calculator is set in
g'(0) =cos(30)-3—2(—sin20)-2 vadians mode, Leave
= 3cos30
+ 4sin20 it in vadions unless a
problem specifically
Calculate a sufficient number of iterations of Newton’s method for each seed
mentions Aegvrees.
value (i.e., until the first five decimal places of consecutive iterations match).
0, =2.5
0, =0.5
0, = 2.63258343
0, = 0.523227335
0, = 2.61814022
0, = 0.523598676
6, = 2.61799389
0, = 0.523598775
0, = 2.61799387
The roots of g(@) = sin 36 - 2 cos 20 are approximately 0 = 0.52359 and
0 = 2.61799.

Note: Problems 14.24-14.25 refer to the function f (x) = wey 4 4,

14.24 The graph of f(x) intersects the x-axis only once, near x = 2. Calculate the root of
f(x) accurate to seven decimal places.
The
A ~ .

Differentiate f(x). gas ee

een=e cull ya aye )= ee
ve is itself time :
f'(x) a e eex a jaar ors
Fee yeti hk ohengee
eae secre
the Aevivative of
the Power,
vx
Apply Newton’s method, given f(x) = —e +4, f'(x)= ai , and x, = 2.
x, =2 /
x, = 1.92212473
x, = 1.92181206
x, = 1.92181205
Therefore, the root of f(x)=—e* +4 is approximately x = 1.9218120.
Devas aioe se.
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
217
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

Note: Problems 14.24-14.25 refer to the function f (x) = ye)

14.25 Repeat Problem 14.24 using a seed value of x, = 1 to demonstrate that a seed
value further away from the root requires additional iterations of Newton's ©
method to reach the same degree of accuracy.

Use f(x) and f'(x) from Problem 14.24, but set x, = 1.

x, =1
x, = 1.94303552
x, =1.92183480
x, =1.92181205
x, = 1.92181205
The An additional iteration, x,, is required to reach the same degree of accuracy as
function only Problem 14.24.
has complex voots 2
because it Aoesw'p
14.26 Demonstrate that Newton’s method fails to calculate the complex roots of
y = xt -— 2x7 + 2 by calculating the first six iterations of the seed value x, = —2.

Plug f(x) = x*- 2x? + 2, f(x) =4x° - 4x, and x, = —2 into the Newton’s method
formula. Calculate x, through x,, as they represent the first six iterations.

x, ==2
x, =—1.583
x, =—1.2406166
x, =—0.75820114
x, =—1.6739696
X_ = —1.3219531
x, = —0.92760393
That
The terms of the sequence {xx,, Nap Masa gthe, hee x, } increase and decrease
means you but never approach any real number limit. Furthermore, the iterations do not
get one of these: estimate any of the function’s roots more and more accurately, because the
0 o
O'e difference of consecutive iterations is not decreasing.
Ores 0
, 0°00,0 /\ 7 ov oF,

In UHpital’s vule problems,

youll usually see either
0 o
——= OV
0 os L’Hopital’s Rule
Find limits that used to be impossible

.
f(x)
mt
14.27 If tim
g(x)’ g(x) g(x)
) 5 mn. i) , or lim*~—~ (where cis a real number)

nate, how do you apply L-Hé6pital’s rule to calculate the limit?

is indetermi-

io) eee

218 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation
ES eerEamets tl telat Ter abel lata

According to LH6pital’s rule, if a rational function has an indeterminate limit,

you can differentiate the numerator and denominator of the function without Dowt
use the
altering the value of the limit. For example, if lim f(x) is indeterminate, then
Arla) toes GX) xem g(x quotient vule!
lim —— = lim . f Just take the
sasha) ress py (x) Aaevivative of the
numerator then
x +8 the Aevivative of
14.28 According to Problem 10.18, lim — = 12. Use L’H6pital’s rule to verify the the Aenominatov—
solution. Cate simple as that.

0
Substituting x = —2 into the rational function produces the indeterminate result 0:

lim
_ «+8 ete
(-2)+8 -8+8 0
=—
ee aa) ee wie ok2h
Apply L'Hopital’s rule by differentiating the numerator and the denominator:
d d
ee = 8) = 3x" and cand +2)=1, Replace each expression with its derivative.
x e
.
3
x« +8 . x
2
. Plus
lim = lim — = lim 3x’
x>-2 x +2 x>-2 | x>=2 you AiAw'
have to have the
Substituting x =—2 no longer results in an indeterminate value.
“sum of pevfect
lim 3x" = 3(-2)' =3(4)=12 cubes” factoving
formula memovizea
L’Hopital’s rule generates the same limit as Problem 10.18. like you Aid in
Problem 10.18.
4 bee
14.29 According to Problem 10.13, ie =—1. Use L'Hopital’s rule to verify the
solution.

Substituting x = 0 into the rational expression produces an indeterminate result.

So 4(0)’-(0) _0
Buk (OR bn
Apply L'Hopital’s rule.

_ 4x? — x? _ 20x* — 2x
bn
x>0 x x>0 2x

Unfortunately, substituting x = 0 into the new limit expression also produces an

indeterminate answer.

_ 20(0)' = 2(0)
_0
e BO 0
There is no restriction on the number of times you may apply L’Hopital’s rule, as
long as the limit produces an indeterminate value each time.

_ 20x*-2x . 80x>-2 80(0)'-2 =

2— = -
lin ——_- = lim ————. = —T__
9 9
x>0 2x x>0 0)

This solution matches Problem 10.13.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

219
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

7 a 19 : queens 5 a . < : S|

14, 30 According to Problem 10.27, lim = 1h) Use LHopital’s rule to ve ify :

: the solution. re oe + 6 : ee 8 . : ye

Substituting x = 19 into the rational expression produces an indeterminate result.

li
x—T19 19-19%" >
a
10 eed
reer
Just like Whee. S2W19+6 SERS emO
— meas “the Apply LHopital’s rule by differentiating the numerator and denominator
“A
veciprocal of a,’ separately.

|
seme li _———-= = ee = lim (—2vx + 6)
| x719 5H —/yv +6 x19 ee+6) 1 x19

2Vx+6 So bh Go i 2Vx+6
Substitute x= 19 into the new limit expression.
meous “the veciprocal
| = —2/19+6 =—2,/25 =—2(5)=—10
of — ———_ which
2Vx+6 The solution matches Problem 10.27. 2
equals 2x+ ¢.
_ sin76 fo
14.31 According to Problem10,29, limos — = 7, Use LHo6pital’s rule to verify the
solution.

Substituting @ = 0 into the rational expression produces an indeterminate result.

sin7@ sin(7:0) sinO 0
im—— = ———_—_ = —_=—
o>0 @ 0 0 0
Apply LHopital’s Rule; use the chain rule to differentiate sin 70.

According ee = pee = lim7cos70

6-0) |9 6>0 1 6>0
to the unit
Substitute 0 = 0 into the limit expression.
civcle im Appendix B,
cos 0= cos 21 = | anda =7cos(7:0) =7cos0 =7(1)=7
Sin 0 = sin 20 = 0.
This matches the solution to Problem 10.29.

14. 32 According to Problem 9.25, lim . ->. Use L’Hopital’s rule to verify
the solution.

Substituting x = % produces an indeterminate result.

5 (co)? —9:-0+] 00
i
x00 5 — 300 — 6(00) —0o

Apply L-Hopital’s rule.

5x*-9x+1 . 10x-9
im ————_-;= lim ————
me BORE Oth ese
=OEIOe

229 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation
SS

Substituting x= 9 still produces the indeterminate result —— , so apply

. . . . . @

L’H6pital’s rule again. i

. 10x-9 eg 5
lim ————— = lim ——
nea B—12% xem —19 6
This method is a much more mathematically satisfying technique than the process
used to reach the same result in Problem 9.25, which simply presented the limit
as a quotient of the leading coefficients of the numerator and denominator of the
rational function.

la) Pete ie et
eee ew
Trick
Substituting x =—2 does not produce an indeterminate result, so you cannot apply question!
L’H6pital’s rule. You can only
as 3x°+8x+4 use L’Hopital’s
ne ee 12-1644
3(-2)'+8(-2)+4 0
ee rule if the limit is
ged | 2x = i) —4 —4
indeterminate, so it
3x 48x44 you got -4, you fel)
Therefore, lim
x>—2 Site for the trick.

14.34 Evaluate lim [(x +5x? —3x—-9)(e )]‘

Substituting x= © into the expression produces an indeterminate result. Because

etoa Jigantic
(co® + 5a0? — 300—9)(e**) = (5) =0-0) Power is, as yo
u
woula €xpect, re
Rewrite the expression as a quotient so you can apply L'Hopital’s rule. ally
Jigautic, | Ai
videa by
x? + 5x? —3x—9 that giant numb
lim [(x? + 5x? —3x—- 9)(e"" )]= lim er
x? A ax
iS basically O,
(See
You'll have to apply L_Hopital’s rule three times before the limit finally ceases to Problem 10,29 fo
r
be indeterminate. Move explanatio
n.)
— 0 +5x7—-3x-9 3x? +10x-3
i
x>o A are a-‘e

f 6x +10
= lim

Substitute x = © into the expression.

lim 5 ax = 3 aro at
BRO a *¢é

Any fixed value divided by a number that increases without bound has a limit of 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
221
 Chapter Fourteen — Basic Applications of Differentiation

O
y 14.35 Evaluate lim
x00
x'”*.

Substituting x= © produces an indeterminate result.

0
lim x!/* =00!/"
=0

If expressions in terms of x are raised to a powers in terms of x, it is often useful to

employ natural logarithms to rewrite the exponential expression. Begin by setting
the expression whose limit you are evaluating equal to y.
lim
x20
x’/* = lim
x—>00
y when y= x'”*

For the moment, manipulate only the y equation. Begin by taking the natural
logarithm of both sides.
See Iny=Inx’*
Problem
$.23 for move According to a property of logarithms that states log a‘ = x log a, you can extricate
Aetaiils. the exponent from the logarithm and write it as the coefficient of the logarithmic
expression.
1 Inx
In y= —-Inx = —
ie x
noo 0
Notice that lim In y= —— = —, so you should apply L H6pital’s rule.
x00 co co

1
See
: yell
lim In y = lim —— = lim
x20 x20
Sa s
x>00
Le ee1
xO y
Problem $34
For a Aefiuition Therefore, lim In y = 0. Exponentiate both sides of this equation using the natural
of ©xPponentiating”
ng exponential
Pp function.
Ana An example lim
Iny = 0
lime™ =e°
ANA e*,
lim y= 1
x00

Recall that y= x”.

Tuya,
x00
eee

eee
po
9272 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter 1|5
ADVANCED APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION
Tricky but interesting uses fov Aevivatives

In Chapter 14, you were presented with a variety of basic differentiation

applications, each of which represented either an extension of a previously
known concept (such as locating absolute versus relative maxima and
minima) or a streamlined approach to solving problems (such as Newton’s
method to find real roots and LH6pital’s rule to calculate indeterminate
limits). In this chapter, you will explore uses of the derivative that extend
beyond prior knowledge. Interpreting the derivative not only as the slope of
a tangent line, but as an instantaneous rate of change, presents unique uses
and applications concerning not only functions and graphs, but the actual
mathematical modeling of physical phenomena.

In this chapter, youll look at the

Aevivative as avate of change
most basic vate of chawge is . The
the slope of a line, which iS Con
th € entive
ve lin stant over
line—i
e—it’s
t’ always sloping at the same ang
et vates of change, because
le. However, curves have
their tangent lines ave Aiffevent
different values of x. You'll sta £
rt with the mean value theove
limited “veal wovla” uses but m re e
is an important mathematical
that, howevey, you'll use Punctions reac le 0 A
and Aevivatives to Aescvibe on
motion (like the paths of projectil t a
es that ave thrown or fivea) Oi
vates (such as how quickly the wat
er level of a pool is Aeon tf yo
now how fast the water is leaking oud), and optimi
zation ieee i
the biggest ov smallest value of
a function, like the lowest Possib
of man ufacturing a proAuct given specif le ne
ic vestvictions), Basically, this
chapter argues that Aevivatives
ave useful not only in the Ace
of math, but can shea light on the vea lA
l wovla, too,
Zink
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

The Mean Value and Rolle’s Theorems

Avevage slopes = instant slopes

15.1 If (x) is continuous a dffereuteble on the igen! [a,b] Dad. acc< ie

calculate the average rate of change of f(x) over [a,b] and the instantaneous rate
of change of f(x) at x= 6,

From The average rate of change of a function is the slope of the secant line connecting
way back in the function values at the endpoints of the interval. In this problem, the
Problem |.5. endpoints of the function on [a,b] are (a,f(a)) and (b,f(b))., Use the formula to
calculate the slope of a line given two points.
Al _ f(b) f(a)
Xo =X, b-a
The instantaneous rate of change at x= cis the slope of the tangent line to f(x) at
w=: f (6).

15.2 Explain the geometric implications of the mean value theorem. —

So the
Given a function f(x) that is continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b), the
average
(mean) vate of mean value theorem states that there is at least one value x= c between aand b
b ams
change equals the such that f’(c)= GO niifa)
ike) . According to Problem 15.1, that means there is at
wstantaneous vate —a
least one x-value on the interval at which the tangent line is parallel to the secant
of change theve.
line that connects the endpoints of the interval.

15.3 How many times docs the function g(x) graphed iin Figure 15-1 satisfy the:mean :
~ value theorem? -

Figure 11
A function g(x) thatiscontinuous and
[5 5].
differentiable on

Draw the secant line connecting the function values g(—5) and g(5), as illustrated
by the dotted line in Figure 15-2. There are two values of x on the interval at
which the tangent line to g(x) is parallel to the secant line.

224 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Figure 15-2 The tangent lines to g(x) at points A and B are parallel to the
secant line joining (—5,g(—5)) and (5,g(5)).

15.4 How many times does the function h(x) graphed in Figure 15-3 satisfy the mean
value theorem on the interval [—6,6]?

Figure 15-3
A function h(x) that is continuous and
differentiable on [—6,6].

As illustrated by Figure 15-4, there are 4 values of x on the interval [-6,6] at

which the tangent line to the function is parallel to the secant line connecting the
function values h(—6) and h(6).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

225
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Figure 15-4 At approximately x = —4.6, -2.75, 1.5, and 4.5, the tangent
lines to h(x) are parallel to the dotted secant line connecting
(—6,h(6)) and (6,h(6)).

15.5 At what value(s) of x does f(x) = x’ — 2x? - 4x + | satisfy the mean value theorem
on the interval [0,1]?

According to the mean value theorem, there exists some value c between x= 0 and
x= 1 such that f’(c) equals the average rate of change of f(x) over the interval [0,1].

en fos
Qe var)
The LAOaI a aera
guavauteea Evaluate f(1) and /(0).
value cant occuv at ~4=] =—5
one of the endpoints Le
ui = —
eee = — =-—5

of the interval!
Note that f'(x) = 3x°- 4x- 4.

f'()=-5
3c? —4c-4=-5

Solve for c by setting the equation equal to 0 and factoring.

3c? —4c+1=0
@-NG=h=0
1
c=-—,]
3
Lg oe
Therefore, the mean value theorem is satisfied at x =—
1
but not at x= 1, because
the c-value must belong to the open interval (0,1).

226 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

15.6 At what value(s) of x does the continuous and differentiable function

X ue
&(x) = ax’ + bx + csatisfy the mean value theorem on the interval [0,b]?
Assume that a, b, and care nonzero real numbers.
G@

Use the method outlined in Problem 15.5—differentiate g(x) and set g'(x) equal
to the slope of the secant line connecting (0,g(0)) to (0,g(6)).

rive 28) (0)

Perce
(ab* +b° +c)—(a-0® +b-0+c)
2ax +b =
2 2
. Sart pa thtere

beh
ee eee) +

B
2ax+b=ab+b

Solve for x.
Qax = ab+ b<b This
2ax
= ab

oa24
is a Lovmula
Prom algebra:
aistance travelea
equals the vate
x=— traveled multiplied by
2
the time travelea
at that speed.
15.7 A policeman clocks a commuter’s speed at 50 mph as he enters a tunnel whose
length is exactly 0.75 miles. A second officer measures the commuter’s speed
at 45 mph as he exits the tunnel 43 seconds later and tickets the driver for
exceeding the posted speed limit of 50 mph. Use the mean value theorem to
justify the speeding charge levied by the officer, even though the driver was
neither exceeding the posted speed limit while entering nor while exiting the
tunnel. i.
Because
Aistance is
Determine the average speed of the driver. measured in MILES
d=r't ana the speeds ave
MEeasuved in miles
The distance traveled is the length of the tunnel (d= 0.75 miles), and it took the | pev HOUR,
the time
driver 43 seconds to travel that distance. Convert t = 43 seconds into a consistent heeds to be mMeasu
vea
unit of measurement and substitute dand ¢tinto the distance formula. tn HOURS, not Second
s,
Theve ave 60 Second
0.75=| = s
3600 iM aA minute and 60
minutes in an houy, so
Solve the equation for 7, the driver’s average rate of speed, in miles per hour.
. / .

evevy secona
aS is wtae
J(o.75)=r C0-c0 3cq9
43
of an hou,
62.791=r

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

227
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

If the driver’s average rate of change is 62.791 mph, then (according to the mean
His value theorem) the driver’s actual (instantaneous) speed was 62.791 mph at least
top speed in once inside the tunnel, which violates the posted speed limit.
the tunnel was
probably much
faster than 62.7 15.8 Describe the difference between the mean value theorem and Rolle’s theorem. :
mph. You know he was
Aviving slower than
that at the beginning Both theorems guarantee the existence of a value con a function f(x) that’s
and end of the tunnel,
continuous on [a,b] and differentiable on (a,b) such that a< c< b. Furthermore,
so he must have also
Aviven pretty fast both guarantee that f'(c = fOr) However, Rolle’s theorem has one
inside theve to a
additional requirement: f(a) = f(b). When x= aand x= b have equivalent function
get such a high
average. values, the slope of the secant line connecting (a, f(a)) and (d, f(d)) is ; = 0,
ett
so f’(c) must equal 0 somewhere on (a,)).

Ana
if £9) = O, 15.9 Find the smallest positive value of } such that you can apply Rolle’s theorem to.
then cis a Critical g(x) = xsin xon the interval [0,5]? _

number of Px) and

thevefove L6<) wyay
In order to apply Rolle’s theorem to g(x), you must determine the value of x= 5
have a velative max such that g(0) = g(b). Because g(0) = (0)(sin 0) = 0, set g(b) = 0 and solve.
ov a velative min
at x =o,
g(b)=0
bsinb=0

The expression on the left side of the equation is a product, so set each factor
equal to 0 and solve.
b=0 or sinb=0
0 is not
b=ka, k is an integer
A positive ova
negative number.
You are asked to identify the smallest positive value of b, which corresponds to the
It’s neutral like smallest positive value of k, k= 1. Therefore, b=1-a =z.
Switzevlana—
only voundey.
15.10 Verify that f(x) = 40x! + 22x° — 91x? — 58x+ 15 has at least one horizontal tangent
line on the interval -oS ‘|:

These
coefficients
ave vidiculous, The endpoints of the given interval are also roots of f(x), as f(-5)=f(=)=0.
but thats because
they don't i ;
5) 3125 1875 (2275 145 1 8
veut halls j(-3)- 5-8 Be Bs jl See eee ye
. ying to graph 4 32 32 16 2 De R12oo 12S ee Oe
s is by hand ov to _ 3125- — 2275 (2)
1375
+145(16) + 15(32) _ 8+22—91(5)—58(25) +15(125)
cianything besides 5 32 aq oh a el
Rolle’s theorem, 0 0
32 125

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

22 8
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

5 1
Because (-3) e (5)= 0, then f’(c) = 0 for some value c between sm5 and 5
1

according to Rolle’s theorem.

Rectilinear Motion
Position, velocity, and acceleration functions

Note: Problems 15.11-15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of 5
feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec. For the sake of simplicity, discount
the effect of wind resistance on the baseball.

15.11 Construct a function that models the height of the baseball, in feet, at tseconds..
If
meters ave
The path ofa projectile ¢seconds after its launch is modeled by the position
used instead of
: a
equation s(t) = nat + vu) *t+h, where ais: acceleration
: : 2
due to gravity, v, is the feet, then
initial velocity, and h, is the initial height. Note that a is a constant value, 32 ft/ a= 1.8 m/sec’.
sec’, and the rest of the values are explicitly defined by the problem: v, = 100 and
h, = 5. i
AU) pores +u,°t+h,
2
(=F +100-145
s(t) =—160? +100¢+5

Note: Problems 15.11-15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of
5 feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec.

15.12 How high is the baseball exactly one second after it is thrown?

That's
The moment the baseball is thrown is considered t= 0 seconds. Given s(é) as why the initial
defined in Problem 15.11, s(1) is the height of the baseball one second after it is height (h,) ana
thrown. initial Velocity (v,)
ave
usually written with
s(1)=—16(1)’ +100(1)+5
the little 0's next
=—16+105 to
them—they’ve the
= 89 feet above the ground height and veloci
when the ball is
thrown, when + = 0,

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
229
 | Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Note: Problems 15.11—-15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of 5
_ feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec.

15.13 What is the velocity of the baseball at ¢= 1?

The velocity is the rate at which the position of the projectile changes. Thus, the
derivative of s(#), s'(t) = -32t+ 100 represents the baseball’s velocity t seconds after
it is thrown. Evaluate s’(1) to determine the velocity of the baseball at ¢= 1.

s'(t) =-32(1) + 100 = 68 ft/sec

Note: Problems 15.11-15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of 5 —
feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec.

15.14 What is the acceleration of the baseball at 2 Ip

So,
a(\) = -32. The acceleration of an object is the rate at which its velocity changes. Therefore,
Actually, att) = -32 the derivative of the velocity function is the acceleration function: a(t) = v'(t)
no matter what + (and the second derivative of the position function: a(t) = s"(t)). Notice that
you plug in. a(t) = —32 ft/sec*; the only acceleration of the baseball is the acceleration due to
gravity.

Note: Problems 15.11-15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of 5
_ feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec.

15.15 When will the baseball hit the ground? (Provide an answer in seconds that is
accurate to four decimal places.)
It
Aoesn't make
Sense for the ball The baseball hits the ground when its height, s(t), equals 0. Set s(t) = 0 and solve
to using the quadratic formula.
hit the JYOUNA
.049C
Seconds befove —162? +100¢+5=0
you
thvow it, IL time
stavts ne —100
+ {10000 — 4(—16)(5)
Art =O in this
Problem 2(-16)
ANSWers invelyin
negative time shoula Use a calculator to evaluate the expression: t ~ —0.049606 or 6.299606. Discard
\Qnovead,
be ___> the negative answer and round to the correct number of decimal places. The
baseball hits the ground approximately 6.2996 seconds after it is thrown.

Note: Problems 15.11-15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of 5
feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec.

15.16 When does the baseball reach its maximum height?

The maximum height of the baseball is also the relative maximum of the function
s(t). To determine the location of the relative maximum, find the critical number
of s(t).

——

0 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

23
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation
—

s(t) =-32t +100

0 = —32¢+100 Because
—100 = —32¢ s"(t) = -32, the
is 100 “ 25 Secon derivative
40° «8 is negative no waiter
what ¢is. Accovaing
ss
Note that the critical number
25
¢ = 3. produces a relative maximum
to Problem 13.29, that
according to
makes the critical
the second derivative test. Therefore, the baseball reaches its maximum height
25
number a velative
t = — = 3.125 seconds after it is thrown. Maximum,

Note: Problems 15.11—15.17 refer to the path of a baseball thrown from an initial height of 5
feet above the ground with an initial velocity of 100 ft/sec.

15.17 Assuming the baseball is thrown straight up, what is the maximum height it will
reach?

According to Problem 15.16, the baseball reaches its maximum height at t= 3.125
seconds. To determine the height of the ball at that moment, evaluate s(3.125).
$(3.125) = -16(3.125)? + 100(3.125) + 5 = 161.25 feet above ground

Use
Note: Problems 15.18—15.22 refer to the path of a particle traveling right and left along the chain
the x-axis. The position of the particle (in inches) after t seconds is given by the equation vule to fund
s(t) = cos (In (t + 0.5)). Use a graphing calculator to solve equations and evaluate the Aevivative.
derivatives as necessary in these problems. Assume that all angles are measured in radians. _ Differentiate

15.18 Construct the velocity function, v(é), of the particle and use it to determine the
Cosine to get -sine,
leaving the inner
particle’s speed at t= 3 seconds. Provide an answer accurate to three decimal Function In (+ + 0.5)
places.
alone, multiply by
the Aevivative of
The velocity function, v(t), of the particle is the derivative of its position function, In (+ .S), which is
s(t). lAied.S)
& ana then
; 1 ___ sin(In(¢+0.5)) multiply by the
S Dadar eninthr0d) Se pak ees Aevivative of

(t + 5), which
Evaluate v(3) to determine the velocity at t= 3. is just |.
in(In3.5
+f (Bye — ane’) ~ —0.271386
Speed is
Therefore, the particle is traveling at a speed of approximately 0.271 inches/
the absolute val-
second. The negative sign is omitted when measuring speed; it merely indicates
ue of velocity—it's
that the particle is traveling in a negative direction (in this casé to the left).
always positive.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 231
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Note: Problems 15.18-15.22 refer to the path of a particle traveling right and left along the
x-axis whose position, in inches, at t seconds is given by the equation s(t) = cos (In (t + 0.5)).

15.19 Calculate the particle’s acceleration at t= 6. Provide an answer accurate to four

decimal places.

The acceleration function of the particle is the derivative of the velocity function
generated in Problem 15.18. Use the quotient rule to differentiate v(t), and notice
that the chain rule is required to differentiate the numerator.

The _ d{_ sin(In(¢+0.5))

Pavticle’s
acceleration is
a= 4- t+0.5 |
Measured in in (t+0.5}{cos(in( +0.5)):(-aa| —sin(In(t+0.5))
ches
Pev second Pe
v second
Ov in/sec?, Just
Sacre a (t+0.5)°
the Aenominato
y of
the units you us Evaluate t= 6.
ed
for velocity, 1 ;
(6.5) cos(i 6.5): (=) — sin(In6.5)
a(6)=— = 0.0296218
(6.5)°
Therefore, the particle is accelerating at a rate of 0.0296 in/sec? when t= 6.

Note: Problems 15.18-15.22 refer to the path of a particle traveling right and left along the
x-axis whose position, in inches, at t seconds is given by the equation s(t) = cos (In (t + 0.5)).

15.20 How many times does the particle change direction (assuming ¢> 0)?

When s())
is tncveasing, The particle changes direction whenever its velocity changes from positive to
v(t) is positive and he ct
negative or vice versa. Notice that — is a critical number of v(t) because
the particle is moving
sin(In(¢+0.5))
to the vight, when s(t) ns equals 0 at that ¢-value.
is Aecveasing, v(t) is
negative and the : d 1
particle is heading The graph of v(t) is above the x-axis, and therefore positive, when t < 9 ; v(t)
left. 3 1
then crosses the x-axis only once, at t= 9 , so v'(t) <0 when t> 9 . Therefore, the

particle changes direction once, at t= -

2 .

Note: Problems 15.18-15.22 refer to the path of a particle traveling rightand leftalong the
x-axis whose position, in inches, at t seconds is given by the equation s(t)= cos (Int + 0.5)).

15.21 When is the particle moving left?

The particle is moving left when v(t) < 0. According to Problem 15.20, v(t) <0 on
5 1
the interval (> . Therefore, the particle travels left when t > 5;

232 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Note: Problems 15.18-15.22 refer to the path of a particle traveling right and left along the
x-axis whose position, in inches, at t seconds is given by the equation s(t) = cos (In (t + 0.5)).

15.22 What is the total distance traveled by the particle from t= 0 seconds to t= 5 You
seconds? Provide an answer accurate to three decimal places. caw't just
sutvact these
numbers anda
Determine the position of the particle when t= 0 and when {= 5.
say the pavticle
s(0) =cos(In0.5) = 0.7692389 s(5) =cos(1n5.5) + —0.1335515 traveled |-0.133SS515 -
0.769238 = 0.1027904
You must also find the position of the particle wherever its direction changes. inches. That's the
According to Problem 15.20, the particle changes direction at t= 0.5. total DISPLACEMENT
between its starting
- $(0.5) = cos (In 1) = cos 0=1
and ending points but
From t= 0 to t= 0.5 the particle travels right, from 0.7692389 units right of the not necessavily how
origin to 1 unit right of the origin. Calculate the absolute value of the difference fay it actually
between those positions to find the distance the particle travels during that half traveled.
second.

|1— 0.7692389| = |—0.2307611| = 0.2307611

From t= 0.5 to t= 5 the particle travels left, from 1 one unit right of the origin
to a position of —0.1335515, which is 0.1335515 units left of the origin. Find the
absolute value of the difference between those positions to find the total distance
the particle travels from t= 0.5 to t= 5 seconds.

|—0.1335515 - 1| = |— 1.1335515| =1.1335515

Sum the individual distances to calculate the total distance traveled.

0.2307611+1.1335515 = 1.3643126

The particle travels approximately 1.364 inches during the first 5 seconds.

The
Aevivative
Related Rates
of x? with
Figuve out how quickly the vaviables change in a function vespect to x is 2x,
but the derivative of
15.23 A particle travels from left to right along the graph of y = x*e. Assuming its x with vespect to t is
vertical rate of change is =7 ft/sec when x= 1, what is its horizontal rate of 2x.ee
aye - You hay. e to
change at that moment? use the chain vule, and
when you take the
Take the derivative of the equation with respect to ¢ using the product rule. Aevivative of x the
function “inside” x
a = (3 Se +x°(« S)
dt dt dt tt isn’t | anymove—
=o) Ax
it's AL’
a = ® (3y2ot + xe")
dt dt

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

233
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

d ;
According to the problem, “ = 7 when x= 1. Substitute those values into the

equation and solve for eae the horizontal rate of change.

7= * (3c e' +(1)’e')

dt
dx
7 =—(3e+
i (3e +e)

ce
ueft/sec = oe
4e dt

15.24 A bouillon cube with side iength 0.8 cm is placed into boiling water. Assuming it
roughly resembles a cube as it dissolves, at approximately what rate is its volume
changing when its side length is 0.25 cm and is decreasing at a rate of 0.12 cm/
sec?

The volume of a cube with side sis V= s*. Differentiate this equation with respect
to f. “
Ves

OVE as
dt dt

d.
You are given s= 0.25 and = —0.12. Substitute these values into the equation

and solve for —.

When dt
A value is - = 3(0.25)* -(—0.12) = —0.0225 cm? /sec
DECREASING, its
vate of change is
Thus, the volume is decreasing at a rate of 0.0225 cm?/sec.
NEGATIVE, so As/At =
-0.12, not 0.12,
anA AV/At will be 15.25 Two hikers begin at the same location and travel in perpendicular directions.
hegative as well. Hiker A travels due north at a rate of 5 miles per hour; Hiker B travels due west
at a rate of 8 miles per hour. At what rate is the distance between the hikers
changing 3 hours into the hike?

Figure 15-5 shows the positions of the hikers after three hours of traveling. Hiker
A has traveled 5 mph for three hours, totaling 15 miles; Hiker B has traveled 8
Side mph for three hours, for a total of 24 miles. Apply the Pythagorean theorem to
determine the distance between the hikers three hours into the hike (represented
length a (in
Figuve |S-S) is the by the hypotenuse of the right triangle in Figure 15-5),
distance tvavelea by
Hikev A, and b is the
Aistance travelea
by Hiker B.

UmMongous Book of Calculus Problems

————————
Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation
|

e+e =d A
15° +24? = @?
V801 =d
3,/89 =d d =3)/89 a= 15

B
b= 24 es
starting point

Figure 15-5 After.three hours, the distance d between the hikers is 3\ ae

according to the Pythagorean theorem.

Because the hikers and the point from which they began walking create a right
triangle, use the Pythagorean theorem to describe the relationship between the
distances a, b, and din Figure 15-5, and differentiate the equation with respect Notice
to 7. that you
a+b? =’ Aout plug any
da db dd given information
Seas gine ag into the formula until
AFTER you take the
, da db ;
You are given ——=5 and iy = 8. Substitute those values, and the values of a, b, Aevivative.
dd
and dfrom Figure 15-5, into the equation and solve for a Se ee

dd
2(15)-5+2(24)-8 = 2(3V/89)- =
534 = 6/89- a
dt Nothing
dd _ 534 magical happenea
dt 6/89 to get this number—
dd_ 89 334 divided by ¢
J89 = 9.434 miles/hour is $9.
da 89

15.26 A 20-foot extension ladder propped up against the side of a house is not properly
secured, causing the bottom of the ladder to slide away from the house at a
constant rate of 2 ft/sec. How quickly is the top of the ladder falling at the exact
moment the base of the ladder is 12 feet away from the house?
That
Means

As illustrated in Figure 15-6, the ladder, ground, and house formaright triangle. A\V/At = 0. The
While the length of the ladder remains fixed, you can calculate h when g= 12 length of the
using the Pythagorean theorem. laddev Aces not
change, so it makes
seuse that its
vate of change
equals 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

235
 Cc hapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

h? + 9° =/[?

h? +12” = 20°
h? = 256
h=16

Figure 15-6 The ladder is side l, h is the distance from the top of the ladder
to the ground, and g is the distance from the house to the
bottom of the ladder.

Use the Pythagorean Theorem to express the relationship between h, g,-and /, and
differentiate the equation with respect to 7.
ito =?

dh dg dl
Spee ge ae fe
Gs oR dt
d
Substitute the known rates of change. Note that a is positive; as the ladder
slides away from the house, the length gin Figure 15-6 is increasing, and increasing
quantities have positive rates of change.
dh
2(16):- a + 2(12)(2) = 2(20)(0)

3"
dt +48.=0
32— kes
= —48
dt
dh 48 3
— =—— =-—— ft/sec
dt 32 2

The ladder slides down the house at a rate of —1.5 ft/sec.

15.27 Water stored in an inverted right circular cone, as illustrated in Figure 15-7, leaks
out at a constant rate of 2 gallons per day. Assuming the tank is 100 feet high
and the radius of its base is 25 feet, at what rate oe is the depth of the water
inside the tank decreasing at the moment it is 40 feet deep?

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

23 6
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

100 ft

AO ft

AN/At
Figure 15-7 The dimensions of a leaky water tank. is negative
because volume
is Aecveasing as the
The volume of a right circular cone is described by the formula V = gtrh Let h
water leaks out of
represent the height of the tank, d represent the depth of the water, R represent the tank.
the radius of the tank’s base, and r represent the radius of the water’s surface (as

illustrated by Figure 15-8). You are given h= 100, d= 40, R= 25, ae =-—2, and are

asked to find —.
dt

R=25 R=25

The
lavge
h= 100 triangle (which
includes the
shaded one) and
the shaded triangle
ave similay because
they shave the
angle at the bottom
and theiv bases ave
Figure 15-8 Across-section of the conical tank from Figure 15-7, pavailel (so theiv
base angles ave
dr Ate congruent).
No information is given about —, so it (and therefore r) must be eliminated from
the problem—only one unknown can be left in the final equation or else you will
be unable to solve it. Because the isosceles triangles in Figure 15-8 are similar,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 237
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

you can set up a proportion relating the heights and the radii of the tank and the
water it holds. Solve this proportion for 7.

100 _@
95 r
100r = 25d
d
r=—
4

Substitute this value of rinto the volume formula to eliminate it from the
equation. Note that the formula describes the volume of the water, not the tank;
Figure 15-8 uses d to describe the depth of the water (not h).
1
V=—ar'd
Because 3
v=n()
“a
1/48 is just a
number (a coef-f- 3” \4
cient), ignove it when V=—@
48
you Aiffeventiate A’
and multiply it in when
Differentiate with respect to ¢, substitute the known values into the formula, and
youve Aone taking
the Aevivative. solve for —.
dt

48 dt
_ 48000 dd
i Ase oar
To -(-)-4
keep the 100z) dt
units consistent 1 _ dd
Welocity is in $t/ 50m dt
seo), vewvite | mile
So the depth of the water in the tank is decreasing at a rate of = 0.0064 ft/
in terms of feet a
(5,280 PH. day.

Vy 15.28 A camera exactly one mile away from the Space Shuttle’s launch site tracks the

Ss
Che ascent of the spacecraft for a network news program. At what rate is the camera’s
angle of elevation increasing in order to maintain its focus on the shuttle 30
_ seconds into the launch, once the shuttle has reached a height of 9,720 feet and
is traveling 700 ft/sec? Report your answer in radians per second accurate to
four decimal places.

Figure 15-9 summarizes the important information from the problem and verifies
that a right triangle aptly illustrates the geometric relationship between the
variables.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

23 8
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of eer ecnenes:

h= 9,720 ft

ll launch pad

d= 5,280 ft

Figure 15-9 The Space Shuttle S, the camera C, and the launch pad serve
as the vertices of a right triangle. The height h of the shuttle
varies over time, but the camera remains a fixed distance d
from the launch pad. The angle of elevation of the camera is 0.

Unlike Problems 15.25 and 15.26, the Pythagorean Theorem is not a good choice
of equation, because it does not include 8, the variable whose rate of change you
are directed to calculate. Therefore, you should apply the tangent trigonometric
ratio, as you are given the lengths of the sides opposite and adjacent to 0.

Because dis constant throughout the launch, its value is used in the equation, but
hand @ vary at different times ¢ throughout the launch, so they are expressed as
variables. Differentiate this equation with respect to ¢.

sd a) dh
sec’ O-— = ———— +—
di 5,280 dt
dh
You are given ae 700. Calculate tan 0 exactly 30 seconds into the flight.
9,720
tan@ = ———
5,280
9,720
@ = arctan
5,280
6 = 1.0731812

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

239
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Substitute all known values into the equation you differentiated with respect to ¢
d
and solve for — .
dt

sec’ 5 (1.073 1812): ore—F = ——-(700

n )

dO _ e100
4.38894628 -—
= : dt ~ 5,280
280
dO | _700_ 1
dt ~ 5,280
280 A 38894628

“ = 0.0302 radians/sec

Optimization
Find the biggest ov smallest values of a function

15.29 Calculate the smallest possible product of two numbers, if one is bets 9
greater than the other.

Let x equal one of the numbers and x + 9 equal the other. You are asked to
optimize the product, so you should optimize the function p(x) = x(x +9) = x° + 9x.
To optimize p(x), find its critical number(s) and determine whether each
represents a relative extrema point.
Fenccar piteneet cate p(x) =x? + 9x
p'(x) =2x+9
0=2x+9
9
eee
2

Note that p"(x) > 0 for all x, so (according to the second derivative test) this
critical number gives the relative minimum requested by the problem. One of the
numbers in the minimum product is “9° and the other is exactly 9 greater.

9 9 18 9
-~+9=--4+—=-
2 Siemans

sol 8
‘ as 9 9
The two numbers with the minimum product are “3 and 9° the minimum
pro uct 1s 9)\9 ie

15.30 The ACME company has begun selling an MP3 player called the FooPod ata
_ price of $200— 0.05x, where xis the number of FooPods ACME produces each|
day. The parts and labor cost for each FooPod is $140, and marketing and ©
operational costs amount to an additional $9,500 per day. Approximately how
many FooPods should ACME produce and sell each day to maximize profit?

240 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

The total profit generated by an item is defined as the revenue minus the manu-
facturing cost: p(x) = r(x) — c(x). The revenue function is equal to the number
of units sold each day multiplied by the price: r(x) = x(200 — 0.05x). Create the Each
function c(x) representing total cost per day: c(x) = 140x + 9,500. FooPoA
costs $140 to
Substitute r(x) and c(x) into the profit function. make, so multiply
p(x) =r(x)—c(x)
140 by the total
number x they make
= x (200 — 0.05x) — (140x + 9,500)
pev Aay anda ada
=—0.05x" + 200x —140x — 9,500 the fixea cost per
=—0.05x? + 60x — 9,500 aay: $7,500.
Differentiate p(x) and identify critical numbers.

p'(x) =—0.1x+ 60
0 =—0.1x
+ 60
60
x =—
0.1
Apply the second derivative test. Because p"(x) < 0 for all real numbers, p(x) has
a relative maximum at x = 600. Therefore, ACME should attempt to manufacture
and sell approximately 600 FooPods a day in order to maximize profit.

15.31 What are the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in the
ellipse x° + 4y° = 16? Report each dimension accurate to three decimal places.

the + off
Solve the equation of the ellipse for y to express the conic section as a pair of
functions. and just use the
2 oe Positive vadical.
x ae =16 Otherwise, L(x) iswe
Sy AG x a function. This way,
» _16-x° youre just Aealing
asd with the top half of
foe the ellipse but you'll
yet ri still get the vight
: answer,
cae 16-—x
2
eee TO get
For any x, f(x)= — is the corresponding y-value on the of ellipse in either, toa Covney
of the rectan
the first or second quadrant. gle
from the ovigin
, you
have to 90 x
The area of a rectangle is the product of its length and width, so optimize the area units
2 eithey hovizo
function A(x) =/ X w. To determine the values of /and w, consider Figure 15-10, ut al
Aivection. That
where the ellipse x’ + 4y’ = 16 is graphed, and a sample rectangle is inscribed makes
the length of the
within. If you must travel x units right and f(x) units up to reach the corner
rectangle 2%, <
indicated, then 2x and 2/(x) represent the length and width of the rectangle. S—
| ae
thing with the wi
dth
except you have
to oy
UP ov Aown F(
x) units.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

241
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

ce royaf esi
16 —x?

S(*)

Figure 15-10 A rectangle inscribed in the ellipse x° + 4y° = 16.

Substitute 7and winto A(x).

A(x) =l-w
= 2x-2 f(x)
Two
functions ave V16—x?
=2x- at cues
multiplied together to
Jet Ae), so use the = 2xV16—x?
ProAuct vule.
Differentiate A(x).

A(a)= for J(16-28 *(—2x)+V16—x? -2

- ioe
aye?

ah

The _ — 2x? +2(16-x*)

critical 16—x?
number 4 = 4x" 82
doesnt make © eet
sense, because if the
vectangle haa length
4, it wouldn't have any The critical numbers of A’(x) are the x-values that cause either the numerator or
the denominator to equal 0.
height! (Look at Figuve
1S-10.) You can also throw
—4x?
+ 39 =0
out the negative critical V16—x? =0
numbers—length is a —4x? =—39
16—x? =0
positive number.
Xai.
x=+2J9

Because A'(x) changes from positive to negative at x = 2,/2, the value represents a
relative maximum. Calculate the dimensions of the rectangle when x = 2v2.

Umongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

1= 2x =2(2V2) =49

16—(2,/2)
w=2f(x)=2 eee = /16—8 =2/2

The dimensions of the largest inscribed rectangle are 2/2 and 4/2.

15.32 A farmer wishes to fence in a rectangular pasture on a 3,750 ft® piece of

riverfront property. He also plans to separate the pasture into four regions, as
illustrated by Figure 15-11. What is the least amount of fence (in feet) he will
need to purchase, assuming that he will not erect a fence along the river?

Xx

Figure 15-11
The pasture has width x and length y.
The total amount offence required is
3x + 2Y.

Three sections of fence measuring x feet long are needed—one for the northern
border, one for the southern, and one between those boundaries. Two lengths
of fence measuring y feet are also required—one for the western border and one
Befove
between that border and the river. In all, the farmer will need f(x) = 3x + 2y feet
you take the
of fencing material. However, you cannot optimize f(x) without first replacing
Aevivative of a
one of its variables. Because you know the area of the field, set up an equation Function to Bua its
representing that value and solve it for y. Critica) numbers, the
function has to ei,
Area = (length) (width) / terms of One Vowiable.
ne ov all YSSb butt
not

Peekae y
x

+
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
243
 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

Substitute this value into f(x) to eliminate y from the function.

f (x) = 3x
+ 2y

4G)= ax 9[
570
200
f (x) = 3x +7,500x""

Differentiate f(x) and identify its critical number(s).

f' (x) =3—7,500x*
9 = 3 — 2500
x

7,500 _
x?

' the 3x2 = 7,500

ength of the x? = 2,500
FielA is x Peet ana
you can't have a fiela Because x must be a positive number, you don’t have to indicate “+” when you
with a negative take the square root of both sides of the equation.
length.
x = ./2,500 = 50 feet

2(7,500) _ 15,000
Because f"(x)= 3 ae 3 , the second derivative is positive for all x > 0,
which verifies that x = 50 corresponds to a relative minimum of f(x) (according to
the second derivative test). Evaluate f(x) to determine the total amount of fence
needed.

f (x) = 3x+7,500x7"
7,500
f (50)= 3(50) + ——50

f (50)=150 +150
f (50) = 300

The farmer needs a minimum of 300 feet of fence—50 feet for each horizontal
section and 75 feet for each vertical section.

15.33 An open box with depth x can be created from a rectangular sheet of cardboard
___ by cutting squares of side x from its corners, as illustrated by Figure 15-12.
What is the largest volume of such a box given cardboard that measures 20 x 30
_ inches? Report your solution accurate to three decimal places.

Figure15-12 ©
When the squares of side x are cut co
the corners of the sheet of cardboard, they
leave behind rectangles along the sides.
Fold those rectangles up to construct an
open box.

244 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Fifteen — Advanced Applications of Differentiation

The volume function for a right rectangular prism is v(x) = 1X w X h. Note that
the length of the box is 30 — 2x, because the cardboard originally measured 30
Really,
inches but you remove x inches from each end when the squares cut out. Similarly,
the width of the box is 20 — 2x inches. Substitute the dimensions of the box into
veally fancy way
the volume function.
to say “pox that’s
not necessavily a
v(x)=l-w-h
cube.”
= (30 — 2x) (20 — 2x) (x)
= 600x — 100x? + 4x°
Find v'(x) and its critical numbers. The
height of the
v' (x) = 600 — 200x + 12x”
box is x. The bigger
0 = 600 — 200x + 12x? the sauaves you cut
Solve the equation using a graphing calculator; the solutions are x= 3.923747815 out, the Aeeper the
or x= 12.74291885, Note that the latter is not a valid solution, but box will be,
v" (3.923747815) <0, so x= 3.923747815 corresponds to a relative maximum of
u(x). Evaluate v(3.923747815).

v(3.923747815) = 600(3.923747815) — 100(3.923747815)° + 4(3.923747815)° You

cawt cut
v(3.923747815) = 1056.306 in® more than
12 inches from
the vight ana
left corners of the
cavAloowa (ov a
total of move than
24 inches) when the
cavapoava is
only 20 inches
wide!

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 245
KyiPh a
ete
ae at
» a Te? dai
A or
& Sas,
mn ie
oF

abt! = a ined
4 at)

0rie
oe :
Tie
 Chapter 16
ADDITIONAL DIFFERENTIATION TECHNIQUES

Yet move ways to aifleventiate

Before concluding the comprehensive investigation of differentiation that

began in Chapter 11, a few advanced differentiation techniques still merit
mention. Although these methods will be required far less frequently than
the differentiation methods outlined in Chapter 12, in specific situations,
they represent the most fastidious and logical method for calculating
derivatives. As such, knowing when to apply these techniques is as essential
as knowing how to perform them.

aa pae e tricky Aevivative, sometimes the Powev, proAuct,

meet and chain vules ave not enough. This chapter eee four
evs Benes Lor calculating Aevivatives that addavess four if
situations. These methods Aow't veplace the vules covevea back in ae 2
Zp which still work
with—they just JivePonabout 10% of the derivative provleme sai et aan
you options Lov the ether 10%, problems oe d om
(mpossible without the methods covered in this chapter. alee
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Implicit Differentiation
Essential when you caw't solve a function fory

16.1 Differentiate the expression with respect to x: x°— 3y’ + 2x+

Technically, when you differentiate x’ with respect to x, you are applying the chain
rule. You first take the derivative of the “outer function” x* to get 2x, leaving the
inner function” x alone. Then you take the derivative of the inner function with
d. dx .
respect to x For all practical purposes, cs (like any nonzero number divided
by itself) equals 1.
eG 2\= 9x71. dx
Se ON Oe

dx dx .

piffeventials In other words, when an expression containing x is differentiated with respect

ave things like to x, the answer is no different than the derivatives calculated in Chapter 12.
Ax ana ay. Any Differentiate the other term in the expression containing xin a similar fashion
time the vaviable in
the expression Acesnt When you differentiate an expression containing a variable other than x with
match the vaviable
respect to x, the derivative will contain differentials. For instance, the derivative
youve “vespecting,” d
these pop upina of y with respect to x is simply em This term cannot be simplified or omitted
x
Aevivative. because unlike dn , this quotient does not necessarily equal 1.
Me
To differentiate —3y’, apply the chain rule.

The a d aeeay dy
3y°) = -3-2y?"-—=—
= -6y—
Aevivative ae y’) z dx dx
of y’ is 2y, but Combine the derivatives for each of the four terms in the expression, a0 of which
you shoula treat are calculated above.
the y as an “inner
function’ and take —di(x?
(x? —
—3y?By" +2x
+ 2x ++y)
y)==2x dy
2x — By + 24+dy
—6y—4+24—
the Aevivative of it
(with vespect to x)
at the ena,
16.2 Describe the difference between equations that are written eaplicitly|
in terms ofx
and those that are written implicitly in terms of x.

Equations explicitly written in terms of x can be expressed ina single variable, x.

For instance, 3x*y— 7xy= 14 can be explicitly written as a function of x by solving
fory.
3x"
y— Txy =14
9(3x? —7x) =
mea
a” 3x° — Tx
If an equation isn’t written as a single equation in terms ofx (i.e., the equation is
not solved for the other variable, usually y, as illustrated in the above example), it

ers eee nen

248 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques
ER Ss cbt A ecto

is ¢mplicitly expressed in terms of x. For instance, circles, hyperbolas, and ellipses

must be implicitly expressed in terms of x. Note that these conic sections are not
functions, and neither are the vast majority of implicitly defined functions.

16.3 Differentiate the product xy with respect to x.

Neither x nor y is a constant, so the product must be differentiated using the

product rule.
d d d
eo) Si 1s) Pete)
dy ey
dx
dx dx
ae de

16.4 Given 2522 + 8x— 16y’- 4y—9 = 0, find a.

The
Differentiate each term with respect to x.
Constant Ais-
APPeEaveA because
d
50x+8—82y-7dy 4 =0 the derivative of -9
Xx dx
with vespect to any
d
Move all terms not containing = to the right side of the equation.
x

=a) 0 dy 4 Ore
49 6
: dx dx
d
Factor out = and solve for it.
x

eee All the

dx. =3249—4 terms ave
dy —2(25x+ 4) negative, which
Pees (16y + 2) is kind of ugly. If
you factor -| out of
dy _ 25x +4 the top and bottom,
ae Ud -| divided by -|
equals |, so they
16.5 Given y= 9Vx —2%/y°, find ad= cancel out.

Rewrite the radical expressions using rational exponents.

y= 9x? —2y"

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

249
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Differentiate each term with respect to x.

When d 1
you use the eseoe Per
d

power vule, you dx

dyno 6 dy
subtvact one from
the powev. Because dx 2 "Bay? dx
the oviginal power of y d ; ;
Move all terms containing a to the left side of the equation and factor out Se :
is 3/5, the new power is
Bede Sak 44k
dy 6 dy_ We
dx Bae dx a

noy

a..

Aenominator to get
ofa, 98
a ie fvaction Al
dy a
: ‘|=!
Wx
; dx\, 58 935 :

Solve for ° 7

dy_ We if)"
dx ee + ,
dy 45Vx%fy°
dx 18/y? +12

(16.6 Given sin y—cos xy =

x— y, find oe
The
ARGUMENT of
a tvig function (or The chain rule is required to differentiate both terms on the left side of the
any function Lor that equation. Once you differentiate each of the trigonometric functions (momen-
mattey) is whatever's tarily leaving the argument unchanged), you must then multiply by the derivative
of the argument.
getting plugged into it, d
cosy-£(y)-|-sinay
d
£(»)|=1- 2
The avgument of
COS xy tS xy, d
Note that 7 \%) is calculated in Problem 16.3.
x
CC DNs oraee (>dy
Te )
ry dy
|be i

Distribute sin xy.

- dy el dy ee dy
cos y+ xsinxy— + ysinxy =1——
? dx 2 dx re dx
d
Move terms eea to the left side of the equation and all others to the
right side.

cos 2 2
ig be ne
ee ae ee
ysin xy

250 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

d
Factor out = and then solve for it.
x
d
7 L008)+ xsinay+1]=1- ysinay

dy _ 1— ysin xy
dx cosy+xsinxy+1

16.7 d’y 6,2

Given e*+ cos y= In y°, find —.
x

Differentiate the equation with respect to x.

: ' i Seconda
e* -siny- 2 =—-6y? 2 Sovative
dx y dx
6
e* —siny a Beate a The
dx y” -y dx Aevivative of
e* —sin ve 6 ‘ dy : a ny SMAeA
ee
olve for ae: dey as ee Hoi aas
A = log Y) times the
e* =siny—+—-— © erative of what's
dx y dx side (Cy’) times the
iny+
e* x =| sin dy
y+—|— +e a what's
my) x coe HAT Punction—;
Y Contains y so the
oa 2sing 6|dy Aevivative is Ay/Ax,
Neale
« _{ ysin y+ 6| dy
C= | a
y dx
e*y = dy
ysiny+6 dx Just
Vike in
To find the second derivative, apply the quotient rule. Note that the derivatives of Problew |6.S,
the numerator and denominator each require the product rule—the numerator it’s a 900A iAen
contains the product of e and y, and the denominator contains the product ofy to make this term
and sin y.
one fraction by using
d ot aed
dty _(ysiny+6)-—(e*y)—e*y- =-(ysin+y6) common Aenominators.
To isolate Ay/Ax,
(ysin y +6)
dx? %
multiply both sides
x d Care by the vecipvocal
x
74 of this big
dx?
(ysiny+6)
; fraction.

Recall that 2. Lt ey
dx ysiny+6
7 ey 4 p%y|— 9" ey’ cosySo ty ee
e*ysiny
ee
(ysiny+0)| 9 ave 2 ysiny+6 ysiny+6
dx” (ysin y+ 6)

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

251
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques
_

Note: Problems 16.8-16.10 refer to an ellipse centered at the origin with a horizontal major
axis of length 16 and a major axis of length 12. a

16.8 Write the ean. of the Spee, expressing each coefficienttherein asan —
integer.
If you need to
veview ellipses ana ae : 16 rere
If the major axis of the ellipse is 16 units long, then a= gi = 8; similarly, b= 6.
theiv standava form,
look at Problems Plug these values into the standard form equation of an ellipse with a horizontal
6.|7-¢.20. major axis. (Note that h= k= 0 since the ellipse is centered at the origin.)

(x-h)' (y=2k) _,
2

2 cw
a b
% Z
Pp
64 36
Multiply each term in the equation by the least common multiple: 576.
9x? + 16)? = 576

Note: Problems 16.8-16.10 refer to an ellipse centered at the origin with a horizontal major
axis of length 16 and a major axis of length 12.

16.9 Differentiate the Phe L of the ellipse generated in Pigilem 16.8 with respect
to x.

d
Dont Differentiate 36x° + 64y? = 2,304 with respect to x and solve for = :
fovget to take ee en a a a ee :
the Aevivative alae
ces =
of S76, Like all x

32y—d =-18x
constants, its
Aevivative is 0. dx
dy 18x
dx 32y
dy_ %
dx 16y

Note: Problems 16.8-16.10 refer to an ellipse centered at the origin wae a horizontal major
axis of length 16 and a major axis of length 12.

16.10 Calculate the slopes of the tangent lines to the ellipse when x = 1.

You first need to determine the points on the ellipse when x= 1. To do so,
substitute x= 1 into its equation and solve for y.

252 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

9(1)° +16)? =576

169? = 567
JFAIONas, G
veal 4
; ; Plug
Therefore, the ellipse contains the points adand f 7) Evaluate - the x- and y-
x
Values of each point
into the Aevivative
formula from

® el4 Ne |, 7 Preble 1<.4.

dx , 4
dx ; 4

2-= 30) 4 ___ 90)

* 16-242) eed4
—
d.

9 dy 9
pos a

2 eae dx )
4(971 a
dy 1 nel. dy
Of
er
ee
ees oe ie
de 2 47 28

Note: Problems 16.11—16.13 refer to a circle centered at the origin with radius r. Treat
vlikea
16.11 Identify the equation of the circle and differentiate it with respect to x.
number, since the
vadius of a civcle
The equation of a circle centered at (0,0) with radius r is x? + y’ =r. Differentiate Stays constant.
implicitly with respect to x. That means the
dy Aevivative of v*
2x +2y— =0
dx
dy
2y—=-2
i es
dy >On
dx 2y
Di”
dx y

Note: Problems 16.11-16.13 refer to a circle centered at the origin with radius r.
2 /
16.12 Calculate the slopes of the tangent lines to the circle when x= c.

Use the method outlined in Problem 16.10—begin by substituting x = c into the

equation to determine the points of tangency.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

253
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

2
ve +y =r
2 2
c+y =r
y=ar-c 2

y=tvr? -—¢

Therefore, the circle passes through the points («,

—Vr — “) and (evr -¢ ):
Substitute these points into the derivative calculated in Problem 16.11.

A
Fr t(c,-vr? =)
2. 2 dy ule Nii
a )

dy xX
ee, ad __®
dy _ C dx y
ie eae Oe C
dy _ C dx r—¢
wee ie

This
means find
the tangent line Note: Problems 16.11-16.13refer to a circle centered at the origin with radius r.
to the civcle at the
16.13 Write ie equation of the tangent line to the circle in the first quadrant given
point lc, ee e . x= L : : :

According to Problem 16.12, the slope of the tangent line at point (cr? -¢ 1S
¢ : : ; :
2 =———; - Use the point-slope formula to write the equation of the line.
2 Lee
)aa aeheee)

<ane
Rationalize the expression on the right side of the equation and solve for y.

yovr ec Nae =<¢)

APR -—c)tvr-¢
Te

254 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Logarithmic Differentiation
Use log properties to make complex Aevivatives easier

: Bs Any time
16.14 Giiven y = x*, n find —. YOu need to fina
the Aevivative of
AN XK VAISeA to an x
Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation. Powey, that’s a dead
giveaway you shoula
In y=1n
x use logavithmic
Using a property of logarithms (explained in Problem 5.23), In a’ = bIn a. Aiffeventiation.

In y=xlnx
Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x, applying the product
rule to differentiate x In x.
1 dy 1 If youve taking
—*—=x:-+I1nx:l
y dx x the log of some-
ld thing vaiseA toa
reer) tae powey, you caw pull
y dx
dy
Solve for —.
the power out in front
dx of the leg asa
d coefficient,
D = y(1+Inx)
dx

The original problem states that y= x‘, so substitute that value into the equation.

d
» = x* (1+ Inx)
dx
d
ee +x* Inx
dx

. dy
y =2 =eofind Gs
16.15 Given eR

Use the method described in Problem 16.14—take the natural logarithm of both
sides of the equation and use a logarithmic property to change the exponent 2x
into a coefficient.

Iny= In 2x7*
Iny = 2x In 2x

Differentiate with respect to x, applying the product rule to differentiate the right
side of the equation.

dy ae
D9 -2)+In 2x(2)
2x

BaD 5 eatin oy
le dx
Se
lee

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 255
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques
fe

The d
Problem is Solve for Fe and recall that y = 2x".
x
explicitly Aefinea
Z tevms of x. ae y(2+21n 2x)
Suve
Starts with "y =”
but the functi i
on :
2x contains only
x's i ts.
So the Aevivati
ve é
should also Cont
ain isSs oe
only x’s, a
dy
16.1 i y eat’ find
6.16 Given nd 7 —-.

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation, apply a loparatc
property to relocate the exponent, differentiate with respect to x, solve for = :
You can and replace yin the final answer with x'"*, as defined by the problem.
also vewvite
(ln x)(n x) as Iny=In xin*
(ln x)? and use Iny = (Inx)(Inx)
the power vule (and
chain vule) to find the
Aevivative:

ao)x
Ze
dy

dy
2Inx

22? nix
dx x
pea 5
16.17 Given y= 5*x*,find=.

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation.

The
log of In y= In (5*x**)

things that ave Expand the logarithm on the right side of the equation using the logarithmic
multiplied equals property log ab= log a+ log 6.
the sum of the
In y= In 5*+
In x*
individual logs.
Move the exponents using logarithmic properties.
In y= xln 5+ (5x)In x

256 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Differentiate with respect to x. Note that In 5 is a constant, so the product rule is

not needed to differentiate x In 5; however, it is needed to differentiate (5x)In x.
Since
1 dy 1 In Sis a veal
ge eres Cree humbey, the
4 Aevivative of (<)(n S)
ane Ins e+ lax equals InS,just like
y dx the derivative of
d («)(12) = 12.
D = y(In5+5+5Inx) Bene
dx

—=5*x"*
dy 5x
(In5+5+5Inx)
dx

x d
16.18 Given y=In x? , find. a J

Trick
The right side of the equation already contains a logarithmic function, so apply Problem alert!
a logarithmic property to move its exponent. There is no need to take the loga- _ they threw this
\n to see if you weve
rithm of both sides of the equation, and as such, this is not a true logarithmic
differentiation problem (although you do apply logarithmic properties). Paying attention ov
JUSt automatical)
ne
>ln x
legging both sides of
Apply the product rule to differentiate with respect to x the equation without
pee on thinking about it Vevy
—=¢ = te Ine Sneaky,
dx ia
d' x

ae +e*lnx
axax

d ‘
16.19 Given y = 4/x° In(x
+2), find 7 : 6,8

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation and rewrite the radical
expression using a rational exponent.
Iny=In[(x" In(x+ 2)" | time you
Apply a logarithmic property to move the exponent. use logarithmic
Aifferentiation
Iny= sIn[x’ In(x +2) | not because an
x is vaised to an x
Expand the natural logarithm of the product by expressing it as a sum of
logarithms. power but because log
properties can break
Iny= [inx’ +In(In(x+ 2)
this vidiculously ugly
i expression into bite-
Iny= jinx’ +5In(In(x +2) sizea chunks.
ree /
Use a logarithmic property to move the remaining exponent.
1
Iny=—-9-Inx+—In(In(x+2))

Iny=3Inx+ jin(In(x+2))

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
257
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Differentiate with respect to x.

fe
of fa. osis
De geenx
ye ax
eaat x+2
3 In(x+2)

| over what's inside 1 eee ee

the big log (In (x + 2) y dx x 3(x+2)(In(x+2))
times the Aevivative dy 3 1
of that inner quantity eae 2%(3x +6)(In(x +2))
(\/G< + 2) Himes the
Aevivative of x +2,
Substitute y= %/x° In(x+2) into the derivative.
the quantity inside
the inside OP clasp amet 1 >
function! che ae BL: (3x + 6)(In(x
+2))

d
16.20 Given y= 4": &- tan(5x—- 1), find

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation and expand the
When you
logarithm of the product into a sum.
plug e! into In x,
all that’s left is the Iny= In| 4* -e* -tan(5x — 1)
exponent of e| because Iny = In4* + Ine” + In(tan(5x —1))
they ave inverse
functions. Check out Apply a logarithmic property to move the exponents.
Problem 5:30 fov
Iny =x1n4+(2x)Ine
+ In(tan(5x —1))
move info.
Iny =x1n4+2x(1) + In(tan(5x—1))

Differentiate with respect to x.

id 1
See (ye Oe eee ee (eee TG
y dx tan(5x —1)
1 ®d ojn449 4 DIE 2 (5x - —1)
y dx tan (5x —1)
d 5sec” —
=. yl aber 42 Re
SBE (ed
dx tan(5x —1)
d : —
DY= 4% tan(5x -p]ina+24 582720
dx. tan(5x —1)

2 1 6
16.21 Given y= ae ina 2.
Ne ms

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation.

(sec? x)(log, x°)
Iny =In
(12x —7)"°

258 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Expand the logarithm on the right side of the equation.

This
Iny= In|(sec? x)(log, x® )]—In(12x— 7)" is a lot like
Iny= In(sec?x) + In(log, x°)— In(12x —7)" Problem $.27,
which asks you
Iny= 2In(secx)+ In(6log, x) —19In(12x —7)
to fully expand a
Iny = 2In(secx)+ In6+ In(log, x) —191n (12x —7) logavithw. Review
Differentiate each term with respect to x.
that problem
if you've
1 dy Lt confused,
~ =2: : *secxtanx +0+ oe 1 aes
y dx sec x log,x x-In4 Lox]
1 dy Qsec%tanx 1 19-12 pea :
Fg ne eee mre ae in Lyon,
y dx secx x(In4)(log, x) 12x —7
of log, x because
dy aa: 1 228 X is vaised to the ch
== nx +——______ —
dx? x(In4)(log, x) 12x-7 Power. If the whole
expression log, x was
(sec? x)(log, x°) ised to the ¢™ powey,
fatts
Recall that ) =-———-—~— only then would you
(12x = 7)
pull the ¢ out in

dy _ (sec* x)(log, x*)|

SS 1
2 tanxe+ ——_—_- —- 228
front of Indo
a
x

dx (12x —7) x(In4)(log,x) 12x-7

The
Aevivative of
a
16.22 Given y= x? / 4) find e : In Cis.

Apply logarithmic differentiation.

In y= Inx* “6

Iny= x=
s oe

Differentiate with respect to x; apply the product rule on the right side of the
equation. : ;
d
ep Eltns)+ine A s
ytd m4 dx dx\x—4
2
Note that differentiating v== 4 requires the quotient rule.

Pereseri.
ei
2 — eRe 1

ylde x4 ox (x — 4)
Lid_ Ae: fee bras ee art
y dx £(x—4) (x —4) /
dy x , inx)(x* — 8x)
dx ~|x—4 (x —4)°

dy _ tio]
ae
_*_, (inx)(x!-8x) 2
x—4 (x—4)

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
259
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

; 2 dy
heat Given y=" , find de

Apply logarithmic differentiation.

Iny=In x
In y = x° Inx
Use 1 dy sl
gna = tInx(3x 2 )
the proAuct
vule. d 3
WR eee fa ein
y dx &
dy _
a = y(x2 Hoe 2 Inx)

dy _ x? 2 2
Fs x (x + 3x Inx)

Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions

‘Cause the Aevivative of taw'x ain't sec’x

Basically, 16.24 Differentiate arcsin x with respect to x.

the Aevivative is
|
vi-u , where uis The derivative of arcsin u, if wis a function of x, is ! 5 pce in this instance,
l-u? dx
whatever's pluggea iN
thto inverse sine. d 1 d
Then multiply that Gy caresin«) = =" a”
entive fraction by the : 1
Aevivative of u. In this = T J
Problem, u =x, and the 4
Aevivative of x is |. re 1

1-x°

16.25 Differentiate arccos 4x’ with respect to x.

All
of the inverse Apply the arccosine differentiation formula.
trig function d 1 du
Aevivatives formulas ay catccos u)=— eer oe
ave listed in
Appendix PD. <(arceos 4x° )<e £(438 )

d
—(arccos4x° ) = -_——=————
e ) V1—16x°

260 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

16.26 Differentiate tan™'(e*) with respect to x.

RULE |
OF THUMB: \
Apply the inverse tangent derivative formula. Both “tan! x” <I¥\
ana ‘avctany x’
d 1 du
Gy carctan a)= tae ee the same
q - ‘ , thing—the inverse
7, tan oor) 1+ (ey ci) Fangent function.
em) dx Dow't try ana
Use the chain rule to differentiate ¢*.
Aiffeventiate tay! x
d oi exé 1 eae : using the Power
7 (tan e )~ eer
4 (¢ )(-sinx) Rule to get -tan? x
d ee sine ree because that's
7, tan a )= cre eae totally wrong—the -|
iS not an exponent,
it just means
16.27 Differentiate In (arccot 2x) with respect to x. “inverse,” |

Because this is a composite function, apply the chain rule.

d 1 d
—|1 t2x)| = ————_ (arccot 2x)
oak ae x)] arccot2x dx
Apply the differentiation formula for the arccotangent function.
avccotangent
Aevivative fov-
[in(arccot 2x)] =
(arccot
i s2x) (- mula is the same
,
aS avctaugent,
2
only negative. All
(1+ 4x? )(arccot 2x) of the functions
that stavt with “ce”
: Inge
16.28 Differentiate arcsec—— with respect to x.
(cosine, cotangent,
x and cosecant) have
negative Aevivatives,
Apply the arcsecant differentiation formula. anda the derivatives
of theiv inverse
a (arcsec u) = ee functions (avccesine,
as |ulvu>—1 dx avccotangent, and
d Inx 1 d (Inx avccosecant)
neaat es ave
=) =
be(arcsec( err aes a (
er =|
2

a) well!
x
2
x
Simplify the complex fraction by combining the quantities within the square root
into a single fraction.

ss l <=)
Inx|J(Inx)*—x* 4 x
ie ait
The Humongous Book of Calculus
Problems
261
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Note that neither x? nor /x* = |x?| require absolute values, because x* must be a
You nonnegative number.
cant squave 3 = (Be)
a number and na v(Inx)
na —x*
—xi dx\x
get a negative, so
you Aout need to keep “ - (8s)
Avagging those absolute
value bavws with you. ~ [inx| is
Ginx)* —x?
=x4 dx\x
Howevey, In x can be
negative (when xis Eliminate the complex fraction.
yetween 0 and |) so Le - 2 (=)
you need to leave i a —xt dx\x
its absolute
values on. Note that the derivative has not yet fully been determined. Now that the rational
expression is in an acceptable format (i.e., it doesn’t contain a complex fraction),
Inx
use the quotient rule to differentiate —.
x
| Aividea by x. ‘S Inx (2x)
a fraction equals x4 x
the vecipvocal of [Inx|./(Inx)? —x* (sc?y
that fraction.
sae
x — 2x
moo
Pia =a —x* x"
" x (x — 2x Inx)
xf [In x| (Ix)? — x"
IL e ee 2x lnx
You get an |In x|./(In
x)" — x*
answer of [43 it’s
because you pluggea
x= S into L(x). You've
Supposed to plug it Differentiating Inverse Functions
into the inverse Without even knowing what they ave!
function: £'(x),
16.29 Given f(x)= x° + 4x- 2, use a graphing calculator to evaluate f'(5) accurate to
three decimal places.

Functions
and theiv
Identifying an equation for f(x) is not a trivial matter. If you attempt to reverse
nvevses veverse
x and y and solve for y (the technique used to determine inverse functions that
each other's inputs is outlined in Problems 4.25 and 4.26), you will find that the equation cannot be
ANA outputs, IL solved for y easily. Therefore, you must use an alternate approach, one that will
imputting S into £I—)
allow you to evaluate the inverse function for real number values without actually
outputs some number c,
identifying the function f(x). Because f(x) and f-'(x) are inverse functions, given
then imputting aes f'(5)= ¢ it follows that f(c) = 5. Set f(c) = 5 and solve for c.
the inverse Puy Cton
See ye eee e+4c-2=5
F(x) outputs s,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

26 2
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Set the equation equal to 0.

c+4c-7=0
Graph the equation y= x°+4x-7ona graphing calculator and calculate the
x-intercept (i.e., the root or the zero); you should get x = 1.255. Therefore
,
(1.255) = 5, so f-'(5) = 1.255.

Note: Problems 16.30-16.31 refer to the function &(X) =x" + 9x’ — x’ + 6x — 2.

16.30 Prove that g“'(x) exists.

Only one-to-one functions have inverses. Graphically, this means any horizontal
line drawn on the function may intersect it once, at most. Therefore, any function
that changes direction will fail the horizontal line test, as demonstrated in Fig-
ure 16-1.

ve maximum
ears relati

relative minima
If
a graph
Figure 16-1 The graph of a continuous function f(x) that fails the horizontal line test never stops
because of its relative extrema. The dotted horizontal lines represent only increasing,
two of an infinite number of horizontal lines that intersect the graph of the function is
J(x) more than once. “styictly increasing”
ov “monotone
Because the graph of g’(x) = 5x‘ + 27x* — 2x + 6 falls entirely above the x-axis, g’ (x) increasing.” If the
is positive for all x and g(x) is strictly increasing. All monotone increasing Lunction always
oats
or decreasing functions possess inverses. AENEASS Ea
classified “strictly
Aecreasing” ov
“monotone
: »
AeCVEASING.

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems 263
 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Note: Problems 16.30-16.31 refer to thefunctiong(x) ==x + 93?= x + 6x2.

16.31 Use a graphing calculator to evaluate g (2) accurate to Ue: decimal pee

Use the method described in Problem 16.29, which states that given g(c) = z,
7 : ; 7
it follows that g” (2)= c. Substitute cinto g(x), set the equation equal to 6 subtract

7from both sides of the equation, and use technology to identify the

Zz ES ioe x-intercept of the resulting function.

thatit has the iia. apart
m
Same denominator

are :
te combine the
pec allowing you & +90 -—c+6c— 19 =0

= 0.434
eschons 7
Because g(0.434) = 6’ it follows that g° (2)= 0.434.

16.32 If h(x)= 7x° + 9x+ 18, evaluateHe :)(2),the derivative of h7!(x) with eee
to xwhen xe 2,

This Given a function f(x), the derivative of its inverse, (he ') (x) , is defined according
Parla to the formula below.
Aoesw't appear out (a ' =e 1
of thin aiv—Problem FUG)
es explains wheve Substitute h(x) for f(x) and plug x= 2 into the formula.
it comes from,
h1) (=

Calculate h'(2) using the technique described in Problems 16.29 and 16.31:
if h'(2) = ¢, it follows that h(c) = 2.

70° +9c+18=2
7c°+9c+16=0
c=-1
Substitute h~'(2)= —1 into the inverse derivative formula.
1
(2)
(oy) ate (2) #1)
Differentiate h(x) and evaluate h'(-1).

h'(x) = 21x +9
h'(—1) =21(-1)° +9
h'(—1) =30

264 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

Substitute h'(-1) = 30 into the inverse derivative formula.

(WY @=7o= 5
16.33 If f(x) = 5x° — x2 + x— 4, evaluate (fa )(6) accurate to three decimal places.

Apply the method described in Problem 16.32.

cee 1
Even
PERE) though the
If f"(6) =, then f(c) = 6. hal answer shoula
Contain three
Aecima)
° Bee —c% +c-4=6 Places, you shou
lan'
t
YOUnA any de
5c? —c? +c-10=0 cimals
nti] ther—use
c ~1.081107956 AS Man
Aecimal places
Substitute /“(6) ~ 1.081107956 into the inverse derivative formula. as ares
calculator CAM
Spit at
(¢
“ty (g)e ee YOU or you visk
a less
") @)= f'(1.081107956 Accwate an
) swey.

Differentiate f(x) and evaluate f'(1.081107956).

f' (x) = 45x8 — 2x +1

f' (1081107956) ~ 82.8156861426
Substitute f’(1.081107956) into the inverse derivative formula.
' 1
(F ) (6) 82.8156861426
(f-1) (6) = 0.012

Note: Problems 16.34-16.35 reference a one-to-one function f(x) that is continuous and
differentiable for all real numbers. Selected values of the function and its derivative are listed
in the table below.

16.34 Evaluate (fay (=2);

ee eue hes 3
Jailer
0]er aop feltsls]
ieee ae

Apply the formula for the derivative of an inverse function.

a C3)
eitke

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
265
 feChapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

According to the table, f- (—2) =

Since
£(3) = =e you (ae) 25 (3)
CAN veverse the
(Mput ana output 3
According to the table, f'3)= ie
to get Values of the
inverse function: 4
11G2) =. a3
Note: Problems 16.34-16.35 reference a one-to-one function f(x) that is continuous and
differentiable for all real numbers. Selected values of the function and its derivative are listed
in Problem 16.34. on

i635 Evaluate (f2) GD.

Apply the formula for the derivative of an inverse function.

eee a
eee
According to the table, f(1) =—1; therefore, f"(-1) = 1.

ety(ay\eeeees
USD) Sa
5
According to the table, f'(1)= Bas

X ve
(ry vezoe=-2
16.36 Given the function k(x) graphed in Figure 16-2, estimate li )(0).

Figure 16-2
The graph of a continuous, one-to-one
10 function k(x).

Apply the formula for the derivative of an saa function.

(k")(0)= Ateoy)

266 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Sixteen — Additional Differentiation Techniques

The function appears to have a root of x= —6; therefore, k"(0) = -6.

If
Eee. oT] k(x) cvosses
5) the x-axis at x = -<,
then k-<) = 9. Revevse
To approximate k'(-—6), estimate the slope of the tangent line to k(x)
at x=-6. the numbers to get
One acceptable way to do so is to calculate the slope of the secant line connecting values for the inverse
function: "(ie we
the points on k(x) that are one unit left and one unit right of x =-—6: (—7,-1)
and

Al—5) =h(-7)
Hi <6) ft
(1/2)—(-1) -yalues
Ns
a ae -| ana kh ave
—5+7
3/2 just guesses.
= ne Theve’s no way
3 of identifying the
ar actual points on the
graph, but guessing is
Substitute this value into the inverse derivative formula. okay because youve
] 1 4 just Aoing an
k) (0) = = —_ = — approximation.
i) 0) kK(-6) 3/4 3 rF

16.37 Generate the formula for the derivative of an inverse function: XQ >
' 1
(¢") ® =.
f'(f"(*) oe
If f(x) is the inverse function of f(x), then Sf '(x)) = x. Differentiate both sides of
Y CAS
this equation with respect to x.

d i _ od: Use
ates (x)) |=) the chain
vule heve. Take
(07 @))-7) @=1 the Aevivative of ihe
outer function £%) an
a
leave the inner fun
Solve the equation for (ic=} (x). ction
P(x) alone: LE-\(e),
Pieter aia )eas 4 peefee by the
ei
ee ee ee ne evivative of t,
L - f ss (x) inner Pune
Ln (F'Y%G0),

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

267
 Chapter 17
APPROXIMATING AREA

Estimate the avea between a curve and the x-axis

The opposite of differentiation, a process appropriately titled “anti-
differentiation” or (more commonly) “integration,” is accompanied by its
own robust set of theorems, rules, algorithms, and applications, all of which
are discussed in Chapters 18 through 23. This chapter describes different
ways to estimate the area between a function and the x-axis, beginning with
very informal rectangular approximation methods and culminating with
significantly more formal techniques. The actual connection bridging area
approximation to the process of antidifferentiation will be investigated in
Chapter 18.

the chapters before ee after ee

this chapter is veally low-tech compavea to up e Theeav eas
t er addANS ing
chapter eith \
iit. After all, you spend almost the entive
" Formulas like the ee
i gs minindlessly into tvap e
i thin
little vectangles ov plugging
ave alt oe ?
i mann Sums, the last topic in this chapter,
ule. Formal Rie
to them, You may Sa ee jeietck
ae uot so bad once you get usea ro s
a e avea’ What does this pa have ce
the heck Ao | even want to approxim imat
ina?” It’s just calculus’s way of sayiinng g In g geometry, you CoulAa only
“In
if even t thin gs—c ivcl es, vectaugles, vegulay polygons, these sovts
meee ¢ ,
eme r.
of things—b ut in calc ulus , youll find the aveas of things with ivvegula v shapes.’
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Informal Riemann Sums

Left, Right, Midpoint, Uppey, and Lowey Sums

They've
actually asking 17.1 If n subdivisions of equal width are used to approximate the area beneath a
curve on the x-interval [a,b], calculate the width Ax of the rectangles.
you to find the avea
BETWEEN the curve ae
ana the x-axis. Q
The width of each rectangle is Ax =

*
Note: Problems 17.2-17.6 refer to the graph in Figure 17-1.

17.2. Approximate the shaded area using five rectangles of equalwidth and left
Riemann sums.

_ oS

Figure 17-1
The goal ofProblems 17.2-17.6 is to
approximate the shaded area between f(x)
fix) and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,10].

UO
oO
UN
Om
Oe
Om.
oN
me

Calculate the width of the triangles using the formula from Problem 17.1.
So the UU,
Ax = —— = —} = 2
vectangle on 5 5
10,2] has a height If each rectangle is 2 units wide, the rectangles will occupy the following intervals:
of £(0) = 5 (because [0,2], [2,4], [4,6], [6,8], and [8,10]. The height of each rectangle in a left Rie-
x = Ois the left bouna- mann sum is determined by the height of f(x) at the left boundary of each interval,
avy of the interval), as illustrated by Figure 17-2.
the vectangle on [2,4]
has a height of
£(2) = 8, etc.

270 the H UMONngJOUS Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

f(x)

Figure 17-2 The rectangles used to determine the left Riemann sum with n = 5
rectangles. The height of each rectangle is shown above it.
Be-
The area of each rectangle is its width, 2, times its height. Calculate the sum of the cause all the
areas of the rectangles. vectangles have
the same width,
2f(0) + 2f(2) + 2f(4) + 2f(6) + 2f(8) = 2[f(0) + f(2) + f(4) + f(6) + f(8)] YOu can factor it
Estimate the function values based on the graph in Figure 17-2. out,

2(54+8+9.5+
7+ 1) =2(30.5) =61

The area beneath the curve is approximately 61 square units according to the left
Riemann sum.

Note: Problems 17.2-17.6 refer to thegraph in Figure 17-1.

17.3 Approximate the shaded area using five rectangles of equal width and right
Riemann sums.
Because
the vight
Because the interval and number of rectangles are the same as Problem 17.2,
there is no need to recalculate the width of the rectangles: Ax = 2. The height of youndavy of
each rectangle in a right Riemann sum is dictated by the height of the function at the [0,2] interval
the right boundary of each interval, as illustrated by Figure 17-3. is x = 2, that
vectangle will have
a height of £(2). The
vectaugle on [2,4]
will have a height
of £(4), anA
SO On.

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
271
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

—_So

OF
FP
oo
no
CO
DO
DN

Lee ee ee 10
Figure 17-3 The rectangles used to determine the right Riemann sum with
n = 5 rectangles. The height of each rectangle is shown above tt. -

Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

2f(2)+2f (4) + 2f(6)+2f (8) +2/ (10) = 2[f(2)+ (4) + (6) + f(8)+ f(10) |
=2(8+9.5+7+1+2]
= 55

The area beneath the curve is approximately 55 square units, according to the
right Riemann sum.

Because the interval and number of rectangles are the same as Problems 17.2 and
midpoint of the 17.3, there is no need to recalculate the width of the rectangles: Ax = 2. The height
interval [0,2] is x of each rectangle in a midpoint Riemann sum is dictated by the height of the
= |, s0 the vectangle function at the midpoint of each interval, as illustrated by Figure 17-4.
on that interval) has a
height of £(1)=¢. the
heights of the vectangles
on [2,4], [4,€], [6,8], ana
18,10] ave £(3) = 9, £(5) =
4, $CT) = 4, and £(4) =
0, vespectively,

272 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

_ oS

REO
Ok
TG
GO
DONO
AE eer
ee
oe
eS
—_
.

10
Figure 17-4 The rectangles used to determine the midpoint Riemann sum with n = 5
rectangles. Note that the rectangle on [8,10] has a height off(9) = 0, so Accovding
its area is O as well. to the
formula,
Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles. Ax= aoe = Lora
pene =|
‘ 10 _
2f()+2f(3)+2f (5)+ 2/(7)+2F(9)=2[ (1)+ £3)+ £(5)+ £(7) + F(9)] / put you Aow't veally
= 2(6+9+9+4+0] need
a formula to
= 56 tell you that splitting
The area beneath the curve is approximately 56 square units, according to the something 10 units long
midpoint Riemann sum. into 10 sections means
each section will
measuve | unit.
Note: Problems 17.2-17.6 refer to the graph in Figure 17-1.
17.5 Approximate the shaded area using 10 rectangles of equal width and upper
Riemann sums.

Because the number of rectangles is n = 10, Ax= 1. The height of each rectangle
in anupper Riemann sum is the greatest function value in an interval. There-
ore, the rectangle on the interval [0,1] hasa height of /(1) = 6 (the right end-
point of the interval), whereas the rectangle on [7,8] will have a height of f(7) = 4
(the left endpoint of the interval). Note that the heights defining the rectangles in
an upper Rieman sum need not occur at the endpoints of the interval, but in this
problem they do.

Some
textbooks
Call upper sum
rectangles
CIRCUMSCRI BED
rectangles,

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
273
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

a oS

NI
Dm
OF
Ff
oo
ro
©

2. 8 at bas Oy Re, Bo eaG

Figure 17-5 The greatest function values for each interval occur at either
the left or right endpoint, but that is not necessarily true for all
functions. In fact, it only occurs when a function, like f(x),
does not change direction between intervals.

Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

Le f()+1 f(Q) +1: f(B) +1 f(A)F1 f(A FL £5) 41: £6) 41: (7) 41:s(@)+1- (10)
=6+84+94+9.54+9.5+9+7+44+14+2
= 65

The shaded area measures approximately 65 square units, according to the upper
Riemann sum.

Lower

Riemann sum
Note: Problems 17.2-17.6 refertothe graph in Figure 17-1.
vectangles ave
i 17. 6 _ Approximate the shaded area using 10 pe nonle of equal width and lower
Sometimes callea 7Riemann sums.

vectangles.”
The height of each rectangle in a lower Riemann sum is the smallest function
value on the x-interval, as illustrated by Figure 17-6.

—Oo

Gh
Go!
ONS)
fe
mT
“ow
co
oo
Oe

Me eRe Gy er) tee

Figure 17-6 The smallest function value over each interval defines theaoue of
the rectangles in a lower Riemann sum. Though these values occur at
interval endpoints for this function, it is not necessarily true for all
functions for the reasons given in Figure 17-5.

the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

274
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

Ve f(O)+1- FOYT f(Q)+1- f(8)+1- £(5)+1- £6) +1- £(7) +1- £(8) +1: £(9)+1: f(9)
=5+6+84+94+9+7+4+140+0
= 49
The area beneath the curve is approximately 49 square units, according to
the
lower Riemann sum.

Note: Problems 17.7-17.11 refer to the area of the region bounded by the x-axis and the
function
g(x) = x on the x-interval [0,5].

17.7 Estimate the area using a right Riemann sum with n=5 rectangles of equal
width. i2 * /

Calculate the width of the rectangles using the formula from Problem 17.1.

pegs = 2, Be
Ax
n 5 5
The rectangles will occupy these intervals on the x-axis: [0,1], [1,2], [2,3], [3,4],
and [4,5]. The height of each rectangle will be determined by the function
values of the right boundaries of each interval: g(1), g(2), g(3), g(4), and g(5), You
can Paeeee
respectively. Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles. did Hae an
Ax(g(1)+ g(2)+ g(3)+ g(4) +g(5)) =1[(1?) + (2*)+ (3?)+ (47) + (5%)] the ivst step.
=1(11+4+9+16+425)
=55

According to the right Riemann sum, the area is approximately 55 square units.

Note: Problems 17.7-17.11 refer to the area of the region bounded by the x-axis and thefunction
g(x) =x on the x-interval [0,5].

17.8 Estimate the area using a left Riemann sum with n=5 rectangles of equal width.

Use the same width from Problem 17.7: Ax = 1. When calculating left Riemann
sums, the height of each rectangle is dictated by the height of the function at the
left boundary of each rectangle. Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

Ax(g(0)+ g(1)+ ¢(2)+ g(3)+ g(4)) =1[0? +1 +2" +3" +42]

=1+4+9+16
= 30
According to the left Riemann sum, the area is approximately
30 square units.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

275
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Note: Problems 17.7-17.11 refer to the area of the region bounded by the x-axis andthe a
8) ==x’ on the x-interval [0,5];

17.9 Estimate the area using a epee Riemann sum with n= 4

2 cone of equal
width.

Determine the width of the rectangles.

bat b= 0 5
number of Ax=
ia. aes
rectangles has
Changed from 15
The four rectangles will occupy these intervals: 0,2 , 25 , EB At
Problems 17.7 and 4) (4’2]'L2°4] 214 o}.
I7.8—make Suve toe
calculate the Determine the midpoint of each interval by adding its boundaries and multiplying
new width, na1
Y 9
Midpoint of jo,>| = s(o+3] = (3 = = 5
To 4 2 4} 2\4 8.
get the interval ple.
Midpoint of 3.3 -3(2 +3)-s(3+2)- (2
boundawies, stavt 4 2 2N@ 2 2 ee ee Z 8
with 0 and ada
Ss Midpoint of Bed = (E+ 2)- (f++2)- iF|=25
Ax = — four 2 4 2a 4 2 8
times,
Midpoint of = 5 -3(2+ 5\= ee
+3) -3(2)-2
4 2\ 4 4 2 8
Plug Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles.
each of the
wmidpoints into
A
5). (15). (25) (35\]_ 5/25 225 625 + 1,295
g(x) = x’. “{e(8) (5) «(2 “(=| le 64. 64 —a
—|+ g|— ]+g|— |+
g|— ]|=-| —+—+—

=5 (20)
4\ 64
_ 2,625
ba = 41.016 square units

Note: Problems 17.7-17.11 refer to the area ofthe regionhounded 7thex-axis and thefunction
g(x)=x on the x-interval [0,5].

Wl 0 Estimate the area using a lower Riemann sum with n= 6rectanglesof =e

width,

Calculate the width of the rectangles.

276 Te Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

The six rectangles will occupy these intervals: [o.2], [22], [Fal
6)’ (6°3)" Ls 2)"(2°Beal
3
10 25
P=) , and 25]. Because g(x) is strictly increasing on [0,5], the
lowest function

value in each interval occurs at the right boundary. Therefore, the

lower Riemann
Because
sum is equivalent to the left Riemann sum for f(x) = x, 98) = 2x is
Positive fov all x's

5((+e(5)+e(5)+«($)+e("2)+e(22)
between 0 and se
A(x) is increasing on
the interval,
Gish akO. 4 Cu a6
_ 5 (25 +225
+10 +4000
+625
=7( 36
_ 6,875 = 31.829 square units
216

Note: Problems 17.7-17.11 refer to the area of the region bounded by the x-axis and the function
g(x) =x on the x-interval [0,5].

17.11 Estimate the area using an upper Riemann sum with n= 6 rectangles of equal
width. -

Follow the same method as Problem 17.10, but instead of the lesser of the function
values, define the rectangle heights as the greater of the endpoints’ function
ines 2(4(2)+e(3}+e(S)
+e(22)+4(2)+e0)
=7(F +242 a9.86
6\386 9 4
taet?|
5 25+ 100 225+ 400+6254900)
=7( 36
_ 11,375
eu 52.662 square units

Note: Problems 17.12-17.16 refer to the area of the region bounded by f(x) = 3x? + 1 and the
x-axis on the x-interval [0,6].

17.12 Estimate the area using a left Riemann sum with:

(a) n= 3 rectangles
(b) n= 6 rectangles
Which estimate more accurately approximates the correct area of 222 square
units? /

-0
When n= 3 rectangles are used, Ax = rae = 2; when n= 6 rectangles are used,
6-0
Ax =——=1
6

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
277
 ushapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

sum with n= 6 rectangles:

(a) Left Riemann sum with n = 3 rectangles: '(b) Left Riemann e
| e
Se

Ax[ f(0)+ f(2)+ £4] IAxl £(0)+ f+ f(2)+ £3) + £4) +£5]
The =2(1+13+49) +
|=1(1+4413+28+4976)
move vectangles = 126 square units | = 171 square units
70U use to calculate
A Riemann sum, the
move accurate your Using n= 6 rectangles produces a more accurate result.

WEA estimate will

be.
Note: Problems 17.12-17.16 refer to the area of the region bounded by f(x)= 3x’ + 1 and the
x-axis on the x-interval [0,6].

17.13 Why is the area estimate in Problem 17.12 significantly less than the actual area?

The graphof f(x) = 3x? + 1 is increasing on the interval [0,%), so the function
value at the right boundary of each interval is greater than that of the left
boundary. Furthermore, the magnitude by the right endpoint is greater increases
as x increases. Consider Figure 17-7, the graph of f(x) and the n= 6 rectangles
used to estimate the left Riemann sum. i

Figure 17-7 The estimation error, represented by the shaded region of the
graph, increases as x increases.

Above each inscribed rectangle, a large region beneath the curve is omitted,
causing the rectangles to underestimate the actual area beneath the curve.

Note: Problems 17.12-17.16 refer to the area of the region bounded by f(x)= 3x° + 1 and the ©
x-axis on the x-interval [0,6 he :

17.14 Describe the accuracy of a right Riemann sum using n = 6 subintervals of equal
width.

The greater the difference between a function’s height at the left and right
boundaries of each interval, the greater the estimation error when only the left

278 (ve Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area
eee

or right Riemann sum is considered. Therefore, for exactly the opposite reasons
presented in Problem 17.13, the right Riemann sum significantly overestimates the
area. As Figure 17-8 demonstrates, the rectangles of the right Riemann sum now
enclose far more than the area to be estimated.

1 ee Som Seems)
Figure 17-8 The circumscribed rectangles representing the right (or upper)
Riemann sum using n = 6 rectangles overestimate the area beneath
J(x). The estimation error, represented by the shaded region on the
graph, increases as f(x) increases.

Note: Problems 17.12-17.16 refer to the area of the ao bounded by f(x) = 3x° + 1 and the
x-axis on the x-interval [0,6].

17.15 Why will the midpoint sum provide the most accurate estimate of the area when
compared to the left and right Riemann sums using the same subintervals?
Supplement your argument with a graph.

As explained in Problem 17.13, a left Riemann sum will underestimate the area
beneath an increasing function. Similarly, using the highest function values on an
interval (when calculating a right Riemann sum) overestimates the area. However,
a midpoint sum produces a far more accurate approximation, because each
rectangle both excludes area within the region and includes area outside of the
region, as illustrated by Figure 17-9.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

279
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Figure 17-9 Each rectangle excludes area beneath the curve (represented by
the dark shaded regions) and includes area above the curve -
(represented by the light shaded regions).

Although the dark and light areas on each interval in Figure 17-9 are not equal
(and therefore won’t cancel one another out to perfectly calculate the area
beneath the curve), they serve to negate one another to some extent and provide
a more accurate result than right, left, upper, or lower Riemann sums for f(x) =
3x° + 1. In fact, midpoint sums are the most accurate Riemann approximation for
the vast majority of functions.

Note: Problems 1 7.12-17.16 refer to the area oftheregion botoded by f(x)== 3x?+1 and the
x-axis on the x-interval [0,6].
The
rectangles 17.16 Verify the hypothesis presented in Problem 17.15 by estimating tthe area using a
ave located on the midpoint Riemann sum with n = 6 rectangles.
tntervals [O, 1],[I Al
6-0
[2/3],Ts 4], [A/S] The width of the rectangles is Ax = au = 1, and the midpoints of the intervals
ana [5,6], 1ige5 70
my 9 9°9’9°2and 5 Calculate the sum of the areas of the rectangles.

oolsla)+
la)-ala) sla)
7(3)
E 31 79 151 247 287)
(5)
=1|—-+—+—+— + —— ela
4 4 4 4 4 4
44]
= oa = 220.5 square units

The area estimate of 220.5 square units closely approximates the actual area of
222, especially considering that the left Riemann sum using the same number
of rectangles is inaccurate by more than 50 square units (according to Problem
W712).

280 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area
———— eee eee eee

Trapezoidal Rule
Similav to Riemann sums but much move accurate

17.17 Approximate the area defined in Problem 17.12 (the area of the region bounded
by f(x) = 3x° + 1 and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,6]) using three trapezoids of You've
equal width. Probably used
to tvapezoidas that
have hevizoutal
It is best to construct the trapezoids such that one of their nonparailel sides is Pavallel sides. Just tip
horizontal and lies on the x-axis. The opposite side should connect the function a Fraditional-looking
values at the endpoints of the interval, as illustrated by Figure 17-10. tvapezoiA onto its left
side and flatten
(x) = 3x +1 that side out to
get the trapezoias
you'll use with the
She tvapezcidal rule,
Trapezoid1
0
f(0) .

J (6)

J (6) Trapezoid 3

FAY £4)
FQ) Trapezoid 2

2 2

Figure 17-10 — Three trapezoids of height 2 are used to estimate the area between
J(x) and the x-axis. In the left illustration, note that the shaded
region represents the overestimation error. In the right portion of
the illustration, the trapezoids are rendered separately to facilitate
the calculation of their areas.
The
1 BASES of
The area of a trapezoid is gl + b,), where b, and 8, are the lengths of the bases a trapezoiaA
and h/ represents the distance between them. Each of the trapezoids has the same ave its pavallel
height: h = Ax = Se a 9, sides. That means
a 3 the bases of the
Area of Trapezoid1 : | Area of Trapezoid 2: | Area of Trapezoid 3: left tvapezoiA ave
1 I] i] £(0) ana £(2), the
9 (4 + by) |go, + ) )gles * b,) bases of the middle
ey (eo trapezoiA ave (2)
1
= =(2)(f(
2
0)+ f(2)) | = —(2)(f(2)+ f(4))
ne
' = =>(2)(f(4)+ f(6))
te
ana £(4), and the
.
9 1 9 oe bases of the vight
=5[-0° +1)+(3-2' +1)]| ae -2,+1)+(3-4? +1)] =510-4" +1)+(3:6?+1)] \tvapezciA ave
17 =1[13 +49] || = 1[49 +109]
ama
P(A)26).
=1[1+13]
=14 |= 62 ' = 158

The sum of the trapezoidal areas is 14 + 62 + 158 = 234 square units. Note that
this estimate is almost as accurate as the midpoint Riemann sum from Problem

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

28|
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

17.16 despite using half as many geometric shapes (n = 3 trapezoids instead of

\f n= 6 rectangles).
each Dx an
S
vrearpeLrd va 17.18 Construct the trapezoidal nile which:uses 2 trapezoids of equalwidth to :
wide, Ther ne favs approximate the area of the region. bounded byaa Be Ley and the x-axis on !
near i sand the x-interval [a,b]. oF
w
vapeLar a a
rhe second oe Label the endpoints of the intervals as follows: a= x,, a+ Ax= x,, a+ 2Ax= x,, ***,
ie
rn VaixNe
cond rrapensia
a athe ‘ 1 b-a
enas an Each of the trapezoids has area —: Ax: (0, eI
b, ), where Ax = ——. Factor
Wid Degs) 1
—:-Ax=—
Vo-ee =
bae 2 er
out of each term, leaving behind the sums of the bases
etc. 2 oN n
of the trapezoids:
All
of the = [a+ F(x) +L) +S (x) 2+ (F (2) tS a+ a) + £0)
function
= [sa +2f (5)+2/Ga) 4-4 2/ (a) tO]
values have a
coefficient of 2
except x =a ana
x = b, because all of
the bases vepresent 17. 19 App the trapezoidal rule with n=5 trapezoids to estimate the area of the.
the ena of one _ Shaded region in Figure 17-11. (Note that this is the same function f(x) and
tvapezoiA and the aeinvestigated in Freblems 17.ce6.a : :
beginning of another
10,
except at the
endpoints.

Figure17 :
|The
ee of a continuous Junction
mi.

| fo)
wm
se
oS
eS
©
a
OF
1

Apply the trapezoidal rule formula from Problem 17.18.

“an 2S (m)+2F
(ee)+2F (0)
+2f(x) +£)]
aa

Here, a= 0, b= 10, and n= 5; the bases are located at the same x-values as the
interval endpoints: a= 0, x,= 2, x,= 4, x,= 6, x,= 8, and b= 10. Substitute these
values into the formula.

282 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area
Oe

@ Lf(0)+2f(2)+2/
(4) +2/(6)+2/(8)+ /(10)]
Theve’s
="(54+2-842:9.542-742-142)
always one move
=1(5+16+19+14+2+2) function value
= 58 square units in heve than the
number vn. (Since
n= S, theve ave
17.20 Problems 17.7-17.11 estimate the area of the region bounded by g(x)= x° and the six terms in the
x-axis on the x-interval [0,5]. Apply the trapezoidal rule using n = 6 trapezoids. brackets.) All of them
ave multiplied by 2
except the -ivst
and last ones,
Apply the trapezoidal rule formula from Problem 17.18. Note that Problem 17.10 £(0) and £(10).
used the same number of intervals over the same interval, so use those boundaries
and function values.

aces aie art

farsa oz oz oa2s)
easy 2
= SA* = 49.945

This
17.21 Estimate the area of the region bounded by h (x) = sin xand y=0 on the
x-interval [0, 2] using the trapezoidal rule with n= 4 trapezoids. is the equation
of the x-axis.

Begin by calculating Ax.

Apply the trapezoidal rule formula.

Se oe

“Fon eagle) 3
= = sin0+25in + 2sin + 2sin
oT +sinz|
8 4 2 4
/

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
283
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area
fo

Evaluate the sine function using the unit circle.

Zlo+(22|-@-n+[2-
No +0|

= 7[v2+242]
n(2+2,/2)
8 :

Reduce the fraction by factoring 2 out of the numerator.

a: 2(1+42)

z-4
(1+ 2)
4

17.22.Estimate the areaof the region bounded

byfix) = Z: y=0, xe and x = 1 using :
«= trapezoids of equal height. Report your answer accurate to three decimal
pee
In
ovAer to Apply the trapezoidal rule; begin by calculating Ax.
make Six tvape-
ZoiAs, you need =e 105
x= re

seven boundovies: 6 G53

two CnApoints Loy the Add : to the lower boundary five times to generate the boundaries of the
whole interya) et
anda x= 1) ANA five trapezoids.

eaual steps (that ave _3 3+5_8 845 _18 13+5_18_, 18+5_23 2845
_28 2845 38 _
AX units long) in 3 33. BESB a SES esas aa eG ee ee
between,
Apply the trapezoidal rule.

3H2(6) LI +2 (s)+2/
(8) +2/%)#2f
(0)+2/(6)+ 0D]
10 8 1
= /+2/(5)+2/(3}+2r0+2/(2)+2/(2) ran)

siete ee
=7[1+2 oe
lane ae oe ae ee
ato

The A 3 6 91-6" .-3 =|

COmMMmoN Aenomi- =—|1+—+—+-—+—+—+—
6 4 13 3 23 14 11
nator of 34 | }
3, 23, ana 28 is It is neither useful nor valuable to combine these fractions using a common
276,276! Suve you |___» denominator—use a graphing calculator to identify the decimal equivalent. The
Aon't want to add area is approximately 2.592 square units.

these fractions by
hana?!

284 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

17.23, Prove that the:trapezoidal rule approximation for the area beneath a continuous y
function f(x) on the x-interval [a,b] using n trapezoids is equal to the average of os
the right and left Riemann sums for the same area using n rectangles. &

Figure 17-12 illustrates a function J(x) split into n subintervals over [a,b]. Note that f
each interval has width Ax =
.

, creating the subintervals [a,x,], [x,,x,], [x,,x,],

. a . .

rete oe nC [xy 8).

Figure 17-12 Although [a,b] is split into n = 8 subintervals, this diagram is labeled
generically—any n subintervals would be labeled the same way along Factor
the x-axis.
out the width
of each vectang) e
Calculate the left Riemann sum, S,.
like in Problem 17-7
b= a Stuce you have _
S, ex (f(a) +f(x) +f (x) +f (x) +--+ (x2) +f (%-1))
dea what the actual
Note that each boundary is used except for f(b), as that x-value does not represent WwiAth is, leave the
Vaviables a,b, and
the left boundary of any subinterval. Now calculate the right Riemann sum, S,;
this time only f(a) will not appear in the formula, as it is not the right boundary of th there,
any subinterval.
_b-a
Sp=——(f (x) + f (x2) + f (x5) ++ F(x,-2) +f (% 1) + £0)
1
The average of S, and S,, is the sum multiplied byre

pe Nye
as +5,)=3] "(sod sla) ++ f(a) Me)) +s] (ra) Fe) #4 7G) 4 /0)|

’ y 1 b-a b-a .
Every term in the sum contains 3 . ; = —— ;factor out that expression.

b —a
[(F@) +f (m)t e+ £(%-2) +S (%1)) + (FC) + fm) 42+ f(a) + £))]
2n

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
285
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area ee ee
So

When Notice that, apart from f(a) and f(b), every function value Tad,
[Oe )ag ee
youve Aone ~9)> f(%,_:)
fl%,-2), J\%,— is repeated—appearing once in S, and once in S,. Add each pair
averaging the vight f(m) + fl%) = 2fl%), fl%) + fl%) = 2f(%), ete.
and left Riemann
Sums, you end UP With ="=a LS (a+ 2F(m1) +2 (a) + 2F (x5) +2 f(x,9)+2f (*1)+ £0) |
the trapezoidal
vule formula Lyom
Problem 7.19. 17.24 A surveying company measures ie distance between we Honk wand eh Tm
shores of a lake at fixed intervals 100 feet apart. Apply the trapezoidal rule tot
data in Figure 17-13 in order to determine the a sue area.ae the
lake.
So, *
Peet east of
the left edge oe 1713 :
of the lake, A(x) is _ The distances between the shores feoS
the distance from 625-foot-long lake taken airveguiar
the-top shove of the __ 100-foot intervals. Note that the dis- S
tance 0 at the leftmost measurement—
lake to the bottom
mark indicates the western boundary .
shove. For example, - the lake. / a -
A(200) = 2894 because |
200 feet east of
the left edge of
the lake, the lake
The lake’s measurements are a function of the distance from its western shore,
measuves 2819
Peet acvoss. d(x): d(0) =0, d(100) = 180, d(200) = 289, d(300) = 283, d(400) = 280,
d(500) = 264, and d(600) = 172.

Apply the trapezoidal rule to approximate the area beneath d(x) on [0,600] with
n = 6 trapezoids.
b—a
Actually,
- [d(a) + 2d(x,) + 2d (xy) + 2d (x5)+ 2d (x,) + 2d(x,)+d(6) |
Brthe oe
tvape-
ee 600 — 0 [0 +2(180) + 2(289) + 2(283) + 2(280)
Sars + 2(264) +172]
fay vight and left = 50[2,764]
avent trvapezoias at
all—they’ve tviangles = 138,200 ft”
because one of the
bases is 0.
—17.25— The ssurveying company from Problem 17,24 isj not entirely corefortible with
its estimate, because that approximation neglects the portion of the lake
less than 25 feet from its eastern boundary. To verify its previous estimate,—
seven trapezoids are used to approximate the surface area, but this time, the
~ measurements are taken at unequal intervals, as illustrated by Figure 1z14. What
is the a surface area of the lake os to this eehguer -

af
Ye
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
28 6
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

0
Distance (in feet) from 145
north to south shore

625
Distance (in feet) from
lake’s west shore
480501 54 240 © 507 593

Figure 17-14 The lake from Figure 17-13, this time including distances measured at
unequal intervals.
Though you are instructed to use trapezoids to approximate the area, you cannot
actually apply the trapezoidal rule—it requires equal subintervals. Therefore,
you simply find the area of each trapezoid individually. The leftmost two measure-
ments, 0 and 134, are the bases of T, (the first trapezoid), 134 and 187 are the
bases of 7; (the second trapezoid), 187 and 255 are the bases of 7;, and so forth
until 7;, the trapezoid with bases 145 and 0.

Area of T, + Area of T, + Area of T, + Area of T, + Area of T;,+ Area of T, + Area of T,

= 5h,(04134) +5fa 1 1
(134+187)+ hy(1874255) +2, (255+292)+5h,(292+261)+5 h (2614145) +— h,(145 +0)

= lh (134) + h, (321) + h, (442) + h, (547) + h, (553) + h, (406) +h, (145)|

The
Calculate the widths (h,, h,,-::, h,) of the trapezoids and substitute them into the Sivst trape-
expression. LOiA goes Lvowm 0 to
l Ag feet east of the
= 948 (134) + 100(321) + 6(442) + 86 (547) + 267 (553) + 86 (406) + 32 ( 45)] west edge of the lake,
so h, = 48 - 0= 48. The
_ 16.432 + 32,100 + 2,652 + 47,042 +147, 651+ 34,916 + 4,640]
secona trapezoid goes
Lvow 48 to 148 feet
= 5(275,433) east, so, = |48 - 48
= 137,716.5 ft” = |00, etc.

Note that this estimate of the lake’s surface area is very close to the estimate from
Problem 17.24.

17.26 Demonstrate that the exact area beneath a linear function can be calculated
using a trapezoidal approximation.

Consider the linear function f(x) = mx + bin Figure 17-15. The shaded area of
the region bounded by /(x) and the x-axis on the x-interval [c,d] is, in fact, a
trapezoid. Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to calculate the shaded
area.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

287
 Chapter
Neeeee Seventeen — Approximating Area

Figure 17-15 The area beneath the linear function f(x) on the x-interval
[c,d] is a trapezoid with bases f(c) and f(d) and height
Ax=d-c.

area = aAe(’ + b,)

=5(4-)( f+ f@)
Note that f(c) = m(c) + band f(d) = m(d) + b. Substitute these values into the area
expression.

= 3(4-6)[(me-+6)+(md +0)

Not all areas between a linear function and the x-axis can be calculated using
a single trapezoid. However, as Figure 17-16 demonstrates, those areas can be
calculated using two triangles.

Ff(x) =mx+ b

Figure 17-16 If the exact area beneath a linear function cannot be calculated
using a single trapezoid, it can be determined using two triangles.

Humongous Book of Calculus Proplems

288
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area
T_T

Simpson’s Rule
Approximates avea beneath curvy functions veallly well

17.27 Compare and contrast Simpson’s rule and the trapezoidal rule.

Simpson’s rule is an area approximation technique that uses equal subintervals,

like the trapezoidal rule. However, rather than using straight lines to connect the
interval endpoints, thereby constructing trapezoids to estimate the area, Simpson’s
rule uses parabolas. Therefore, Simpson’s rule is able to exactly calculate the area
beneath quadratic functions, whereas the trapezoidal rule is able only to exactly
calculate the area beneath linear functions (as explained in Problem 17.26). In
Simpson’s rule is also governed by one additional restriction: n, the number of the Riemann
sum formulas you
subintervals used in the approximation, must be even.
Aivide b-a by nin

According to Simpson’s rule, the area between the continuous function f(x) and the trapezoidal vale
the x-axis on the x-interval [a,b] is approximately equal to the following: Formula, you divide
b-a b-a by 2n; and in
3n
(F(a) +4f (m)+2F (x) +4 £ (x5) +2 (xy) ++ 26(x9) + 4F(%1)+ £0) the Simpson's vule
ormula, you Aivi Ae

Like the trapezoidal rule, Simpson’s rule attaches no coefficients to J(@ and f(d). D-a by 3nu,
However, Simpson’s rule requires a coefficient of 4 before all odd subscripts of x
and a coefficient of 2 before all even subscripts.

17.28 Problems 17.12-17.17 estimate the area of the region bounded by Youll
f(x) = 3x° + 1 and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,6]. Apply Simpson’s rule with get the
n = 2 subintervals to verify that the exact area of the region is 222 square units. exact aver
because F(x)
is a quadratic
Begin by calculating the widths-of the subintervals. function ana
b-a_ 6-0_ Siwmpsows vule calcu-

is anaes eae lates aven using

pavabolas (instead of
Apply Simpson’s rule with a= 0, b= 6, n= 2, and f(x) = 3x° + 1.
trapezcias), which

“(7 +47(m)+/0))]
ave quadratic
functions.

=o O+4/@)+/6)]
When
=2[(3-0' +1)+4(3-3* +1)+(3-6" +1)]
you have only
=1[(0+1)+4(27+1)+(108+1)] w= 2 subintervals,
Aon't switch back
=1+112+109
and forth between
= 999 coefficients of 4 ana
Zim the Simpsows vule
formula. Just use
one coefficient: 4,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

289
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area
fe

17.29 Problem 17.20 estimates the area of the region bounded by g(x)=-x2and the _
x-axis on the x-interval [0,5] using n= 6 ee oe Simpson’ S rule to
determine the exact area.

+40+ 4) +2e(s1)+40(0) +20)

(s(0),)
P=OFg(a)+-4¢26
Shes Jeon ne oa)
=iSBS lo
_ 75018
_1253

The 17.30 Use Simpson’ s rule withn= 4 subintervals to estimateothe area between the x- 3
axis and the function h(x) = sin x (as defined in Problem 17.21) on the x-interval
0.2).
exact
aver beneath
the cuvve is
2—it’s worked out Use the subinterval width and function values from Problem 17.21 as you apply
tw Problem 19.20, Simpson’s rule.
Simpson's vule Avesw't
give you the exact
gen because sin x
ae
_a-0
Gs) a
oa
Sa tvigonometvic, h(0)+ 4h|= + on|= + 4h] —|+h(z)
ne A Quadratic, ~ 3(4) 4 2 4
unctio
Hes 0+4|—
v2 +ocy+4|¥2 +0
ae 2 2

= Fy(2V2 +2+ 2v2)

ss (2 + 4/2)
ears
Factor 2 out of the numerator to reduce the fraction.

Zn(1+2V2)
re kee
(1+ 22)
Seer ae

This equals approximately 2.00456, which is very close to the exact answer of 2. By
comparison, the trapezoidal rule estimate from Problem 17.21 was approximately
1.89612,

Book of Calculus Problems

29 g The Humongous
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

17.31 Use Simpson’s rule with n= 6 subintervals to estimate the area between the
: ]
xaxis and f (x)= : (as defined in Problem 17.22) on the x-interval [1,11].
Provide an answer accurate to three decimal places.

The intervals and function values match those listed in Problem 17.22; apply them
The
to Simpson’s rule.
actual avea is
b-a In || = 23978985... It’s
LS a) +4 F(x) +2F (x) +4 f(x) +27 (4) +4 (x) + £(0)] worked out in Problem
1g.24
a) Lrasay S}e2"(S)rr@+27 a) (s}+
10 3 3 1 3 Oi al
70|
=—l1+4-—+2-—+44-—42-—44.
4——
al 8 13 6 23 28 a
( Dee Oke Oa =|
=—|1+=+—+=4+—4 4+
9 iL meh eae g
= 2.449

Formal Riemann Sums

You'll want to poke your “i’s out
This
17.32 Describe how the Riemann sum > J (c,) Ax, is used to calculate area in the is just a Vaviable
a
L not
i= 4/=],
coordinate plane when f(x) = 0.

This expression states that the approximate area beneath the continuous function
J(x) is equal to the sum ofa series of rectangle areas. Each rectangle’s area is
equal to the product of its length, f(¢), and its width, Ax,. For instance, the area
of the third (i= 3) rectangle is f(c,) - Ax,, where Ax, is the distance between the
endpoints of the interval on which the rectangle is constructed, and /(c,) is the i
height of the function /(x) at some point x = c, on that interval. doesnt
veally matter
what point you
17.33 Use a formal right Riemann sum with n = 4 subintervals of equal width pick on the inter-
to estimate the area of the region bounded by the x-axis and the positive, val, because you'll
continuous function f(x) on the x-interval [a,6].
be using infinitely
thin vectangles anda
Calculate the width of the rectangles using the formula from Problem 17.1. all of the functions
b-a values will be voughly
Ax= the same. (See
n
Problem 17:37.)
Next, identify the boundaries of the four intervals. The leftmost interval has aleft
bound of x= aand aright bound of a+ Ax: [a,a+ Ax]. The left boundary of the
second interval matches the right boundary of the first interval (a+ Ax) and its
right boundary is Ax to the right:

(a+ Ax) + Ax= a+ 2Ax

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
291
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Therefore, the second interval is [a+ Ax, a+ 2Ax]. Similarly, the remaining
intervals are [a+ 2Ax, a+ 3Ax] and [a+ 3Ax, 5].
aon
Each rectangle of the right Riemann sum has a width of Ax = and a height
equal to f(c,), if c,is the right boundary of the ith interval. Calculate the sum of
The
vight interval the areas of the rectangles.
poundowies ave
at+Ax,a+2Aax, a+3Ax, Ax: f(at+Ax)+ Ax: f(a+2Ax)+ Ax: f(a+3Ax)+ Ax: f(a+4Ax)
ana at+4Ax. =Ax[ f(at+Ax)+ f(a+2Ax)+ f(at+3Ax)+ f(a+4Ax) |

17.34. Use a formal right Riemann sum with n subintervals of equal width to estimate
the area of the region bounded by the x-axis and the positive, continuous
function /(x) on the x-interval [a,b]. - :

Note that Problem 17.33 asks you to perform the same task, but with a specific
number of subintervals (n = 4). This problem will therefore have a similar
answer, but instead of 4 function values added parenthetically, there should be n:
Ax[ f(at+Ax)+ f(a+2Ax)+ f(at+3Ax) +--+ f(atnAx)| ;
Fivst
plug ini= |
to get the aven 17.35 Write the solution to Problem 17.34 in sigma notation. |
Ax #(lAx) , then
plug ini =2 to get
the avea Axo2 (a +2Ax), To indicate a sum of n terms, the limits of the summation are 1 and n. Use the
n

ANA so on, all the way variable 7 to indicate the individual rectangles: Si[Ax -f(at iAx) |
up to i= u, the avea i=]

Ax-f(a+nAx), once
you've found alll those
vectangulay areas, 17.36 In order to exactly calculate the area between a function f(x) and the x-axis,
an infinite number of rectangles must be used. Explain how to indicate this for
AAA thew all up. Riemann sums written in sigma notation.

Apply the formula from Problem 17.35 and indicate an infinite number of

rectangles by allowing n to approach infinity: lim S[Ax -flat iAx)|.

i=l

No 17.37 Justify the sufficiency of a right Riemann sum (or in fact any other Riemann
matter what sum) to exactly calculate a finite area using an infinite number of rectangles.
b-ais,i€ you
Avide
isby an infinitely
IYgautic number In order for an infinite number of rectangles to fit in a finite space, the width of
h, the ba
vesult is basically the rectangles, A a n ’ must approach 0. If the rectangles have an
9,
(See the note on
Problem 10.28.) infinitely small width, the heights of the function beneath which you are
approximating the area will not change significantly on the subintervals.

292 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Therefore, all of the function values on each subinterval are essentially the
same, and the right, left, midpoint, or any other Riemann sum will produce the
exact same value, the precise area between the function and the x-axis.

17.38 Identify the values of the following expressions: ~ k, yt : * i and dF ;

i=] i=] i=] i=]

Calculating area with formal Riemann sums often requires you to know the values Generating
of these sums. It is helpful to memorize their values rather than to generate them these is MUCH
when they are needed. In fact, generating them is both trivial and irrelevant for
HARDER than
the scope of this exercise, and is therefore omitted.
just memovizing
n n 2
n +n
n 3
2n°>+3n 2 n 4 them, so Aowt even
P=" +n and
3 2
k= kn, is ——, vis n +2n°>+n bother Ffiguving it
i=] i=l 2 i=l
out unless you have
6 i=l *

a lot of time on your

hands. The first
17.39 According to Problem 17.29, the exact area of the region bounded by g(x) =
one’s easy, but the
and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,5] is equal ie to “3
deo
square units. Verify vest of ‘ew? Not
this value using a formal right Riemann sum (i.e., using infinite number of so much.
rectangles).
=

Problem 17.36 states that the right Riemann sum using an infinite number of \ 2
rectangles is equal to lim }\[Ax :g(a+iAx)|.To apply the formula, begin by Se
mee ial 4
calculating Ax. f eS \y

5
Substitute Ax = — into the formal Riemann sum formula. Note that
n
g(a+iAx) = g(iAx) because a= 0.
7 ‘ n Ee es

lim [4+ . g(iAx) |= lim >|?: “(=| In this Problem,

S/n is a constant
(i changes Auving th
e
According to a summation property, Sa ‘g(x)= a>, g(x). Problem but y Acesw’h),
Pull it outside the

= in|®-Se(2*)
summation symbol,

<3]
i i=1

Substitute = into g(x) = x.

n

= in| 2-S(2)|

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
293
 | Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

Again apply the summation property Sa -g(x)= a>, g(x) to remove the

constant —> from within the summation.

=tim|2.25S|
No) YY n i=l

125
=]
: in|
2 >|

Apply the >2 formula from Problem 17.38.

i=]

=. on? + 3n? tn
= lim oo. oe: aor
nn! 1 6
_ | 250n® 375n? 125n
= lim 3 3 3
no! 6n 6n 6n

.- 2507n* . 375n* . 1958,

= lim af ih se it ae
n> 6n ES NAG: ne 6§n°
L’Hopital’s
Rule is covered Evaluate each limit either by comparing the degrees of the numerator and
th Problems denominator or using L'Hopital’s Rule.
14.27-14:34,
6 3

XY yy 17.40 According to Problem 17.28, the exact area of the region bounded by
f(x)= 3x? + 1 and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,6] is equal to 222 square units.
Ge Verify this value by calculating the same area using a right Riemann sum and—
leLAN> | an infinite number of rectangles.

Apply the techniques described in Problem 17.39. Begin by calculating Ax.

;
b=a’ 6-0
Ax= =—. and f(atiAx)= f(iAx), because a=0
n n

Substitute Ax into the formal right Riemann sum formula.

hin Dy[ax-/(ids)]=1im [2-7

m
Apply the summation property that states Sa -g(x)= a>. g(x) and evaluate
62

ia
=lim|—-6 ¥)
I. (6i)
3/2] +1

=lim|—-6y S\}3- 367° 41

i=]

=6 3
=lim|im 2 w{ 108:”
a +1 }

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prelblems

29 4
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

According to a summation property, » (a+b)= » a+ > Bs

elt S9-5)
Youve
~ | 6{ 1082? . allowed to
split the sum inside
i=] i=]
Distribute — through the parentheses. Sigma into the sum of
n two separate sigma
expressions.

You
can pull the
According to Problem 17.38, >? _ 2n°+3n?
6
+n
and S1=Qne=n. Constant
|
es
i=] i=] n
outside the Sigua
Sel: 648 ( 2n°
+ 3n*? +n
re 6ee 6
ete | Sigh now.
ay He n

= im]8(an+3n? + n) + *5|
no
n nh

108
=Him|“> (2n? +3? +n) +6 |
n>o
n

zag +
324n? 108n |
= lim +6
noo] 93 n> n°
. 216n> 3294? LO Staaee
= lim 3 +lim sr um 3 + lim6
n>o n n>o n n>o n nro

Evaluate the first three limits by comparing the degrees of the numerator and
denominator or using L’H6pital’s Rule. Note that lim6=6.
=216+0+0+6
= 222 QR

17.41 Calculate the exact area of the region bounded by j(x) = x° + xand the x-axis on Se
the x-interval [-1,0] using a formal right Riemann sum. J Ni

Determine the value of Ax.

pe 0-(-1 tee)
O+1 1
n n n
1
Substitute Ax == into the formal right Riemann sum formula.
a n 1 =

aoe ix
i=]
i

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
295
 Chapter Seventeen — Approximating Area

i
When Evaluate i + 4)
n
you split the
big sigma into
four smaller sigmas,
make sure you 1
daistvilpute that = lim—
| to both of
them.

n n n

Replace Se oe and S'iwith the formulas from Problem 17.38.

i=1 i=1 i=1

— 1f 1 ntt+2n? +n? 3 2n?4+3n? +n 4 n? +n

= in| ee ee —-———_—-2n
no n\n 4 n 6 n 2

_ (nt+2ni +n? 6n?+9n?4+3n 4n?+4n 2n

=) ee ee
no An 6n 2n n
1
=——1+2-2
4

ped
4

Because the graph of j(x) is negative on the x-interval (-1,0), the region bounded
jGs) is the only by 7(x) and the x-axis has a signed area of ae Signed area reports both the area
function in this
of the region and whether that area appears above or below the x-axis (much like
chapter that’s below
the x-axis. velocity reports an object’s speed as well as its direction via its sign). However, area
should be reported using positive units, so the area of the region is 7

296 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter [8
INTEGRATION

Now the Aevivative’s not the answey, it’s the question

In this chapter, you will apply the fundamental theorem of calculus, which
uses the antiderivative of a function in order to exactly calculate the area
bounded by that function and the x-axis. Antidifferentiation requires a
wider variety of techniques and algorithms than differentiation, so Chapters
18-24 are dedicated to thoroughly exploring antidifferentiation techniques
and their applications. At this, the onset of said exploration, the power
rule for integration, trigonometric, logarithmic, and exponential function
antiderivatives, and variable substitution are discussed.

tere conneceh ete eet then ening bb

;
techniques. Chapter || endes a Can asic integration (or antidifferentia
tic
with the “hav. ¢
Aaifference quotient)—sort of ; a sien
like Chapter Tue Sua
to calculate ex act avea (Pormal Rieman n Goa ee
n sums). Right smack at
ze hater 12, the ‘easy the es; ae
way” to take Aevivatives
Aiffeventiation. This chapte sho wea A up, the power eae
r starts with the “easy
the power vule Loy tntegvati way” to ae ANTlAevi Se
on. It they Moves on to bas e
like the fundamental th ic tntegvation ane ape
eovem of calculus and int . ‘
substitution, egration methods like u-
 FaChapter Eighteen — Integration ee

In Power Rule for Integration

ovas

coeeas
ADD | to the exponent and DIVIDE by the new power

ourside the ee 18.1 Given aand nare real numbers, determine the antiderivative: { ax” dx,
ian. JWs

imregrare w According to a property of integrals, faf (x) dx = af f (x)dx.

y the
ena waultiply © wre
MD eeoh a dx =a x"dx
coer Scent wher 7°
do the same n+1
Aone. You x bv es—
ring with Aevwa \0x° The power rule for integration states that f x dx = a +C. In other words,
bo Nekerenriate se : increase the exponent by 1 and divide the term by the new exponent; the result
justdibteren x is the antiderivative. Additionally, you must add a constant of integration “+C”
x to ger Sx a to the expression to indicate the possible presence of a constant. Notice that
multiply that es differentiating this expression with respect to x will return the original integrand.
er 30x :
ae
—die +C}=—|—x""
d 1 +1
+ Cl= 1
(n+1)x"”(Cea =—x
mt) an
=x n
dx\n+1 dx\n+1 n+1 m+

Because the derivative of any constant is 0, there is no way to determine what

constant, if any, was eliminated by differentiating, so “+C” is used as a generic
n+]
The INTEGRAND laceholder. Therefore,
placeholder. Therefore a} f x"dxx = ar +C.
is the expression
inside the integval
(between the integral
sign ana the 18.2 Integrate the expression: { x*dx.

Add 1 to the exponent (8 + 1 = 9) and divide the expression by the new exponent:

18.3 Integrate the expression: J (6x?ae 9x) dx.

Even though
theve ave two According to a property ofintegrals, fLF@® att g(x) |dx = f f (x)ax ae fg(x)ax:
integrals heve, you
need only to use The integral of a sum or difference is equal to the sum or difference of the
one C. Each tntegval individual integrals.
has a constant of J (6x?Be 9x) dx = f 6x%dx + f 9xdx
tntegvation, but 2
Chee Crass =6 i x-dx+9 f xdx
coustants aAA up to Apply the power rule for integration.
some othev unknown
241 141
Coustant you
=6: B +9- + G.
label C. 21 ied
LO eae,
6 3 9 2

3 2
9
= 2x) tox +C

298 the H UMongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

18.4 Integrate the expression: f —,

x
ck ]
Note that the integrand can be rewritten as Saas —moving dx out of the
expression to be integrated does not affect the oe 1
as it is still multiplied ae=
in both cases. However, the power rule foriintegration doesn’t apply
because it
gives an undefined result.
eel
iebes fo tde = =
au 0
ee 0 eC

Division by 0 is mathematically invalid, so aneiner to the power rule for

d
eeranen is needed in order to integrate. Recall that ay 1
winx) ==. Lhereiore,
f-dx = In|x|+ C. The absolute value signs are required because
x
the domain of
y= an xis (0,0), the positive real numbers.

18.5 Integrate the expression: f Vx° dx.

Rewrite the radical expression using rational exponents (as discussed in Problem
2.10).

fvxPdx = fix°/dx
Apply the power rule for integration.
¢8/2)41
= +C
3/2+1
gh 24872
ae ee eh fe Dividing
Se x” by S/2 is the
ni same as multiplying
5/2?
x” by 2/5,
Eliminate the complex fraction.
a 2 ol? (a

18.6 Integrate the expression: fi

(9x! + 7x —5Yx° )ax

By applying an integral property, you can split the integrand into three separate
integrals, move the coefficient of each outside its integral, and rewrite the radical
expressions using rational exponents.

J (9x4 + 7a — 5K" dx = f9xtdx +f7Jrdx+ f (-5%x°dx)

=9f xtdx+7f Jxdx—5 fYx° dx
=9f xtdx+7f x'dx—5 f x°/8dx

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
299
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Apply the power rule for integration.

Use xt gl/2)41 2/841
j = Q-——__ -.7 - —____ — 5: ———__4+ C
COMMON Aenowi- 4+1 G/2)+1 (3/8)+1
a (3/9) |e x? yi xll/8

II/¢. 5 Some 18
= ans +7(2)." -3(3 +C
5 3 11

yoo ee
5 3 11

6x"
18.7 Integrate the expression: | ox dx.
x*
You
cam only split
-a fraction up into f(x) +g(x)
_f(x), ge) so rewrite the integrand as two separate
two smaller fractions
if theve’s a sum in the
ites IG akc).
NUMERATOR. You
aA
[2aat dx = fax ~ fas
d tn eane
cant turn =e into
= f5x'*dx— f 6x” ‘dx
= Bf x Sdx—6f x°dx

Apply the power rule for integration.

Even -2 x!
though the = z of]+¢€
exponent is negative,
you still AAA | to tt ana
divide by the new
power.
18.8 Integrate the expression: f 7 Ja .
x -

Rewrite the rational integrand as two separate integrals, as explained in Prob-

lem 18.7.

(SSF a= fa fae
= fx? *dx— fide

= fx'dx— f dx

: LT ee 1
According to Problem 18.4, the antiderivative of — is In |x| + C; the antiderivative
x
of 1 (which can be written 1dx or simply dx) is x, because the derivative of xis 1.

=In |x| -x+C

300 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

18.9 Integrate the expression: f x (5— Vx )dx.

You
get lots
Distribute x* before applying the power rule for integration. of fractions
in Aenominatovs
Sx? (5x )dx = f (5x? — 2-2/2)de as avesult of
the power vule for
= J (5x? —x°/?)dx integration. Just
=5f x*dx— f x°dx take the veciprocal
ana multiply it by
=5+—-—_4¢ the coefficient,
o 4/2 if theve’s one
oe aay +C alveady
3 7 theve.

Integrating Trigonometric and Exponential Functions

Trig integrals lock nothing like trig Aevivatives

18.10 Integrate the expression: J.cos

xdx.
A\l of the
gration
Recall that the derivative of sin x (with respect to x) is cos x, so it follows that the important inte
you
antiderivative of cos x (with respect to x) is sin x. Rovmulas that
,
f cosxdx =sinx+C
should memorize
tv ig
incluaing the
, ave
antiderivatves
\isteA Appenaix =
18.11 Integrate the expression: f (7 —sinx) dx. oo

Rewrite the integral as the difference of two distinct integrals.

Jf7dx— f sinx dx All of

d the tvig
The antiderivative of 7 is 7x (because a (7x) = 7); the antiderivative of sin x is functions that
—COS X.
x
stavt with “co” have
= 7x —(—cosx)+C negative Aevivatives,
=7x+cosx+C so all of the trig
functions that DON’T
Stavt with “co” have
negative integrals.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 301
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

sinx + CcOosx
18.12 Integrate the expression: f—_—__—_—_
: dx.
sinx cosx

Rewrite the integrand as the sum of two rational expressions, as explained in

Problem 18.7.
sinx + Se sin x COs x

sinx COS X sinx cos x COSX

eet

Using oe fee
: the formulas
th Appendix FE. = foes \eeae

= fsecxdxt f cscxdx

Antidifferentiate the trigonometric functions.

= In|secx + tanx|+ (—In|cscx + cot x|) +C
= In|sec
x + tan x|—In|csc
x+ cot x|+C
Look a
at Problem $.2| Apply the logarithmic property stating that log a— log b= log be:
fov another example secx+tanx
of this log Property +C
cscx +cotx
in action,

. 6+sinx
18.13 Integrate the expression: fOx,
2 cosx

Rewrite the integrand as a sum of two fractions.

EELS, sinx
J cosx ax= f ax * Foon ™
1 sinx
=i) dx + dx
i;COs x J CcOsx
sin x
Note that = tAnn
CcOsx

ie =6fsecxdx+ ftanxdx
coef icient = 6In|sec+ tan x|—In|cosx|+C
of a log can be
vewvitten as the Apply logarithmic properties.
power of what's inside = In(secx + tanx)° —In|cosx|+C
the log: (secx +tanx)°
a log b = log \*. =In +C
lcos x|
Absolute values are not required in the numerator, as any quantity raised to an
even power will be nonnegative.

302 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

18.14 Integrate the expression: f4(tan x)| dx.

That's
not the inverse
function tan'x—it's
Rewrite the expression without negative exponents.
tan x VAISCA te
J4(tanx)'dx= f4- : dx the -| power,
tanx

Problems
Note that —COLX.
18.43 ana
=4f cotxdx 18.44 explain how
to integrate cot x
= 4In|sinx|+C
ana tan x without
having to vesovt to
the formulas in
18.15 Integrate the expression: i.Vcos* x + sin® x dx.
Appendix E.

According to a Pythagorean identity, cos? x + sin? x = 1,

f Vcos? x+sin® x dx = fVidx

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Integvation anda aven ave closely velatea

18.16 According to the fundamental theorem of calculus, what is the area of the
region bounded by the nonnegative continuous function f(x) and the x-axis on
the x-interval [a,b] in terms of F(x), the antiderivative of S(x)?

DEFINITE
The area of the region is equal to the definite integral integrals have
Gs Ff(x)dx= F(x) = F(b)— F(a). In other words, the area of the region is small numbers next
the difference of F(b) and F(a), the antiderivative of f(x) evaluated at the to theiv integral
signs callea “limits of
x-boundaries of the region.
integration.’ Because
they vepresent the
avea beneath a
18.17 Evaluate the definite integral: f dx.
Runction, theiv values
ave veal numbers, not
Find the antiderivative of the integrand x* using the power rule for integration. Punctions containing
4
%C” like the INDEFI-
fedx=—+C
4
NITE integrals iw
Problems 18.1-18.1S-

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
303
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Write the antiderivative (excluding “+C”) with a vertical bar to its right and
will
copy the limits of integration. This conventional notation indicates that you
each boundar y and then calculate the differenc e.
Ovdev is
evaluate the antiderivative at :
‘ fietae me
very important.
d a
Always plug the top
number in First and
then subtract what Before evaluating the antiderivative at x = 2 and x= 0, you may factor out any
:
you get when you constants.
2
al qi \f
plug iin the bottom
number,
Substitute x= 2 and x= 0 into the expression and then calculate the difference.
rig 1
moa
=7(16)

18.18 According to Problem 17.29, the exact areaofthe region bounded by g(x) =x
125.
and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,5] is ~ . Verify the area using the funda-
You mental theorem of calculus.
Aout HAVE
to factor out 1/3 sheen 4 ey
before you plug in : ae Bo) 0 pee ee
x=Savnda x= 0. 3 63 3 3

18.19 According to Problem 17.12, the exact area of the region bounded by 2
f(x) = 3x7 + 1 and the x-axis on the x-interval [0,6] is 222. Verify the area using
the fundamental theorem of calculus. 2

3 6

S.(3x7 +1)dx -( +5) =(x° +x))

0

As you evaluate the antiderivative for x= 6 and x= 0, ensure that you substitute
those values into both x’ and x.

(x? +x)’ =(6 +6)—(0°

+0)=216+6=229

18.20 Evaluate the definite integral: f|sine dx,

The antiderivative of sin xis —cos x.

J; sinx dx=—cosx|} =—(cosa —cos0)=—(-1—-1) =2

304 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

:
18.21 Evaluate the definite
eg ‘ 11
integral: f: = :
x
Since
According to Problem 18.4, f &d = In|x], the xintevcept
x
of y = In xis (1,0),
d (ole) = n]1|- nf]
Sp == nl =o,
x
= In11-0£
nt

18.22 Given a function f(x) that is continuous over the x-interval [a,b], prove that
S-f@)=-S* s@). You
cam veverse
the limits of
Apply the fundamental theorem of calculus, denoting an antiderivative of f(x) as
integration on any
F(x).
integval—just make
fF (x)ax = — fF (%)ax suve to take the
opposite of the
F(x)|, =-F (x); vesult.
F(b)— F(a)=—(F(a)-
F(6))
F(b)— F(a) =—F(a)+ F(b)
F(b)— F(a) = F(b)—- F(a)

Because F(b) — F(a) is always equal to itself, you can conclude that
Sf@=-f'7s@.
This
Means you
18.23 Given a function f(x) that is continuous on the x-interval [a,b] and a real number can break up
one
esuch that a < c< 3, prove the following statement. thtegva) thto
the
SUM of two (or
=f fw)det fof(x)ax.
Sif eae by splitting up
Move)
the
limits of integration
Let F(x) be an antiderivative of f(x) and apply the fundamental theorem of
thto smalley chunks,
calculus. lustead of integvatin
once from | to
9 you ?
Jf (x)dx = Sf (x)ax+ f° ¢ (x)ax Coula integrate
twice
Once from | tos
F(x)f = F(x)| + F(x) aAnA
then AIAN from
+
F(c)—F(a)=[F(b)— F(a)|+[F(c)— F(0)] to 7,
F(c)— F(a)= E@) — F(a)+ F(c) =F(6)
F(c)—
F(a) = F(c)— F(a)

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
305
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

18.24 Given the even function g(x) = 3x‘ — 8x*, demonstrate that

fi,e(~)dx = 2f- e(x)ax.

f-,(3x4 = ce = of (3x! — 8x" )dx

Bx®8x"| _(3°
_8x"|
5 3 5 3 0

[ser_2@r ay
3) 8(-3)°
pe |=2|(20%- ay [orsO")
5 3 5 5 2

oe (eae)-«-0|
5 3
729216 | Le 216_ 2(78 26)
5 3S 5
429° 729 me 1,458 432
Blak pus analieOia a
1,458 432_ 1,458 _432
5 a 5 2S

18.25 Given h(x) = |x—2|-5, evaluate Si n(x) ax.

Consider the graph of h(x) in Figure 18-1.

Figure 18-1 The function h(x) = |x — 2| — 5 is comprised of two lines:

h,(x) =—x — 3 and h,(x) = x — 7.

306 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

|
Chapter Eighteen — Integration

The function h(x) consists of two rays with endpoint

(2, —5). Because x— 2may
be either positive or negative, you can determine the equations
of those rays by Absolute
multiplying (x-2) by-I and 1.
values inside
Iy(x)=—1(x-2)-5 Ay(x)=1(x-2)—5 integvals ave
h(x) =-x+2-—5 headaches. To
hy (x)=x-2-5
fina this Aefnite
h, (x) =-x —3 h,(x)=x—-7 integral, you have to
Notice that h(x) is defined by h,(x) =—x- 3 for all x on the break the absolute
interval (—00,2), and is
defined by h,(x) = x—7 for all x on the interval (2,00). Because value equation into
the rule by which
the function is defined changes at x= 2, you must split the integral the equations of
fi h(x)ax at its two lines ana
that value.
integrate

JUhGdde =f" (w)dx-+ fh, (x)de separately.

fos —2|-5)dx = Sig(—#-3)de + fe 7)ax

This
Apply the fundamental theorem of calculus.
absolute value
function changes
2 : 2 10

-(-S-a) +(5-75] Abrupt at x = 2

[a(n
2 ~10 2 2 (the graph in Figure
1-1 suddenly gees
vou Aecreasing to
creasing), so
=[-8 -(—20)]+[-20-(-12)] you need
to integrate h,Gd) Prous
=-8+20—20
+12
=4 h,0s) Prom 2 te lO.

18.26 Evaluate a"Ae see 5|dx accurate to three decimal places and show the work
that leads to your answer.

So, Aout just type

this integral into your
Consider the graph of y= |x? — 3x —5} in Figure 18-2.
graphing calculator
ANA write Aown the
ANSWev it spits out.

Figure 18-2. The graph ofy= |x — 3x —5|. Between its x-intercepts, where the
graph ofy = x — 3x — 5 is normally negative, this graph is reflected
above the x-axis and has equation y = —(x° — 3x — 5), or
y =x? + 3x + 5.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Pro

blems
307
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

either be
Like Problem 18.25, the expression within the absolute value bars may
positive or negative. The graph is defined by y= x* — 3x— 5 for all x less than the
left x-intercept and all x greater than the right x-intercept. However, between
those intercepts, the graph is defined by y= —(x*- 3x—5). Use the quadratic
formula to identify the x-intercepts.
3—/29 3+ /29 = 4,1925824036
= —1.1925824036 and
2 2
Rewrite the definite integral as the sum of three distinct definite integrals,
using the x-intercepts calculated above, that explicitly state when the function
y= |x? —3x—5] changes from y= x?- 3x-5 to y=—(x*—3x—-5).
7
i es — 3x —5|dx

—1.1925824036 4,1925824036 = 7 etsce

= (x? —3x—5)dx+t f—1.1925824036 - (x —3x—- 5)dx + pee ee 3x 5)dx
-4
7
x 8x"
—1.1925824036 ( 4.1925824036 (3 2
3 3 2
ah <3 5
Siig Wa —1.1925824036
Z 4.1925824036
-4

Evaluate the antiderivatives using a graphing calculator.

= 28.597482 — (—26.028297) + 28.597482
= 83.223

SS 18.27 Let Rrepresent the area bounded by the function f(x) = ae and thex-axis
/= on the interval [0,1]. At what value k does the vertical line x= k split Rinto two
regions of equal
ai

Begin by calculating R via the fundamental theorem of calculus.

Because

the ele arctan x)|. a arcunl arcane ete

Aevivative of Js 1+x’ No 4 hint
arctan x is If k splits R into two regions of the same area, the area of each of the smaller
regions is half the area of R. Calculate the area of the left region, which has x= 0

tae
as a left bound and x= kas a right bound, and set it equal to half of R’s area.

Prsgill ire
0x? +1 2\4
If
oe AiAn't get (arctan x)|, = 2
41 look at 4
Problem 7.32. arctan k — arctan0 = 5

arctan k = es
8

Ae tan(2 ~ 0.414

308 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Note: Problems 18.28-18.33 are based on the graph off(x) in Figure

18-3.
18.28 Evaluate fe f (x)dx.

Figure 18-3
The graph of a continuous function f(x)
consists of a quarter-circle of radius 2,
two linear segments, and an unknown
strictly increasing function (when x = 2).

The area of a quarter-circle is one-fourth the area of a circle with the

2 same radius:
tr ; : How'sJ
——. There is no need to determine the equation of the circle to evaluate
the hat £ Lov
4 n 2 oe that
teva ; n n ,
definite integral ) i= —simply calculate the area beneath the arc by a
an obvious
applying the quarter-circle area formula with r= 2. statement?

Soi f(o)ds= 7 = =
9)?
=—4

Note: Problems 18.28-18.33 are based on the graph off(x) in Figure 18-3.

18.29 Evaluate fSsS (x)dx.

You could calculate this integral by first determining that the equation of the line

3
connecting the points (—4,0) and (0,-3) is y= ae —3 and then evaluating the
3
definite integral if (-2«- 3dx. However, it is far simpler to analyze the area

geometrically, like the solution technique modeled in Problem 18.28.

The region bounded by /(x) and the x-axis between x =—4 and x= Oisa right
“Signea
triangle with vertices (—4,0), (0, -3), and (0,0) —a triangle with a base 4 units long
avea’ tells you
and a height of3 units. To calculate the area ofa triangle, apply the formula the avea of the
vegion and whether
oh However, as the region appears entirely below the x-axis, the value of the it is above ov below
integral is negative, so multiply the triangle’s area by -1. the x-axis. (A Positi
ve
humbev means ab
ove
Sf @)ax= (56%)= -5(4)(3) Sak ANA a negative
numbev means
below.)

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
309
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Note: Problems 18.28-18.33 are based on the graph off(x) in Figure 18-3.

18.30 Evaluate f:f (x)dx.

If you
The region bounded by f(x) and the x-axis between x= 0 and x= 2, like Problem
calculatea
18.29, is a right triangle that lies below the x-axis.
the avea using
the Aefinite integral fifoax= = (50n]=—52)(8)=—8
2/3
i oe 3)Ax, you
However, this integral is not the definite integral identified by the problem.
Aout have to wovvy Notice that the limits of integration in Sf ¥ (x)dx are reversed—the upper limit
aout veversing signs ov appears at the bottom of the integral sign, and the lower limit appears at the top.
anything—youlll get According to Problem 18.22, the final answer is not —3 but its opposite.
the vight answer J,fax =—f" f(x)dx=-(-3)=3
automatically.

Note: Problems 18.28-18.33 are based on the graph off(x) in Figure 18-3.

18.31 Evaluate f_,f(x)dx.

Split the integral into two distinct definite integrals.

2 0 2
fo fax = ff @jare f (x) dx

Look at According to dx = —6; according to Problem 18.30,

ete 18.29, fo f (x)
each box ih
Figuve |8-4,
J,f@)dx=
3)=-9
estimate the Sifax =(-6)+(-
percentage of the
ox that’s shadea
Alternatively, you could calculate Ja5 f (x)dx by noting that the region bounded
iM, anda convert
that to a Aecimal. by f(x) and the x-axis oe eS x=—4 and x= 2isa triangle with base 6 and height
]
For example, the 3, so its area must be eon = 3
(6)(3)= 9. Because the triangle appears entirely
pox between x = 2
beneath the x-axis, its ee area is —9.
ana x =% is about
65% shaded. You've
“counting boxes” Note: Problems 18.28—18.33 are based on the graph off(x) in Figure 18-3.
under the function
and each box 18.32 Estimate Sof@)ax.
counts as one
squave unit.
No function is given that defines /(x) on the x-interval [2,6]. Though /(x)
resembles y = Vx-2 , that function does not accurately describe the graph. (For
example, /6— 2 = 2, but the graph appears to pass through the point (6,3), not
(6,2).) Therefore, you should estimate the area of the region by counting the
number of square units between /(x) and the x-axis, as illustrated in Figure 18-4.

310 The Humongous Book of Calculus Protslems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Figure 18-4 Each grid square on the interval [2,6] is labeled according to what
percentage of it lies in the region bounded by f(x) and the x-axis. The
values within each square must be between 0 and 1, and a higher
number indicates that a larger percentage of the square lies within the
region.

The definite integral is approximately equal to the sum of the estimates in Fig-
ure 18-4.

Sof(®)dx = 0.65+0.6+140.3414140.85+14+1~
74

Note: Problems 18.28-18.33 are based on the graph off(x) in Figure 18-3.

18.33 Estimate iE:f (x) dx.

Express the integral as the sum of the definite integrals calculated in Problems
18.28, 18.31, and 18.32.

ff @)ax= So f@)dxt ff (xaxt f°f(x)ax

= (2)+(-9)+(7.4)
=m—-1.6
= 1.542

18.34 Complete the following statement based on the fundamental theorem of

calculus.

gleeat)=
/

The derivative of a definite integral taken with respect to the variable in the
upper limit of integration (here, you differentiate with respect to x and f(x) is
written in terms of x), is equal to the integrand evaluated at the upper limit of
integration, g(/(x)), multiplied by the derivative of the upper limit of integration,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
311
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

4
f'(x). Note that in order for this formula to apply, the lower limit of integration
If youve must be a constant.
differentiatin
g
with vespect to
the Upper limi
me 4(f/°e@a)=e(f@)£'@)
t of the
tutegval has x’
s in it
ana the lowey
iwie “1
iS Some number, 18.35 Differentiate.the definite integral: “| : +a
the
Aevivative will be
the
Function inside
the
tutegval, with the upper Apply the formula from Problem 18.34; replace tin the integrand with the upper
limit Plugged in limit of integration x* and multiply by the derivative of x*. |
, times
asnewintive of the se ; uae
Pev limit, =
d [ cx! —dt = : =_-_. 4 3 a x
Af. t x* me x4 ( x) xt x

2 “1
In othey 18.36 Verify the solution to Problem 18.35 by evaluating J: a and differentiating
Words, Ao it th the result with respect to x.
e
long way. Take
an
antidevivative
of lA 1
Find the Aiffev Recall that f oat = In|t|+C.
ence
when you plug in “1 !
the upper ana
ts -dt =(Inld)), =Inx‘ —In6
lower bounds,
and Absolute value symbols are not required, as neither x* nor 6 is negative.
then take the Differentiate with respect to x.
Aevivative - d 1 4
3 4
* (nxt -1n6)=—-4x° -0=—- ==
dx x x Ny
The result, — , matches the solution presented in Problem 18.35.
The
Aevivative of
In G i is 0, because 18.37 Differentiate the definite integral: d sin
|f ; ’ cosw dw).
In 6 is just a (hasty Vee _
Aecimal-packea)
veal number,
Apply the formula from Problem 18.34.
; d ;
pl
d esin "cosw dw) = Cos (siny) ; me y) = cos (sin y) “cosy

Accovaing
to problem
18.22, vevevsing the a : d
18.38 Differentiate: aLa Gs —5ln y)ay|.
limits of integration
means you have to
stick a negative Notice that the upper limit of integration is a constant and the lower limit is a
sign outside the function, but the opposite must be true in order to apply the formula in Problem
18.34. Reverse the limits and multiply the definite integral by —-1.
ex

dx: SG" -5Iny)ay]=—_|-f (y" -5Iny)a|

A pes
=f, (y —5iny)<|
312. we Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Substitute the upper limit of integration ¢* into y*- 5 In yand multiply by its
derivative. d
[(e*)' -5ine] 2 (e)
=/(e" 2x )\2 —5In 2x | ee 2x

=[e* —5 (2x)][2e* ]
= Qe" (e* - 10x)

d x
18.39 Differentiate: oe ~",98%db).

Both boundaries are functions of x, so you cannot apply the formula from
Problem 18.34, as it requires the lower boundary to be constant. Instead, use the
method described in Problem 18.36. Begin by calculating the definite integral.

ine gp° |"

e=2

= 3(5x) —3(x—2)°
= 3(125x°)
—3(x° — 6x? +12x —8)
= 375x° — 3x° +18x? — 36x + 24
= 372x° + 18x — 36x + 24
Differentiate with respect to x.
d
5Xx (872m +18x? — 36x + 24) =1,116x? + 36x — 36

d | ps 90*db) =1,116x* + 36x — 36.

Therefore, (J,

Substitution of Variables
Usually called u-substitution

18.40 Find the antiderivative fsinxcosxdx by performing the variable substitution

u=sin x.
Don't
take the
Aevivative with
Take the derivative of u = sin x using the chain rule: Differentiate the sine
function, leaving the inner function x alone, and then differentiate the inner mstect
at
to ANYTHING.
Means the
function x to get dx.
Aevivative of x is
u=sinx not I, it’s Ax. The
du =cosx:dx Aevivative of y is Ay
the Aevivative of ;
Notice that cos x dx is in the original integral expression. Rewrite the original
integral given u= sin xand du= cos x dx.

fsinxcosxdx = fu-du

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
313
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Integrate f udu using the power rule for integration.

Treat 2

u just like youwrA fudu=>+C

treat an x—ada |
po
to the exponent and eee
Aivide by the new The antiderivative ifsin
xcos xdx cannot be a +C, because the original
exponent, integrand contained only functions in terms of x. However, earlier in the problem,
u was defined explicitly in terms of.x: w= sin x.

sin” x
ti
Z

18.41 Find the antiderivative f sinxcosx dx by performing the variable substitution

u= COS X.

Use the technique described in Problem 18.40, this time setting w= cos x.
u =cosx
du =—sinx dx

Note that -sin x dx does not appear in the original integral, but sinxdx does, so
solve the equation containing du for sin x dx by dividing both sides by —1.
du _ —sinxdx
= —|]
—du = sin
xdx

Rewrite the original integral in terms of u given u= cos x and —du= sin x dx.
The
negative sign f sinxcosxdx = fcosxsinxdx = f u(-du) =—f udu
is veally a -|
coefficient, Pull Now that the entire integrand is written in terms of u, apply the power rule for
it out of the integration. Then write the antiderivative in terms of x, recalling that u= cos x.

integral. ; f
ore —fudu=-—+C=-—— ee
2 2

iv 18.42 Problems 18.40 and 18.41 integrate f sinxcosxdx but produce nonidentical
solutions. Verify that those are equivalent.

f Note that each antiderivative has a constant of integration, they are labeled C,
and C, (rather than labeling them both C) to indicate that those constants are
almost certainly not equal.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

31 4
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

According to a Pythagorean identity, cos® x + sin’ x= 1; therefore, cos? x= 1

— sin? x.
sin” x ‘2 (1— sin x)
Ip
9 ie 9 2 . ae ee
sin® x —1+sin’ x ay Aare bebh
a ee aes 08 the identity,
sin? x 1 sin’ x %OW end Up with
+C,=-=+ ee COS | came
2 2 2
sin* x ie sin’ x
Statement that lee
(->4 G|
the oviginal \Aentity)
9 9
is true Loy all x,
The sum of the constants on the right side of the equation is another
unknown
constant: 5 + C; =C,.
* 9 m9

+C, =
sin’ xX sin’ x
+ C,
2 :
By generating the above statement, you have demonstrated that Problems 18.40
and 18.41 have identical solutions: the sum of a and an unknown constant.

18.43 As indicated in Problem 18.14, J:cotxdx= esxl + C, Verify the antiderivative

using variable substitution. ‘

If youve not
Recall that cot xis defined as the quotient of cos x and sin x. suve what to set
cos x u equal to, ana
fcotxdx = f= dx
sin x the integrand is a
Let w=sin xand perform variable substitution. fraction, try the
Aenominatoy.
u=sinx
du =cosxdx
Write the integral in terms of u.
cos x cosx dx du ,
J sinx dx = ii sin x u Because Ax is
technically equal
du
According to Problem 18.4, je =In|u|+C.
to Ax/|, the fraction
cos x/sin x is multipliea
by Ax/|, and you can
f=inlul+c= In|sin x|+C stick Ax in the
u
numerator.

18.44 According to Problem 18.13, ytanx dx = —In|cosx|+C, Verify the antiderivative

using variable substitution.

Use the method described in Problem 18.43.

franxdx= f= as

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
315
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Let w= cos x; therefore, du =—sin x dx and —du = sin x dx. Use these equality
statements to rewrite the integral in terms of wu.
{ee ol ee ill ee
cosx cos x u u
The antiderivative in your solution should be written in terms of x: -In |cos x| + C.

a sinx dx
ee 18.45 Integrate the expression: | ===. .
. : J V1—cos? x

Apply variable substitution; if u= cos x, then du=-sin x dx and —du = sinx dx.
sinxdx _ —du
If the Aevivative V1—cos’ x V1-u?
of avcos uis that d
ugly Fraction, then the According to Problem 16.25, Gy Satecos u)= oar :
\utegval of the ugly
fraction is avcces u, —du =
f =arccosu+C
V1—-u?
= arccos(cosx)+C

Note that removing —1 from the integral, once it’s written in terms of u, results in
an equivalent alternate solution.

YP areas lee = —arcsinu + C =—arcsin(cosx)+C

& S 18.46 Evaluate the definite integral: ffetan 2x dx.

Although ftanxdx =—In|cosx|+C, fitan 2x dx # —In|cos2x|+ C.

Apply variable substitution using u = 2x. Differentiating that equation results

Ik a trig Function in du= 2dx, but 2dx does not appear in the original integral, so you must solve
(ov any other du = 2dx for dx, which does appear in the integral.
Runction for that du = 2dx
matter) contains ;
something other than = =a
just x, you need to
use u-substitution Rewrite the entire definite integral in terms of u, including the limits of
to integrate. Sound ww
integration. To write * = ae and x= 12 in terms of u, substitute them into the
Lamiliav? It works like
the chain vule, which equation describing the relationship between x and u for this problem: u = 2x.
you used to take
the Aevivative of a
Lunction containing
something other
than just x.

316 Te Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

converlower limit: x = ae Convert upper limit: x = =

u=2x u=2x
wu WA
= 2) -—— =9}| —
() > (2)
wyA oe
u4=-— “=—
3 6
F a/12 .
Rewrite Joy tan 2x dx in terms of u by substi° tuting
. : :
in the new boundaries and Change
recalling that u= 2x and > = dx. Au/2 into
(A)AW and pull
1/12 /6 du 1 /6 the coefficient
if—1/6 tan2xdx = f*—1/3 tanu:—=—. f" tanudu
9 2 =1/8 % outside the
integral.
According to Problem 18.44, an antiderivative of tan x is —In|cos x| .

1 a/6 1
S _,/3tanudu = ~ 9(In|cos ul)a/6 = 31
1 MA
cos= —In cos| |——=
|| |= ——|z In| — |— In|
In v3 in —4
2 6 3 2 2 2

MS) fas
Apply the logarithmic property loga — log} = log; :
Multiply
the numevator
ANA Aenominator by
2 to eliminate the
x 1
Therefore, i.Eo,tan 2x dx =— 5 In V3. complex fraction.

18.47 Evaluate the definite integral: f.So

3 @
d
Let u= 3*. Recall that a,(7) =a" - Ina. In order to differentiate u = 3, you must
apply the chain rule; specifically, d ot ©) = gf
:
Ina: Fe).
Aevivative
cs of A Constant
YUUSCA to a power
du = 3 -1n3+2dx
equals the oviginal
du
= 3** -21n3- dx
exponential function
du times the natural log
= 3" dx
21n3 of the base times
the derivative of
the exponent.
You solve for 3*Ax
because these ave
the
only pieces that Appeav
in
the oviginal utegvana,
In Pact, 3*Ax IS the
oviginal integrand,

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
317
 Chapter Eighteen — Integration

Write the limits of integration in terms of u.

Convert lower limit: x =1 Convert upper limit: x=5

Lo" u= 3"
u=30 y= 30)
u=3° u=3"
u=9 u = 59,049

d d
Replace the entire integrand of fi3* dx with ARE (because me = 3" dx) and
n n
apply the limits of integration calculated above.
ie3% dy = ce du
: > 2 2in3
The integrand, apart from du, is a constant and can be moved outside the
integral.
1] 59,049
= d
21n3 J, du
The antiderivative of dwis u. ~

poe ee to grey 59,04

040 _ 2%-29,520_ 29,520
=e 21n3 91n3 ZIn3———éidM

8 The Humongous Book of Calculus Prolblems

3
 Chapter 19
APPLICATIONS OF THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM

Things to Ao with Actuite integrals

In Chapter 18 (and to some degree in Chapter 17), only one application of

integration has been explored: calculating the area of a region that is bounded
by a function and the x-axis. In this chapter, however, you will calculate
areas bounded above and below by functions. You will also investigate the
antidifferentiation version of the mean value theorem, motion problems, and
accumulation functions (functions defined as definite integrals).

Pa the power vule for utegva

tion and wsubstitution
apter |% under your bel experience from
t, youve veady to see what
sovts of things Aefinite

out in this chapter, youll Sua the aveas between

two curves, work with Luncti
wad e of Aefnite \ntegvals, and calculat
e the average ate oat
Position function Problems will make A a
vepeat appearance, but le es e
i
ns =oustvained to the motion of Projectiles. They've a lot like the LA
ce work
you'll Proble
with from Chapter IS, but this time instead of finding 9 devi
ms tntegvals, ae
Aevivatives,
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Calculating the Area Between Two Curves

Instead of just a function and the xaxis

19.1 Given the functions f(x) and g(x), which are continuous on the interval ob)
such that f(x) > g(x) for all asx <b, what integral expression Salas the
area bounded by fe) and a on [a,b]?

As long as f(x) > g(x), i.e., the graph of f(x) lies above the graph of g(x) on the
entire interval [a,b], the area of the region bounded by f(x) and g(x) is equal to
SLF@) - g(x) |dx _ If g(x) > f(x) for all x on the interval [a,b], the area is equal
to SLe()— f@) Jax.

19.2 Explain why f:f (x)dx represents the area between f(x) and the x-axis
(assuming f(x) is positive for all x on [a,6]) using the formula in Problem 19.1.

Write the equation of the x-axis as a function g(x) = 0. Because f(x) is positive
on the x-interval [a,b], f(x) > g(x) for all x on that interval. To determine
the area between f(x) and g(x), apply the formula from Problem 19.1:
iD [f(x)- g(x)]dx =f [f(x)- Olax =f f (x)dx.

‘19.3 Calculate the area bounded by the curves y = 3x and y= x? when x>0.

Consider Figure 19-1, which illustrates the region described.

Figure 19-1 The curves y = 3x and y = x° intersect at points (0,0) and (3,9).

320 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Calculate the left and right boundaries of the shaded region—the x-values
of the
points at which the curves intersect. Both equations are solved for y, so set them
equal to each another: 3x = x°. Solve the equation for x by setting it equal
to 0 and One equation
factoring.
Says y = 3x, and
x’ — 3x =0 the other tells you
x(x-3)=0 that y also equals x’,
: x=0, 3 so veplace y in the
Therefore, the graphs ofy = 3x and y= x intersect when x= 0 or x= 3.
Fst equation with
x’ to get
According to Figure 19-1, the graph of y = 3xis greater than (above) the graph
of y= x* on the entire interval [0,3]. Apply the formula from Problem 19.1 to
determine the area of the region.
The
SLF@) = g(x) |dx = J (3x — x) dx integrand
Contains x's, so
= (=aa | you have to use
Zeer S the xvalues of the
Bier ey Points of intersection

81 54 \utegration. If the
ie 6 integral Container
27 75 tustead, youd use
naps the y-values of the
9 tntersection Points

at) (like in Problems 19.¢

ANA 19.8),
9
Therefore, the area of the region bounded by y= 3xand y= x’, when x> 0, is 9
square units.

, Be 8
19.4 Calculate the area bounded by y=sin x, y=2, x= “9 , and % = 7.

Consider Figure 19-2, which illustrates the region described.

Figure 19-2 The upper boundary of this region is y = 2; the lower bound is
y= Sin x.

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321
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

the Apply the formula from Problem 19.1, noting that the line y= 2 is greater than

only “prool” y = sin x over the entire interval |-Z.2] :

YOu needA toe 2
Aetermine which [ae —sinx)dx = (2x +cos Hoe:
curve comes fivst

in the formula is = (22 + cos) — (=) + cos(-)| ;

A graph. Always
Subtvact the lowey = (2a —-1)—(—2
+0)
graph from the =37-1

19.5 If f(y) and g(y) are continuous functions such that Sy) > gQ) when cs yZe 0
_ what is the area of the region bounded by those functions on the y-interval [ed]?

Fina Because the functions are in terms of y, they don’t serve as the upper and lower
the intersection bounds of the region like the functions did in Problems 19.1-19.4; instead,
Poiuts of the tye euiee
The smaller of the twe they serve as the left and right boundaries of the region. Use the formula
yvalues is c and the f:[
ii (
y) = g( y)|dy to calculate the area of the region, where f(y) is the function
bigger one is A. to the right of g(y), and cand dare the real numbers that bound the region below
and above, respectively.

19.6 Calculate the area bounded

by x=)’ + 9 and x= ;yp — 6y—9.

Consider Figure 19-3, which illustrates the region described.

Figure 19-3 These curves are functions, but not functions of x. As functions
ofy, they pass the horizontal line test instead of the vertical line
test.

322 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Calculate the y-values at which the curves intersect by setting the

functions
equal and solving for y. As explained in Problem 19.5, when calcula
ting the area
between two functions written in terms of y, the limits of integra
tion must be
y-values.
‘ i,
sae yy 8

3
0=~4? —6y-18
Stone Seo.
5(0)=2/35 6y 18|

0=y'—4y-12

0=(y-6)(y+2)
=>
2066
Subtvact
vight minus
The functions intersect when y = -2 or y= 6, as illustrated in Figure 19-4. left, not top minus
Therefore, in the formula de [f (y) = e(y) Jay,c=—2 and d= . Note that the bottom, when the
graph of f(y) =—y* + 9 is always right of the graph of g(y) = oo —<6y= 9. functions ave in
terms of y,

S10)-e()]o= Lio +9)-(55 65-9) |

7 fi)-s 9-55" + 6y+9]

= f']-39 +6y+18a

-(-3-2+6-2
nie
3

Z
1}
‘e
+18)
2

ae
3 6

-(-D+3; +18)
=2

= [-3P+3(86)+108]-(-—* + 12-36] If you

got -128, you
= (—108 +108 +108) —(4+12—36) put the functions
= 108 —(—20) in the wrong order
= 128 when you set up the
integval. The aveas
of vegions bounded
by two curves ave
ALWAYS positive.

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
323
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

As cos a
19.7 Calculate the area of the region feondes by‘th : urves
eye Vx for 0 <x <4 and report your answer accurate |to three decimal places.

As illustrated in Figure 19-4, the curves intersect on the interval [0,4]. Before they
intersect, f(x) > g(x), but once they intersect, f(x) < g(x) for the remainder of the
interval.

g (*)=Vx

f(x) = cos x

Figure 19-4 When 0 <x < 0.64171, the graph of cos x is above the graph
Set
ofVxEs However, when 0.64171<x <4, the graph ofxine 1s
this equation above the graph of cos x. Therefore, two integrals are required to
equal to 0 to
get the function calculate the area of the shaded region.
Wx)= cos x — «f/x.
Graph (x) on your :
Use a graphing calculator to determine the x-value of the point at which f(x) and
g(x) intersect.
calculator ana ee
the voot of the cosx = Vx
function to get cosx — Vx =0
0.647... x = 0.641714370873

Use two integrals to calculate the area of the region, one that describes the inter-
val on which f(x) > g(x), and one that describes the interval on which g(x) > f(x).
0.641714370873
cosx—Vx ) ora (v _ )
J0 (c dx 0.641714370873 ” ee dx

Evaluate the definite integrals using a graphing calculator.

= 0.2558639 + 6.3459997 = 6.602

19.8 Calculate the area bounded by the graphs of x— y= 3 and x=y?- y.

You must first decide whether to write the linear equation in terms of x (by solving
it for y), or vice versa. Because the quadratic equation is already written explicitly

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

324
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

in terms of y (and cannot easily be solved for y to rewrite the equatio

n in terms of
x), solve the linear equation for x as well.

x—y=3
x=yt+3

Determine the y-values at which x= y+3 and x= y*— y intersect.

ytS=y'—y
0=y?-2y-3
0=(y-3)(y+1)
y=-lor3

The region bounded by the curves is pictured in Figure 19-5. Notice that
the
graph of x= y + 3 is always positioned to the right of the graph of x= y? —
y when
a i

cate e

Figure 19-5 The region bounded by x = y + 3 and x = — y. Note that the

graph of x = y + 3 is the same as the graph ofy = x — 3, which
is slightly easier to graph, because it is in slope-intercept form.

Calculate the area using the formula from Problem 19.5.

SUY6)-sO)o= [[6+3)-(*-y)]a
3
= Soe’ ak 2 3) dy

=|-+y 49-43
y 3 2 3

oi
3 3

=| +?
y 2 +3

=(-94049)-(L+1-8)
A
3
The Humongous Book of Calculus
Problems
325
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

The Mean Value Theorem for Integration

Make a vectangle that matches the avea beneath a curve

19.9 State the mean value theorem for integration.

Given a function f(x) that is continuous over the interval [a,b], there exists a c
such that a S$ c S b for which ac) dx = f(c)(b—a).

19.10 Explain the geometric implications of the mean value theorem for integration.
XN ‘

The
area of The mean value theorem for integration states that the area of the region
the Aovkey, bounded by f(x) and the x-axis on the x-interval [a,b] is exactly equal to the area
: vectangulay region of a rectangle with length b- aand width /(c), if you find the correct value(s) of
‘Ss(wiAth)(length) = c between aand b. Consider Figure 19-6. According to the mean value theorem
FO). - a), the vight for integration, the lightly shaded region beneath f(x) has the same area as the
Side of the mean darker region, a rectangle with length b- aand width /(c).
value theorem fs
tntegvation,

[fax = (b-a)f()
Area beneath f(x) oe Area of rectangle

Figure 19-6 The mean value theorem for integration guarantees that there exists some
x = ¢ between a and b such that the rectangle on [a,b] with height f(c)
has the same area as the region bounded by f(x) and the x-axis on [a,b].

19.11 What is the average value of a continuous function /(x) over the closed interval
[a,b]?

The average value is f(c), as described by Problem 19.10. Solve the equation of the
mean value theorem for integration for /(c) to generate a formula that calculates
the average value of f(x).

J)f@)ax
=(0-4): f(c)
Sf@da ba-fO
b-a b<a

jee
ie

326 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

pe Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem
ee reas eee

The average value formula may also be written as a product rather

than a fraction:
Some
fO=—— fsa. people tvy
to fud the
avevage value
Note: Problems 19.12-19.13 refer to the function f(x) = x’. by averaging the
function values,
19.12 Calculate the average value of f(x) between x= 0 and x= 4. Since £(0) = 0 ana
F(A) = |6, theyA ada
O+ 6 = |é and Aivide
Apply the average value formula generated in Problem 19.11.
by 2(l6+2=P)t,5
boa 1 o) get an average value
Afet of 8. As you can see,
—— J. f@)ae = — ‘as =7(= =
—er a
a—()~ 9 4\ 3 that Aces Not
0

always give you

the vight answer!
Note: Problems 19.12-19.13 refer to the function F(x) = x’.

19.13 At what value con the x-interval [0,4] does /(x) satisfy the mean value theorem
for integration?

.
According to Problem 19.12, the average value of f(x) = x?P on [0,4] is
<a L6
fe In other
According to the mean value theorem for integration, there exists some csuch wovas, what
that 0 < c< 4and (0) = = Substitute x = cinto f(x). should you plug
tuto P(x) to get the
f= average value from
Problem 19.127
16_
3 =¢

Solve for c.

Recall that 0 S c S$ 4, so
4V3
ie] is not a valid value for c; therefore, c =
48

Note: Problems 19.14—19.15 refer to the function g(x) = e*.

19.14 Calculate the average value of g(x) on the x-interval [-1,1].

Apply the average value formula from Problem 19.11.

] D
jaa 8H dx= 1-(-1)/=1
: i e* dx

= atete

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
327
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Integrate the expression using substitution of variables: u= ¢* and du= 2e*dx.

du oe 5 lie
Exponential Therefore, 9 = ¢**dx. Translate the limits of integration in terms of u by
functions feel substituting them into u= é*.
daiffevent than any
other usubstitution. Lower limit (x =—1): u=e* =e? =e?
When you substitute, Upper limit (x=1): u=e* =e =e?
there’s usualy no u in the
wtegrand, because Au Rewrite the definite integral in terms of u.
contains most, if not
all, of the original
:
expression.
iframe
like ee
see
oo

= ae du

1 2
= ra o2

By a 4 (e
ae a é )
. the Way, you

CAN write that

Eliminate the negative exponent in the solution.
last line in terms of
the hyperbolic sine
Function: Suh(2)
Z
If you have no iden
what the heck
that “W’ is Aoing
attached to “sin,”
Aout sweat it.
Note: Problems 19.14-19.15 refer to the function g(x) = é*.
19.15 At what value con the x-interval [-1,1] does g(x) satisfy the mean value theorem
for integration?

According to Problem 19.14, the average value of g(x) on the interval [-1,1] is
a aA
=;; 1 Therefore, there exists a value c such that-1 < c S$ land g(c)= 7 a
e e
Substitute cand g(c) into g(x).
g(x) = e*

g(c) — e"

4
é =i
; = en

4e
Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation to solve for c.

in
er |-In(e*)

In 2 = 2C
4e

328 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Expand and simplify the logarithmic expression,

lf
you need
In(e* —1)—In(4e?) = 2c
Practice with this,
In(e* —1)—(In4+ Ine”) = 2c check out Problems
In(e* —1)—In4-Ine? = 2c S.25-S.27, Remember
that In e =a, only
In(e* —1)-In4—2= 2 the power is left
In(e* —1)—In4-2 because In and
arid
2 e cancel) each
other out

19.16 Calculate the average value of f(x)= = over the x-interval 5 2|.

Apply the average value formula.

1 b 1
agit LOLI cers eae

al ely re dx
Fivst of
~ 3/2 3 ee
all, | over a
_ 2 72 dx
fraction equals
9 V/2 x
the veciprocal, so
d.
According to Problem 18.4, f= =In|x|+C.
26 3/2 = 3 . Youve

2 2 allowed to pull
= (nh, coustants outside of
an integral, so that’s
= 3{in2—in5
wheve the |/3 comes
from: eSBs
. = a
According to a logarithmic property, a log b= log &. Therefore, 3 Sie
1 =f

-1-n5=In(5)] = In2.
2 z 9
7 (In2+1n2)

==(ing)
_ 4In2
9

Apply the logarithmic property a log b= log & again: 4 In 2 = In 2*= In 16.
: 1 . In16
Therefore, the average value of f (x) = = on the interval Fa is
9
/

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
329
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Note: In Problems 19.17-19.19, assume that h(x) is a continuous function over the interval
[-4,5]. If a and b are fixed real numbers such that -4 < a < b < 5, the following definite
integral statements are true.
b
S_h@) =-22, f5 h(x) =13, and J,<4 h(x) =10
19.17 Calculate the average value of h(x) over the x-interval [—4,5].

If you veverse
the limits of Apply the average value formula from Problem 19.11.
integration (switch
i 5
h(x)dx=
5fan)
-4 ana S next to the
integral sign), you have Cas
to multiply its value by =A
Although you are not given the value of Sf.h(x)ax, you are given fe h(x) =10,
-|. That’s why -10
suddenly turns
into 10. 1 ps
gd_h(x) dx =
1]
oa = “
10

Note: Problems 19.17-19.19 refer to h(x), a, b, and the definite integrals described in Problem
19.17.

19.18 Calculate the average value of h(x) over the interval [—4,0].

Apply the average value formula.

1 b 1 b
paca Jtoa = pee _ W(x) dx

According to the information given, fia) =—22

1
Fee,
buses
b+4

Th e average value
] of fh h(x) over [—4,b] ] isis — had ;

X Yn Note: Problems 19.17-19.19 refer to h(x), a, b, and the definite integrals described in Problem
19.17.
@@ |
Y ERo 19.19 Calculate the average value of h(x) over the interval [a,0].

b
As the value of fe h(x)dx is not explicitly given, you must calculate it before
eEpline the average value formula. Because -4 < a< b<5, you can expand
ac) into three definite integrals.

[onde =f" h(w)dxt [’a(x) dxde+ [h(x) dx

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

33 0
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

b
Add fe h(x)dx to both sides of the equation (indicated below by the underlined
expression).
This is the
Ji n@)dxt fPA(x)de= J" n(x)det fon(x)det f’ACw)dx+t fon(w)ax tricky pavt
that you may not
Notice that Si h(x)dx+ fa (w)dx =f" h(x)dx nd have thought of.
Son(e)dxt fn(x)de = f?n(w)ax. Aading J" (x) Ax
creates two Aefinite
integrals with known
Ji ba)de+ fPh(x)de =f? n(w)de + f°h(x)dx values on the vight
Substitute the known values of the definite integrals into the equation and solve
side of the
equation.
for J. h(x) dx.
-10+ f'h(x)dx =-22+13
—10+ foh(x)dx=-9
Son(x)ax
=1
Now that you have determined the value of fn(x)ax , calculate the average value
of h(x) on the interval [a,d].

1 b iL 1
—— | h(x)dx=——(1)=
baad. Medex poate
Note: Problems 19.20-19.22 refer to the position equation s(t), a sprinter’s distance from
the starting line during the first 4 seconds of a race (measured in meters after t seconds have
elapsed), as defined below.
t

19.20 Use s(¢) to determine the average velocity of the runner during the first four
. seconds of the race.

the slope of
The average velocity of the runner is the average rate of change of position on the the tangent Vine
interval, which equals the slope of the secant line connecting points (0, s(0)) and to the graph of
(4, s(4)). position vepvesents
instantaneous
Hes (4) = 5(0) velocity, ana the slope
E 4-0 of the secamt line
- 8(4) Le -5) to position vepresents
4—5 Ob average velocity. Look

2 at Problem |5.5 it
eo 0 you forget how
eed to calculate a
4 secant slope.
= 8 meters/second

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems 331
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem
ee —

_Note: Problems 19.20-19.22 refer to the position equation s(t), a sprinter’s distancefrom
the starting line during the first 4 seconds of a race (measured in meters after t seconds have
elapsed), which is defined in Problem 19.20. ee

19.21 Identify the function v(t) that models the velocity of the runner during the first
four seconds of the race.

Given a position equation s(t), the’velocity equation is the derivative with respect
to ¢. Apply the quotient rule to differentiate.

Or alas)
--| BOBO]
(¢—5)
_ 8-40-84
(t-5)"
_ 40
~ (t-5)
Note: Problems 19.20-19.22 refer to the position equation s(t), a sprinter’s distance from
the starting line during the first 4 seconds ofa race (measured in meters after t seconds have
elapsed), which is defined in Problem 19.20.

19.22 Calculate the average value of u(#) from Problem 19.21 to demonstrate that the
average rate of change of s(é) is equal to the average value of v(t).
Set uK= i my

ana you'll get

Apply the average value formula to v(t), such that a= 0 and b= 4.
AW = At, That changes
1 4
the Aenominatoy tow 4-0 . u(t)dt

Br SHE Numerator to 1 ps >40

ANA t = 4 inte W=t¢

to get
28 new integral Remove the constant from the integrand and apply variable substitution.
mits of >
_ 40) 4 at

4 °° (¢—-5)°
=10f udu
= al

-a()
=1 =5

1 =i

fa)
aa =5

na($
= 8 meters/second

332 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

According to Problem 19.20, the average rate of change of s(t) on the

¢-interval
[0,4] is 8 meters/second, which is equal to the average vale of v(t) on [0,4].

Assume f(x) is a continuous function and the chart below represents a selection Es
of its function values. Estimate the average value of J(x) on the interval [-3,7] timate
using the trapezoidal rule. the avea the
same way Prob-
lew 7.24 esti-
ets 1s 7| mates the surface
ee eee se 1914|-1/-5) avea of a lake giv-
en measurements
ar vegulav in-
Divide the interval [-3,7] into five equal subintervals, each of width Ax = 2: tervals.
[-3,-1] ? [-1,1] ? phot ’ [3,5] ’ and [5,7] .

SF (ods = "Tf(a)+2 (x1)+2¢ (0) +2/( 5)+2/ (4)+ £0)]

Sf )as = FOL p-3) 42/1) 42/0) +2/(8)42/0)4
0]
Sl f(x) axfe iG 2(8)+2(9)+2(4)+2(-1)+(-5)]

Sf @)dx=41
Substitute this approximation of ifSek (x)dx into the average value formula.
7 .

1 b 1 7
paade fede = > Sf wax

=
41
=

10

19.24 Approximate the average value of g(x), as graphed in Figure 19-7, over the NS a
interval [—2,3]. Show the work that leads to your answer.

B(x)
Figure 19-7
The graph of a continuous function g(x).
In other wovds,
use a formula to
get your auswey—
Aout just look at the
graph and say “Locks
like the answer is
In order to approximate the average value of g(x), you must first estimate AVOUNA |.”

Sie (x)ax. Use the method of Problem 18.32, counting the number of squares
(formed by grid lines) between g(x) and the x-axis, as illustrated by Figure 19-8.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

333
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Figure 19-8 The number in each grid square represents the approximate
percentage of the square that is occupied by the shaded region
So, AAA bounded by f(x) and the x-axis (expressed as a decimal). Note
up all 17 of the that area below the x-axis is considered negative signed area.
numbers in Figuve
19-8 and multiply 1
Unlike Problem 18.32, each grid mark has length 9 , so each square has area
the sum by |/4 (the
Lae Deal:
actual avea of —-+—=-—,) rather than 1:1=1. Each term in the sum below represents the sum of
one squave).
22
the values in each “column” in Figure 19-8.

Sie ()dx ~ 71 (1.85+1.2541.6541.9+1440.2-1.7 ~1.6—-0.55+0.95)

~ 0.25(4.85)
~ 1.2125
Apply the average value formula.

1 b 1 3
— dx = ———— d
pale 3-cp 8) A
1
= (1.2125)
= —(1.2125

= .2425

Accumulation Functions and Accumulated Change

Integvals with x limits and “veal life” uses for integration

Note: Problems 19.25-19.30 refer to the function f (x) = { 10) dt, given the graph of h(t) in
Figure 19-9. :
19.25 Evaluate (2).

ny Figure 19-9 oe
The graph of h(t) consists of a semicircle —
and four linear segments of differing
slope. oe

334 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Cc hapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Substitute x= 2 into f(x): f(2)= foa(at. According to the property of definite

Theve’s
integrals that states ff (x) ax = 0, f(2) = 0. NO aver Un Aer
the curve if you
Stayt ana stop
_ Note: Problems 19.25-19.30 refer to the function f(x)= fwh (t)dt, given the graph of h(t) in
Figure 19-9,

19.26 Evaluate (8).

Substitute x = 8 into f(x): f(8)= Son()au. The function value at x = 8 is defined as

the area of the region bounded by h(é) and the x-axis between x= 2 and x= 8, as
illustrated by Figure 19-10.

h(t)

Figure 19-10 The area bounded by h(t) and the x-axis consists of a right
triangle with a positive signed area (dark shaded region) and a
trapezoid with a negative signed area (light shaded region).

=f) 3 Plug
The line segment connecting (2,1) and (4,-2) has slope : =-——. Use the
=e 2
a ae “3/2 pee ee
point-slope formula to get the equation of the line: y=——x+4. Substitute y = 0
YY = w(x - x,) ana
into the equation and solve for x to calculate the x-intercept. solve for y.

Ged
0= aan
2

2 2

Calculate Sin(oat by combining the areas of the shaded regions in Figure 19-10;
subtract the area of the trapezoid from the area of the triangle to account for its
position below the x-axis.

ifh(t) dt = area of right triangle — area of trapezoid

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
335
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem
eee

8 2 :
Subtvact The right triangle has base b= ia 2= a and height h, = 1. The trapezoid has
the endpoints 6
bases of length 6, = 7-4=3 and 4, Soe age height is h, = 2.
of the segments to
get theiv lengths. 1
ih:niar=|5 -b: hs |-5 hy(o+6,)
=[F-2a}-[2-2-
(3+9)|

Note: Problems 19,25-19.30 refer to the function f (x)= Jom

h(t)dt, given the graph aMh(t) in
Figure 19-9,

(19.27 Evaluate f(-8),

Substitute x =—8 into f(x): f(-—8)= {tsh(t) dt. Reverse the limits ofiintegration
so that the lesser of the two is the lower limit; according to Problem 18.22, this
requires you to multiply the integral by -1.

f(-8)=-f_hOat
Note that f 20 dt is equivalent to the sum of two areas: a semicircle with radius
5 and a rectangle with length 10 and width 1, as illustrated by Figure 19-11. Add
the areas of those regions to evaluate the definite integral.

Figure 19-11 The area bounded by h(t) and the x-axis on the interval [-8,2]
consists of a semicircle (dark shaded region) and a rectangle
(light shaded region).

336 the Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

2
fi_,/t(t)
dt = area of semicircle + area of rectangle

= (Sar?}+(-u) Be caveful—
this is not the
final answer, A few
= 5.2(6)'+(10-1) steps ago, you had
On to flip-flop the limits
= roe +10
of integvation, So

25m +20
= Ma txt. youll nea to
multiply by -|.

aa 252 + 20
Recall that f(—8) = — fi a(oat, so f(-—8)= 5

Note: Problems 19.25-19.30 referto the function f (x) ={~h(t)dt, given the graph ofh(t) in
Figure 19-9.

19.28 Evaluate f(—10).

Substitute x= -10 into f(x) and reverse the limits of integration.

f(-10)=f> n(eat
—10

This integral
f(-10)=—f_ h(t)at
2
'S calculated in
2
Rewrite Jo h@at as a sum of two definitaon
e integrals. Problem 19.27
f(-10)=-| [7 a@are f° a(ar]
Note that f h(t)at equals the area of a trapezoid with bases of length 1 and 3
and height 2.
-8 1 1 ms
Soh de =5 h(3,+b,)=5(2)(1+3)=4

According to Problem 19.27, f”,h(z)dt = —

SAG ied : Distvibute
eo [Sima x fnOat] this -| through
= -[4sa ne the numerator,
= then change this
| - sign into
2 :
eh Sa0e 12
oy 2 |
25% +12
ee

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

337
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem ee
pa

Note: Problems 19.25-19.30 refer to the function f (x) = 7:h(t)dt, given the graph of h(t) in
Figure 19-9.

19.29 Graph f(x).

According to Problem 18.34, al / (at) = g(f(x)) Ry

(f7n(@at) = h(x) (x)

=h(x)=1
= h(x)

Therefore, the graph of f'(x), pictured in Figure 19-12, is equivalent to the graph
of h(t).

Figure 19-12 The graph of h(t) is also the graph off'(x).

Note: Problems 19.25-19.30 refer to the function f (x) = fir) dt, given the graph of h(t) in
Figure 19-9.

19.30 Rank the following values from least to greatest: f’(-3), f'(0), f’(2), and f'(10).
The
letter th the
function Acesw't According to Problem 19.29, f'(x) = h(x). Evaluate each derivative by determining
matter: I(x) ana the height of h(t) in Figure 9-12 at each x-value.
W(t) have the same
value no matter fCa)=6-— (Oss * fe)=1 “-Qo)=4
what you call the
Therefore, f'(2) <7 (10) =f (0). fr(—3).
inAependent
Vawiable,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

33 8
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Note: Problems 19.31-19.35 discuss a particle moving back and forth along the x-axis
with
velocity v(t) = -t? + 9t — 20 (measured in meters per second after t seconds have elapsed)
and
an initial position 3 feet left of the origin.
This means
19.31 Identify the function s(¢) that models the position of the particle at time S(O) = -3. IL the
¢ with
respect to the origin. pavticle is left of
the ovigin, its position
The derivative ofa position function is its velocity function. Therefore, the \S Considevea
antiderivative of the velocity function is the position function. hegative,

s(t)= f(a
= J (-0? + 9¢-20)ae
- 2
When you
=-—+— ~20+C
i 2 know one of
the values of an
According to the information given, s(0) =—3. Use this initial condition to antidevivative, you
calculate C.

5 940)" ~20(0)+C
can actually figure
(0=-O out what C equals.
2 Substitute + = 0 into
—-3=C the function, ana
Ce Ot
plug in s(0) = -3.
Therefore, s(t) = ae + Saeg 20t=3.

Note: Problems 19.31—19.35 discuss a particle moving back and forth along the x-axis with
velocity v(t) =—t? + 9t — 20 (measured in meters per second after t seconds have elapsed) and
Dis PLACEMEN
an initial position 3 feet left of the origin. T
Means “Youve
19.32 Calculate the total displacement of the particle from t= 0 to ¢= 4. in DIS PLACE
ho w,
AWA you weve
j
PLACE bebo
ae
Displacement of the particle on the time interval [a,b] is defined as s(b) — s(a); in Compaves St
avting
this problem, a= 0 and b= 4. AnA ending
Positions
s(b)—s(a)=s(4)—s(0)
that’s it,
45 9(4)
=|— 4+-—-—.-
: ; 90(4)-3|—(-3
(4) (=3)

Ae64 teresa
144
+9
a That Acesy’'t
hecessavily mean
ing +72—80
en it traveled a total
5 a of 88/3 meters,
a though. If the particle
--= changes Aivection
at all, it'll travel

seiegg
farther than the

ee
88
The particle is a meters left of where it began at t= 4 seconds. Aisplacement
Suggests.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
339
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Note: Problems 19.31-19.35 discuss a particle moving back andforth along thex-axis with
velocity v(t) =—t? + 9t - 20 (measured in meters per second after t seconds have a and
an initial position 3 feet left of the origin.

19.33 Determine the total distance traveled by the particle on the time interval OAL

You must first identify any ¢-values at which the particle changes direction,
indicated by a sign change in the velocity function. Use the technique
demonstrated in Problem 15.20, which begins by setting the velocity function
equal to 0 and solving the equation to locate critical numbers.

—i? +9t-20=0
pee —1(-0?
+9-20) =—1(0)
pavticle does
change aivection at BIEN
t = 4, wheve its velocity (¢-4)(¢-5)=0
is 0. Even though the t= 4,5
particle has momentavily
stopped moving, it hasn't The particle changes direction at t= 4 seconds and again at t=5 seconds, because
actually begun
traveling the other v(t) changes sign at both of those critical numbers. Neither critical number

affects the distance traveled by the particle from t= 0 to t= 4, because the particle
travels in only one direction during that time. Therefore, its displacement and
88
distance traveled are equivalent: a meters (according to Problem 19.32).

Note: Problems 19.31-19.35 discuss a particle movingb

back and forth along the x-axis with
velocity v(t) = -t? + 9t—20 (measured in meters per:secondafter t seconds have elapsed) and
:an initial position 3 feet left of the origin.

19.34 Determine the displacement of the particle on the time interval [3,7].

As explained in Problem 19.32, the displacement of the particle is the difference

of its positions at the endpoints of the specified ¢-interval: s(7) — s(3).

5(7) — s(3)= -2.Doane

2
s|-[-542h
2
~90(3)- |
34
-|-22 +cee STE 3|-|-9+5-60-3|
2 2 2
-|_-See ees |-[-Reee
6 2
221 63
= ——_ + —
6 a
a.088
6
__16 3
16
At t= 7 seconds, the particle is 3 meters left of its position when t= 3.
EEE eee
po
340 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem
—_—_}

Note: Problems 19.31-19.35 discuss a particle moving back and forth along the x-axis with
\ eS
_ velocity v(t) = —t? + 9t - 20 (measured in meters per second after t seconds have elapsed)
and
an initial position 3 feet left of the origin.
Ne
19.35 What is the total distance traveled by the particle on the time interval
[3,7]? ss

According to Problem 19.33, the particle changes direction at ¢= 4 and t=5,

Definite integrals of the velocity function calculate the total distance traveled, as
long as the particle travels only one direction between the limits of integration.
However, if the particle is moving left, the definite integral will be negative.
Therefore, to calculate the total distance traveled by the particle, take the
You Aon't
absolute value of each integral and add the results.
use C= -3 when
youve working with
distance traveled =|
i}“u(t)dt +|froW@ar|+|f'o(oar Aefuite integrals—
re ~ OF ; Sor 3 2 “ just integrate each
5+ —am) + [-5+201]
f
+ Seep
ea A)oy
term of v(t) using
5 the power vule for
=|s(4)- s(3)|+|s(5)— s(4)|+|s(7)- s(5)| integvation.
peel aliid
aRanpeS
hl?
3
es;
The particle travels a total distance of — meters between t= 3 and t= 7. The
one
particle travels left for most of that distance (? eel ¢ :
+ 3 = on meters , traveling right
1
only 6 ofa meter, between ¢= 4 and t= 5 seconds.

19.36 Seven hours after a community water tank is filled, monitoring equipment
fie
reports that water is leaking from the tank at a rate of I(t) = Age 4
way
gallons per hour (where fis the number of hours elapsed since the tank was last
filled). Calculate the total amount of water that leaked out of the tank during
those seven hours.

If I(h) is the
The definite integral 4“U(t)dt calculates the total volume of water that leaked out vate that the
watev’s leaking out,
of the tank between ¢= aand ¢= b. Unlike Problems 19.33 and 19.35, there is no
A negative I(t) means
need to identify critical points or split the definite integral because I(t) > 0 for
7 water is leaking
all ¢. Evaluate f: L(t)dt.
pack in, and Heat
Acesw't make any
7Vtt+4 7 at
ie neP aeoe EK. an
f dt—{ — | sense,
e \ 2 i+] o a/3 0¢+]
at
=e Sit aya
f+]

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
341
 Chapter Nineteen — Applications of the Fundamental Theorem

Apply variable substitution. In the first integral, w= i+ 4 and du= dt. In the second
You. Aow't integral, v= ¢+ 1 and dv = dt. As you write the integrands in terms of wand v,
always have remember to write the limits of integration in terms of wand vas well.
to use u as the 1 pu 8 du
Bsaviable. Actually, i call Ke a ae
it’s better to use esa
different Vawi ables
ene 1
= ae fu), = In|u|,
(like W ana v in this
Problem) if youre
2 _(11°/? — 48/7) -(in8 -In1)
working On Move than ~ 38
one integral ata
time, Note that 4°”? = (/4) SiS eanicelie lee

jeer (11°? —8)—In8

3/3
= 38 —8)-In8
= 8.884 gallons

342 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter 20
INTEGRATING RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

the integvall
What to Ao when there's a fraction inside
Minor differences in a rational integrand require vastly different solution
methods. For instance, integrating a prime quadratic denominator paired with
a constant numerator typically requires you to complete the square. However, if
the same denominator is paired with a linear numerator, variable substitution
may be required. Furthermore, a numerator with degree two or higher will likely
involve long division before you are able to integrate the expression. All of these
methods are explored in detail. The chapter culminates with the integration by
partial fraction decomposition technique, a powerful and rigorous tool used to
express an integrand as the sum of fractions whose denominators are factors of
the original rational expression.

Devivatives ave much easier tha

n tutegvals. Want to Aiffeventiat
Product? Use the proAuct vule
. Need the devivative ofa
eecuent vule always wovks. Not nee
so with integrals, though. Dieter
es if they've only very slightly eaer f
aiffevent will have completely
Solutions that vequive you to use aiebereae
completely Aiffevent techniques.
pte cha pter is spent on the Quagmive tha Th ui is ne
t is integrating Proctor e ee
ae litHe tricks along the way suc a
h as AAAIng ANA subtvacting the
side an integral (like -x + x), which : ‘ ae~
is veally the same thin vA ee "4
Two of Ene method s you'll leary (sepavation and par
tial
ee 5 ee )
fe ea one big fraction into a bunch of
small fractions added to a,
etee partial Pvactions is muc
h move complicated than ee
q e It’s ee all
aie ave a lot of steps, which
means theve ave a lot of places
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Separation
If theve’s
aAAdAition ov
Make one big ugly fraction into smallley, less ugly ones
subtvaction in
the numerator, a+b a b aa
20.1 Demonstrate that —— =—+-— but - Tt
You can write each Cc C26 b+c 6b Cc
term over a copy
en of ae a
the Aenominator ana ab : :
AAA (or subtract) Notice that —+— have common denominator c. You may combine the numerators
@ Ec
those fractions. y GaGa AD 3 ; : :
of such fractions: —+ - = . However, in order to combine the fractions in the
You caw't split aa c c
Apart aAAition ov expression 5zsre , you must first rewrite the sum using the:common denomina-
Subdtvaction in the
; tor be.
Aenowminateoy like a(c\ a(b\ actab
that, though. <(¢)z (7)Brahe

Tne eee
erefore, Baie Be ee instead, ,on Re

: — x” — 3x*
20.2 Integrate the expression: i)aN.
x z

Separate the rational expression into two rational expressions with a common
denominator.
x? — 3x4 x 3x4
J #-S\a-Ge
9

4 —1
4
3
Seeds
4 x

20.3 Integrate the expression: -dx +1 dx.

4 x

Separate the expression into two indefinite integrals containing integrands with
common denominators.

344 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Dividing
by # Is
the same as
multiplying by 2
cal f edt. iidx Gust like Aividing
‘ by 2 is the same as
Uba4 ¥ 3
= ae + In|x|+C multiplying by 7)
= 2x'/? + In|x|+C

20.4 Integrate the expression: f ae dx. SN Va

— cos’ x
Ge
Recall that cos 2x = 2 cos’ x- 1. Use this identity to rewrite the numerator and
separate the integrand into the difference of two fractions.
{ee Ee icsade The
cos’ x cos” x DERIVATIVE of
a peck ae =f 1 : tanxis sec’x,$0 the
cose cae ANTIDERIVATIVE of
=f 2dx— f sec® xdx Sec’ xis tay x.
= 2x —tanx+C

3 e* —-2
20.5 Integrate the expression: f e*a dx,

Rewrite the integrand as the difference of two rational expressions.

4x
Cute e 4x 2
i Ons
dx = f ee
|f e** dx

J
= | 1-dx—2] e dx

Integrate i e “dx using variable substitution: u= ¢* and du =-—4¢* dx, so

ae _
oNEELES Rares
= fde+s fia
= xtlu
aets tC

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
345
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

X\ Va 20.6 Integrate the expression: f how

62
e—2

Y eRNo Add and subtract e* in the numerator.

i ae feeige ae
fe == + x _< x

ex.—2 Cae
Leaving
-2 inside Separate the first two terms of the numerator from the third term, creating two
the integral indefinite integrals.
(instead of pulling trek ee =e dx
it out in front of seas
the integral sign) will
- e<?o e*dx
actually save you = as cael paces
a step ov two in this
problem, but either e dx
=i)ices[ee
way you'll get the
same Final
Apply variable substitution to the remaining rational integrand: u= e— 2 and
ANSwey,
du= & dx.
du ‘
= fdx- ps

=x—In|ul+C
=x—Inle* —2|+C

20.7 Integrate the expression: J a ae -

Rewrite the integrand as the sum of two rational expressions.

vx —4+ Vx 4
(eeeae eat dxt+ f ~— dex
x—4 x—4
" (x—4)'” oe

eee dx +f—— de

= S(e-4y? det fax

Apply the same variable substitution to both integrals: u= x-4 and du= dx.

IRu=x-A4,
you can adda 4 to
- 4
oth sides to get =fu aut [dur feu
Uut+4=x, yl’?
“77g tet alnlel te

= 2Vx—-4+(x—4)+4In|x—-—4|+C
=2Vx—-4+x+4In|x—4/+C-4

346 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Note that C— 4 is another arbitrary constant. To indicate that the new arbitrary
constant is different than Cas it appeared in the preceding steps, you can use a
new constant, such as K, but it is common to continue to refer to the arbitrary
constant as C, even if the value of C may change throughout the problem. Also
note that, according to the logarithmic property that states alog b= log b’,
4 In |x- 4] = In (x- 4)*.
=2Vx-4+x+In(x—4)'+C

Long Division
Divide befove you integvate

20.8 Under what circumstances is it beneficial to perform long division on arational

integrand? ;

If the numerator and denominator of the rational expression are polynomials

such that the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of
the denominator, it is often beneficial to perform long (or synthetic) division
before integrating.

: x” — 3x4
x 3 ea ae
20.9 According to Problem 20.2, i — ds = a +-—-+C. Verify the antiderivative
x x
by performing long division on the integrand before integrating. If the
DENOMINATOR’S
Aegvee is lavgey, you
As the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the
can try to integrate
denominator (926), you can apply long division.
using partial fractions,
x —3x* which is covered at
x°) x7 +0x* + 0x7 + Ox" + Ox® — 3x? + Ox? + Ox? +0x +0 the ena of this
—xX
9 chapter.

— 3x* + Ox® + 0x?

4
+3x I
0 YOU need to
veview long Aivision
Rewrite the rational integrand as the quotient that results from long division.
of polynomials, look
at Problems 2.16
9 — 34 :
fe ee | (ote *)dx and 2.17,

=o eC
4 —]
t

See
4 %x

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 347
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

2x) 13x75 14 +108

20.10 Integrate the expression: | ye dx.

Even though
Problems 20.9 an Perform polynomial long division.
a
20.10 divide evenly x —5x —36
long Aivision still 2x —3) 2x° —13x7 —57x+108
helps if theve’s
a —2x? + 3x?

See in pee —10x* —57x

20.11-20.13, + 10x* = 159
— (2% +108
+ 72x =108
0
Rewrite the rational integrand as the quotient that results from long division.

f= ee 13x ree a ean ae

2x5
3 2

= eeeeC
Sra?

eee Ce
20.11 Integrate the expression: if ae -

The Perform polynomial long division.

polynomials in x8
fyvout and inside of x =0x—-2) x? —8x7+3x+16
the Aivision symbols
—x* +0x? + 2x
need to have all their
x's. Because x’ - 2 is — 8x" +5x +16
missing an x term, ill + 8x? —Ox -16
in the space with Be a)

$Ytes a
Note that the remainder is 5x; therefore, —— =x-8+ eS .
x= (Pe

> — 8x? + 3x —4
fa fe-84 ma
2
x —2 x=

= fredx— f8ae+ fo5 ax

= fredx-8fdx+5 fax

348 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

The rightmost integral requires variable substitution: w= x?—2 and du= 2x dx, So
du
is = xdx
dx.

= fxd Bf dx+5-5
x
= —8x+2Inlul+C
2

= = — 8+ Zn? -2+C
2

4x +
20.12 Integrate the expression: f =ay

Perform long division. 4/3 avove

the Aivision
4 symbol because
3
4x+ 7

Eyal c It answers the

3 question “3x times
25 what equals
3 4x?”
4x+7 ait 20/3. o 25
Therefore,
Sel 3 3e- 8 3(3x—1)

ax+7 |
Lege in= {34 see"

=I oh ies 1 You
COUlA also
have Aone this
Variable substitution is required to antidifferentiate f<~y: ¥=5e- Land
Problem using
du= 3 dx, so =dr. eee y DUE the u
x“

ee Uu
Substitutio
trickier: ot
i
ae
(fase
ax =
4x
3x —| . J3x Ax +
—|
4
ape
3 9 Sa
ines oe

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
349
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions
pe ee

oe > —~6x4 +3x° —x—1

20.13 Integrate the expression: f apes a
S

If you cant Because the denominator is a linear binomial with leading coefficient 1, synthetic
vemewmber how division is preferable to long diyision.
synthetic aivision
wovks, look at -2) 1 -6 8 Oi =i —]
Problems 2.1% * —9 16 -—38 76 —150
ana 2.17. 1 =—8 19 =—38 “75. —151
Rewrite the integrand using the quotient resulting from synthetic division.

° 6x+3x° —x—
fe Se ae fet— 80°+100" — 382475 151a ax
x+2 ie

= [xtdx—8f x°dx +19fx

x =8x* 19x? 38x;

——
+ 75x —151-In|x+2/+C
Fe es
+

5 19 3

Spek ao = 1e! ioe eae ee

Applying Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Very useful, but only in certain civcumstances
a a
20.14 Explain why {=2 be integrated using¥‘variable substitution but [ioe
Lt
cannot.

If w= x? + 1, the shared denominator, then du = 2x dx and a =x dx. Because

Problem the derivative contains “x dx,” the numerator of the fraction must contain this
x dx
20.\4 fr quantity as well, in order
;
to perform variable substitution. Whereas it eae ¥
OU Can ;
oe are dis wits ee, contain the required x (as well as the dx, which appears in both integrals),
ie
u-substitution, but HfIne does not.
that Aoeswt mean
that (A) you can't
integrate it at all,
20.15 Integrate the expression: Z = oe
ov (B) u-substitution x
won't be involved. You
CAN integrate it, and
usually u-substitution
d
According to Problem 16.26,7, earetan u)=
u lt+u?
1 dwdx If w= xin that
IS an important I
rational expression, it becomes = Jaa ‘1. Therefore,
step, even if it’s 1+(x)
not the only dx
ie y =arctanx+C,
step. x

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

35 0
a Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

More generally, any integral of the form fs where wis a function of x and
ag
ais a real number, has an antiderivative of —arctan (“
.
. . . u

a a The
u's inside
20.16 Integrate the expression: ta6xdx
cae the inerse tvig
integrals shoula
vVeMind you to use
This integral has form fas 7, if a= 4 (because 4’= 16) and w= x* (because u-substitution tf u
+ equals something
(x*)?= x*). To integrate, er variable substitution: w= x? and du = 2x dx, so
other than
Ca
just x.
2 f 6x dx =6f x dx
x +16 x' +16
du /2
=6
Saat
ah

=6-S fay The

wt+a ovdey in the
Aenominator Aoeswt
According to Problem 20.15, fos
as =“arctan(* |eGe matter—u? + a?
atu
anda a’ + W ave
equivalent, just like
S+Band3sis.

e*dx
20.17 Integrate the expression: f
Ir,— 92* :

This fovmula
Note that f—
oe = arcsin( J+G&
(which looks a
lot like the avcsin x
Let a=V5 (because a? = (/5) =5) and u= & (because wu?
= (e)?= e*). Perform Aevivative formula
variable substitution: if u= e, then du= é dx. frow Problem |6.24)
Aoesut have |/a
e*dx
iirearenaa MSore
i= out front like the
avctan x formula in
Problew 20.15.
‘teh
= JsC

— arcsin
Ti ae Jee
V5
«5

Rationalize the denominator to get the equivalent solution arcsin 5 +C.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

351
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions
fa
eee

Use 20.18 Integrate the expression: | ————=—===—..

the avcsine : : — eae,
ontidevivative
fvom Problem 20.17 : : , serial: fi oy
vale . been
a
again, because inside Apply the inverse trigonometric antiderivative if amas arcs. :
dx
the vadical you've a=1, u=|n x, and du=—.
got a number minus
a vaviable (a? - u’). In
Problem 20.19, you Aeal x1 —(Inx)” yl-(Inx)? *
with uw’ - a’ inside
Tame
i}
the vadical.
uU
=arcsin (<)+C
a
= arcsin(Inx)+C
The
extva x in front cos 3x dx 2
of the vadical sign 20.19 Integrate the expression: |—————>———. 7
th the Aenominator : : J sin 3x,/sin® (3x) —2 re
of the oviginal
problem Aisappeavs
pply the
Apply th arcsecant t antiderivative
antiderivative fformula:
ja:J ieeae
po = Farcsec . +C. : Let
when you veplace
Ax/x with Au. d
a= 2 and u=sin 3x. Therefore, du = 3 cos 3x dx and = = cos 3x dx.

f cos 3x dx 2 f du/3
sin 3x,/sin? (3x) —2 ° uvu? —a?
mh f du
8 uvu? —a?
eel
= pryaresee(llc
3 a a

cy eee 6
— 5B
arcsec| V2

Rationalize the expressions to get the equivalent solution

sae peeeee
st Ge
6 2

xdx
20.20 Integrate the expression: f
(arctanx” +x‘ arctanx*),/arctan’ (Pees
The wova
Factor arctan x’ out of the parenthetical quantity in the denominator.
“paventhetical”
just means “the xdx
stuff inside the arctan x” (1+x‘ ) arctan” (x?)—25
paventheses.”

Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

352 «he
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions
TS OE eee

Apply the arcsecant trigonometric antiderivative such that a= 5, because

= 5’ = 25, and w= arctan x*, because wu? = (arctan x°)? = arctan? (x*). Differentiate
u=arctan x* to determine du.
u = arctan x The x Ax in
the numevator ana
dij ea yh)
1+(x?)) 3 dx the | + x*in the
Aenominator ave
du= l - 2x dx veplacea by Au/2.
_1+x'
du _ xdx
9 1+x%

f x dx a f du/2

arctan x” (1+x* )Jarctan’ (x?)—25 uvu? —a*

oft eo
|e
8

|
[ee “i Check out the
graph of y = baw"! x
arcsec eer ee +C
rote
ae
oh your calculatoy—
Note that arctan x? > 0 for all x, so the absolute values are unnecessary. it’s above the x-axis
when x > 0,
_ farctanx?
= — arcsec] ————— |+C
10 f 5

Completing the Square

For quadvatics Aown below and no vavialbles up top

20.21 Integrate the expression: as

os 5 f (4x—1)° +9

Apply the inverse tangent antiderivative from Problem 20.15, such that a= 3 and
d
w= 4x~ 1. Therefore, du= 4 dxand == dx,
d du /4
[Sis
(4x-1)' +9 ~wta’
1 id
_—-— -arctan{*Jee
4 a a
(5) (==)
=—| — Jarctan +C
4\3 3
(43)
= — arctan +C
12 3 /

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

353
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

20.22 Complete the square in the denominator of the integrand: i eer}

Just like
ih Problem 1 a

20.6, adding Compute the square of one-half the x-coefficient: [-8: ;|= 16. Add and subtract
ana subtvacting this value from the denominator. 2
Something at the f dx =f dx
same time veally x? — 8x-+ 20 x? —8x+20+16—-16
MEANS youve AAAIn g
0, which wow Reorder the terms in the denominator so that the 16 is grouped with the x-terms
and —16 is grouped with the constant.
change the value
dx
of the \utegval,
ST —8x+16)+(20-16)
Factor the trinomial, which (as a result of the above arithmetic manipulation) will
be a perfect square. Combine the constants as well.
is dx
= laze

20.23 Integrate the expression il ee generated by Problem 20.22.

y
ee ae

Integrate using the method described by Problem 20.21, setting a= 2, u= x- 4,

and du= dx.
dx du
S Grae are
il
= rarctan{“) +C
a a
1 oe
= parctan(==) +C
2 2

@@oO : Ae
20.24 Integrate {|————___.
:
Y ERo e J x? —8x+20 —

Attempt to integrate using variable substitution: set u= x° — 8x + 20 and

differentiate.
The numerator
alveady has an du = (2x —8)dx

x—it just needs a -4, If du = 2(x—4)dx

you put a -4 in there, you au ie
have to put 4 in theve at
the same time (because
In order to apply the variable substitution technique, the numerator must be
-44+4=0, and adding (x— 4) dx instead of x dx. Add and subtract 4 in the numerator.
0 won't change
anything.) f x dx =f x—-4+4
x? — 8x +20 x* —8x +20 <

ous Book of Calculus Problems

35 4 The Humong
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Split the expression into the sum of two integrals, such that x- 4 (the expression
required for variable substitution) is one of the numerators.
x—4 4dx
= f=——_ dx + {[————_
x” —8x+20 x —8x+20
x—4 dx
Sf | ee td [ee
Verea oe me Jeep

Apply variable substitution to the first integral: u= «° — 8x + 20 and > = (x —4)dx,

as calculated above. The second integral is calculated in Problem 20.23. Evevy point
on the graph
of
t fme
d
y Ef oe
d Y= xX - 8x +2
0 is
u x” —8x+20 Above the XAxi
s,
NO Matter what so
i =|ptahl]+|4-Sarctan( =) + C x you
Plug th, you'll
get ou
t a
Positive numbey
1 > x—4 . That
= yin(s" 84 +20)+2arctan| Jee MEANS You cay
Avop the
abso lute value ba
vs.
20.25 Integrate the expression: iF
soo
x” — 4x

In order to complete the square, the x*-term must have a coefficient of 1. , ;

fl dx =f dx
If it Aoesnit,
factor the
Qx* —4x +14 2(x? — 2x +7)
coefficient of
1 dx
x’ out of EVERY
ae Rooters term in the
Aenominatov.
Complete the square in the denominator and apply the inverse tangent
antiderivative.
Pl dx
Sy
2h | pea aes
9 (x? —2x+1)+(7-1)
=f dx

2” (x-1) +6

Leta=-6, w= x-—1, and du= dx.

Hl du
Salaries
aed 3 (E+
= —+—=arctan| ——
2 J6 V6
Rationalize the expression. /

SDA ee) +G
12 6

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
355
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

\ Ye 20.26 Integrate the expression:ep ee

oe ear

The leading coefficient of the quadratic must be 1, so factor 3 out of each term in
the denominator.
f 5dx Ly f 5dx
3x? —2x+13 ~ 3[x?-(2/3)x+13/3|
because thisiis
5 d:
going to get ugly. Te Pi =
x” —(2/3)x+13/3
“Pactoy” 3 out of 2
Awvide 2 by 3:2/3.

(ee)
Same thing with
Compute the square of half of the x-coefficient.

I3: 13/3

dx
The 3! [?=(@/8)e41/9]403/8=179)
number inside
the perfect = 5 leap HERGd :
squave will always be (x 1/3)" +38/9
half the x-coefficient,
Apply the inverse trigonometric antiderivative formula such that ,/—— =
so the factovea form
of this quadratic is u=x—, and du= dx.

wt+ae
:1
=—: ae Jee
3 a

hy
Soa arctin| a4} +0
3 38/3 38 /3
Eliminate the complex fractions by multiplying their numerators and
3
denominators by ——=.
V38

cite 3 3 1
ae Seg
Yaaarctan| (:-3)]+ C

5 3x—1
=Segarctan| =")+C

Rationalize the expression to get the equivalent solution

5/38 fanless
PN98 38 (3x — toe
38 38

356 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

. Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Partial Fractions
A fancy way to break Aown big fractions

20.27 What is the final goal of partial fraction decomposition? Problem

2032 explains
what this weiva
The ultimate goal of partial fraction decomposition is to rewrite a single fraction little qualifying
as a sum of fractions whose denominators are factors (or powers of factors) of the
Statement means.
original fraction.
Until then, Aowt+
Wovvy about it,

20.28 Perform partial fraction decomposition on the rational expression: 2x ~-3

— or
x —_—

Factor the denominator.

=D 2x —3
x*—25 (x+5)(x—5) The
The goal of partial fraction decomposition is to rewrite the expression as a sum of Aenominators
fractions whose denominators are the factors of x? — 25. X+S and x = Ss
AVE Aegvee |,
22=3 eel . B the numerators
(x+5)(x-5) x+5 x-5 have A Aegvee
that’s exactly one
Eliminate all of the fractions in the equation by multiplying every term by the Smalley (0). In othee
least common denominator (x + 5)(x—5).
Words, the A and B
(x+5)(x—5) 2x —3 _| (x +5)(%—-5) Values ave veal)
AnD
1 numbers.
ll 1 [+4]
[s+5) (5-5) (2x3) _(245) (x-5)A | (x +5)(s-8JB

2x —-3=(x-5)A+(x+5)B
Distribute A and B.

2x—-3= Ax-—5A+ Bx+5B

Group like terms and factor x out of the variable terms.

2x —-3= Ax+ Bx-5A+5B

2x -3=x(A+B)+(-—5A+5B)

If the expressions on the right and left sides of the equation are equal, their
coefficients must be equal. The x-coefficient on the left side of the equation is
2, so the x-coefficient on the right side (A + B) must equal 2 as well: A+ B= 2.
Similarly, the constant on the left (-3) must equal the constant on the right
(-—5A + 5B): -5A + 5B=-3. In order to identify A and B, you must solve the system
of equations.
A+ B=2
—5A+5B=-3

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

357
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

The system is quickly solved using substitution.

Solve —5A+5B=-3
the ivst
equation for A to
—5(2—B)+5B=-3
get A=2-Bana —10+5B+5B=-3
substitute that 10B=7
tuto the second 7
equation, Be 10

Substitute B into either equation of the system to calculate A.

A+B=2
7
A+—=2
10
20,57
10 10
_1310
Substitute the values of A and B into the original decomposition equation.

2X0 pepe ro B 13/10 | 7/10 _ 13 a

(x+5)(x—-5) x+5 x-5 xwt+5 x-5 10(x+5) iree)

20.29 Verify the partial fraction decomposition from Problem 20.28 by demonstrating
2029 13 7 :
that
ee “OG G-
Cant vememdey
how £0 SMA rhe ee
ov
COW! Aouad 2,
Eliminate the fractions by multiplying by the least common denominator:
Lock at Proto 10(x+5)(x-5).
anas

[Reapers] 2x —3 |-[Seee2] 13 [Peper] 7

1 (x+5)(x—5)] 1 10(x +5) 1 10(x—5)
10 (s+) (xB) (2x-3) _ WS+18 (+5) (x-5) WO 7e5) (x +5)
(245) (x5) Wty Wp
10(2x — 3) =13(x-—5)+7(x+5)
20x — 30 = 13x — 65+ 7x +35
20x — 30 = 20x — 30

This is a true statement, so the original statement—equating the fraction to its

partial fraction decomposition—is true as well.

358 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

20.30 Integrate the expression: f 2x —-3 dx, from Problem 20.28.

x?
—25

According 2x —-3 13 7
to Problem 20.28, —— = ——____. +. —__
6 - x°—25 10(x+5) 10(x—5) :

( 2x —3 x= f 13 dx iL 7dx
x” —25 10(x+4) % 10(x—5)
= Soph de et 7fd dx
nt x+4 10 x—-5
Even though
Integrate each expression using variable substitution: u= x+ 4, v= x— 5, du= dx it’s hot aA huge
>

and dv= dx. Aeal, Aow't use u

_13 pu,
7edu Por two Aivfevent
Aechominators in the
(Pl Sei
13 7 Same problem, Use
= —In|u|+—In|v|+C Vv for the Second
10 10
13 a One to avoiA
= —In|x + 4|+—In|x—5|+C Confusion,
10 10
There are alternate ways to write the solution if logarithmic properties are
applied, but the above solution is preferable, as it clearly identifies the partial
fractions from which it is derived and is unencumbered by unwieldy rational
exponents.

llx~15
20.31 Integrate the expression: A;i, dx,

é llx-15 : ,
Factor the denominator to getii res) Perform partial fraction
x (4x —
decomposition on the integrand, as described by Problem 20.28.

lix—15>
ee
Ard a
B
x(4x-3) «x 4x-3
x(4x—3)] 1lx—-15 = As B
1 x (4x —3) 1 x 4x-3
11x -—15 = A(4x —3)+ Bx
llx-15=4Ax—-—3A+
Bx
11x -15=x(4A+B)—-3A

Set the x-coefficients on both sides of the equation equal, and do the same for the
constants on both sides of the equation. This generates a system of equations.

4A+B=11
-3A=-15 /

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
359
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Solve the second equation to get A = 5. Substitute A = 5 into the first equation to
calculate B.
4A+B=11
4(5)+B=11
B=-9
Rewrite the integrand according to its partial fraction decomposition
Integrate using
vaviable substitution: Lik
u=4x-%3 and Au=4 Ax, so a 15 dx = f= dx + Se
errs
4x? — 3x
Au/4 = Ax. That's where
the Aenominator 4 ees

comes from in the , hy

next step. = 5In|a|— 7 In|4x — 3|+C

x
“on 0 Perform partial
20.32 Hon
i decomposition
i eae fee

the whole Factor the denominator to get (2x+ 1)(2x+ 1) = (2x+ 1)’; 2x+ 1 is.a repeated
factor is vaised to factor of the quadratic. Therefore, the partial fraction decomposition must
a power, so you have include all natural number exponents of the repeated factor, up to and including
to include both its original exponent (i.e., powers from 1 to nif the factor is raised to the n
(2x + |)? and 2x + | power).
as Aecowmposition Se
ce eo
Aa ye
B
Aenominators. If it haa (2x41)? Q2x+1 (2x41)
factovea inte (2x + |)*,
youd have haa to
et) x |-S| Ane
include (2x + |)*, 1 |[(2x+1"| 1 [2x41 (2x+1)?
(2x + 1)?, (2x + |)?, ana x= A(2x+1)+B
2x + |. Keep x=2Ax+A+B
subtvacting | from
the power until i]
As both x-coefficients must be equal, 2A = 1, so A= 9° The constants on-both sides
you get to |.
of the equation must be equal as well, so A + B= 0. Therefore, B= = Substitute

these values into the partial fraction decomposition equation

x reals ie 172
Substitute
A=% wtoA+B=0 4x°+4x+1 Q2x+1 (2x41)
to get % + B= 0. Solve er a ee
for BD:B= O-K=hK. 2(2x+1) 2(2x+1)°

Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

360
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

20.33 Integrate
grate the the expression
expression f [———
Pea — from Problem 20.32.

:
According x 1 1
to Problem 20.32, s,s
4x" +4x+1 2(2x+1) 2(2x+1)
x dx dadxf dx
setecee retinas Hig | oxigen
Jaa 3 Lares aay Laer
1 dx 1 dx
sa al om Sort

Integrate both expressions using variable substitution: u=2x+ 1 and du=2 dx, so
d
Sean alse
2
_lpdu/2_1 pdu/2
= u aJ ue
Leoe e
"9 les 2 oJ udu

Toke!
ce ed |
falas dl. #1 X ye
= nett+c i
3@
20.34 Perform partial fraction decomposition: 2x° — 5x?
tae
+6x—-3
3x

Factor the denominator.

Ix® — 5x? +6x —3

x? (x? + 3)

Unlike the preceding partial fractions exercises, the factor x’ + 3 requires the
linear numerator Ax + Brather than a constant numerator. Note that x2 is
considered a repeated factor, so you must include a denominator of x! as well as a
denominator of x’.
WWMevatey is Ax , + he
ox ty tix—3 AB rtd os =A. If
d(t+3) x et 43 Sie end is
ese tect) Sea fy)
1 x? (x? +3) 1 x x x43

2x° — 5x? + 6x—3 = Ax(x! +3)+ B(x" +3)+x° (Cx+tD)

2x° — 5x? +6x—-3= Ax® +3Ax+ Bx? +3B+Cx® + Dx? ees of
2x° — 5x? +6x-—3=(A+C)x*? +(B+D)x? +3Ax+3B + Boe G VI

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems 361
 Chapter Twenty — Integrating Rational Expressions

Match the coefficients of the terms on both sides of the equations; you can
immediately calculate A and B.

x coefficients | x’ coefficients |x coefficients iconstants

| 1 |
AtC =2) B+ Der5 4
AA eo oe!
Substitute A = 2 into the equation A + C= 2 to determine that C= 0. Substitute
B=-1 into the equation B+ D=-—5 to determine that D =—4. Substitute A, B, C,
and D into the partial fraction decomposition equation.
9x? —5x? +6x-3 A B Cxt+D
Sb
x* + 3x" eS
_2,-1,
= Ox+C4)
Oe
(Ox (=4
Koro
2 4

me se Br Rae oe
20.35 Integrate the expression: f an -: 2 dx, from Problem 20,34.
x x

According to Problem 20.34, Pe ea = _ es ,

Use the x? + 3x? No MS Kok
avctangent sil pee eee
Oe evwative
v foh ig aie
Oe ee eal dx — fa dx — leve
heve. Set u= x,
Gas adn 4%.
os i x +3
That way, 5 ee = é F
= — —
—4| —— Jarctan] —=|]+C
al 3 (3)
|
arctan mae x
V3 Cs Sint Farctan|
at Jee
x 3 v3
Rationalize the expression to get an equivalent solution:
1 4xvV3
2In|x|+—— a arctan (28)+C,
x

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

362
 Chapter 21
ADVANCED INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

Even move ways to tna integvals—must be your bivthaAay

Integration by parts, the first topic investigated in this chapter, is an extremely
useful tool, the importance of which cannot be overestimated. By comparison,
the remainder of the techniques discussed in this chapter (trigonometric
substitution and improper integration), are less universally useful. Like most
integration techniques, they are exceedingly useful in very specific situations,
but integration by parts is an excellent “tool of last resort” when other
integration techniques fail.

It’spotsvai what you always wanteA—another

ea oAs. Of the grab bag of integration
three topics in the chaptey,
you will use the fivst one a
a lot move than the others. heck
You cam even use it to tutegvate
L(x) =In x an

you've got an integral with (su

vpvise, Surprise) trig functions
all of your integration effort in it that is Aefyi
s, The last topic, (mpvoper
to handle Aefinite integrals th tntegvation, exp] - ion
at either (A) have infinity C
number) as a limit of tntegv e of fs ) s
ation, ov (B) have a vertic
through the interval youve integr al asymptot eea
ating over. "Pate
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Integration by Parts
You have It’s like the product vule, but for integrals
MO iAer how u
and v ave AefineA
(using x's?using y's?) 21.1 The method of integration by parts states that f u dv = uv — :v du, given
so the Aevivatives differentiable functions u and v. Generate this formula by differentiating the
of Uand V ave
product uv.
very Vague: Au
ond av. Because wand vare functions, you must apply the product rule.
d(uv) =u: dv+vu: du
eet
Integrate both sides of the equation.

You Aowt even f d(uv) = f (udu +v-du)

have to include fd(w)= fu dut fv du
“+C” pecause the
oviginal function, wv, Note that ifd(uv) = uv, because the antiderivative of a function’s derivative equals
has no constant. The the function itself.
integral and the uv = fudvt fudu ,
Aevivative basically
Solve the equation for if udv.
cancel each
another out. uv — fudu=fudv

Leave 21.2 Integrate using the parts method: fxe*dx, : ]

off the +C
while you integvate : Rewrite the integral as f u dv. This requires you to define u and dv using parts of
ov things could get the integrand (hence the name “integration by parts”). It is most helpful to set
messy. Just remember u equal to an easily differentiable quantity and dv equal to an easily integrable
to attach +C te quantity: w= x and dv= e*dx. Therefore, du = dx and v = f dv= f e* dx=e’*.
your final answers Substitute these values into the formula from Problem 21.1.
when you've dealing
with indefinite fudv=wo- fvdu
integvals, J xe*de = xe” — fedx
=xe*—e*+C

21.3 Integrate the expression: ,Inx dx.

When you
Set up integration
by parts, the u and Integrate by parts, setting u=1n xand dv= dx. Differentiate u and integrate dv to
AV you pick have to d.
determine duand v: du=d(Inx)= as and v= fav = ffax =x,
multiply together to get x
the oviginal integval. In
this case, w= In x and fudv=w-fvdu
AV = Ax, Sou aAy=
In x Ax, the oviginal
Jinx dx =(Inx)(x)- f (2)
integval. =xInx— f dx
=xInx-—x+C

364 the H uUmongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

(21.4 Integrate: fx sinx dx.

X Ya

Neither x* nor sin x is difficult to differentiate—this allows you additional Y EN

freedom to choose uand dv. Given this choice, however, you should set u equal
to the function that will eventually equal zero if it is differentiated repeatedly.
Therefore, u = x7, du= sin x dx, du= d(x*) =2x dx, and v= f do = f sinx ax =
—cosx. Substitute these values into the integration by parts formula.
Aevivative
of x’ is 2x, the
Judv=w-fudu
daevivative of
fx sinx dx = (x?)(—cosx)— f (—cosx)(2x dx) 2x is 2, and the
=— x" cosx +2f xcosx dx
daevivative of 2 is 0.
Since x’ eventually
Integrating f xcosx dx again requires integration by parts. Set w= x and has a Aevivative
dv = cos x dx; it follows that du = dx and v= sin x. of 0, set u= x’.
fudv=w-fudu

f xcosx dx = xsinx — f sinx dx

= xsinx —(—cosx)+C
=xsinx+cosx+C
secwwically,
C gers mult
This is not the final answer. Rather, this is the value of i xcosx dx, part of the
original attempt to integrate by parts. Substitute this antiderivative into the
fied ewe
then aader S
original integration by parts formula.
anorher anroikvary
oustaunk = (704 HEE
fx Bi.sin x dx pf=—x* hs cosx + 2f xcosx dx cgvake twice> iw“ WIS
iN give
: A, wl

=—x* cosx + 2(xsinx+cosx+C) problem, Nee oaaal

6 COW
=—x" cosx + 2xsinx +2cosx+C ie of that stutt

21.5 According to Problem 21.2, i xe*dx = xe" —e* +C. Verify this antiderivative using known
the integration by parts tabular method.
ies easiest Isr T
veer writing Ena
The tabular method consists of a table with three columns. The first column
contains wand its subsequent derivatives, the second column contains dv and its
subsequent integrals, and the final column alternates between +1 and -1 (always
beginning with +1).

Use the same values for wand dv from Problem 21.2. Find consecutive derivatives
of uw until the derivative equals 0 and list them vertically in the left column. Autidevivatives
(The final number in the left column must be 0.) Fill the second column with a of Ay, that is.
corresponding number of antiderivatives. The right column should always have
one more row in it than the other two columns.

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
365
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Multiply each term in the left column with the other values along a downward
diagonal, as illustrated by Figure 21-1.

Figure 21-1 Starting with the first term in the u column, move down and to
the right, following the paths indicated by the arrows. Find the
Dowt product of the terms along the path. Then, move to the next term
forget to in the u column (1) and multiply along a similar path. (There is
aaa “+C” to no need to begin a path at 0, as the product will be 0.) Finally,
the end because add the products together.
it’s an indefinite
integral. To practice
Multiply along the paths in Figure 21-1 and add the results.
using integration by
parts with DEFINITE (x) (e*)(1)+(1) (e*\(- 1) = xe* —e*
integrals, check out
Therefore, f xe" dx = xe” — e* +C, which verifies the solution to Problem 21.2.
Problems 22.11,
22.\2, anda 223|
21.6 : According to Problem 21.4, yix" sinx dx = —x" cosx + 2xsinx + 2cosx +C. Verify
this antiderivative using the integration by parts tabular method.

Construct a table (as explained in Problem 21.5) using the values of wand dv
defined by Problem 21.4: w= x? and dv= sin x dx.

Draw diagonal paths (as illustrated in Figure 21-2), calculate the product of the
terms on each, and compute the sum of those products.

366 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

eo ey

Figure 21-2 There.are three nonzero terms in the u-column, so products

must be calculated along three paths (as indicated by the
arrows in the diagram).

fx sinx dx = (x? )(—cos x)(+1) + (2x)(—sinx)(—1) + (2)(cosx)(1)+C

=—x* cosx + 2xsinx +2cosx+C

21.7 Integrate the expression: i.e* sinx dx. @

Integrate by parts, setting w= sin xand du = ¢ dx. Accordingly, du = cos x dx and

v= é.
fudv=w-fudu
This time, set
fe sinx dx = e* sinx — fe* cosx dx
A= COS x anA
Integrating + e* cosx dx also requires integration by parts. AV = e* Ax, That
MEANS AX = -sin x ax
fe sinx dx = e* sinx — fe” cosx dx
Mid Maxey Integration
fe sinx dx = e* sin x —(e" cos + fe sin x dx) by pats tells you th ae

Je sinx dx = e*sinx — e* cosx— fe* sinx dx Je COSK Ax =

e* Cosx + Je singe
Add if e* sinx dx to both sides of the equation.
Plug this thing
die* sinx dx + f e* sinx dx = e* sinx — e* cosx —fe sinedet-fesinx dx tuto the ovigina]
thtegvation by
2fe sinx dx = e* (sinx — cosx)
Parts fovmul a.

e* (sinx — cosx)
fe sinx dx = +C€
iz

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 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Trigonometric Substitution
Using iAentities and little vight triangle Aiagrams

21.8 Compute the definite integral: ifa tan? xdx.

According to a Pythagorean trigonometric identity, 1 + tan’ x = sec’ x. Therefore,

tan? x= sec’? x— 1.
a/3 a/3

m/4
tan’ xdx = fm/4 (sec? x —1)dx
a/3 n/3
= fa/4 sec’ xdx — ca/4 ldx

= (tanxl/4)—(x10/4)
sees
=(tan tanz*\-(2-3]
a

Evaluate the tangent by rewriting it in terms of sine and cosine.

~ (2G - sae /4)_(2_2) :

= cosa/3 cos2a/4 3 4

_(v3/2_ 2/2 -(2-%2)

1/oe 1972 12 2.

= 3 -1-—A
iB 12

21.9 Integrate the expression: f cos esi ede

If the
integral has cos x Given an integral containing cos‘ x and sin’ x, where aand bare natural numbers,
AMA sin x vaised to ais odd, and bis even, rewrite cos’ x as (cos x)(cos*~! x).
powers and only ONE
fcos? x sin? xdx = f cos -cos? x: sin? x dx
of those powers is odd,
heve’s what to Ao: take Apply the Pythagorean identity cos’ x = 1- sin® x to rewrite the now even-powered
a single cos x ov sin x trigonometric expression.
out of the oAA powev. = Jfcosx(1 — sin” x)sin® x dx
In this case, cos’ x is
ra 2 eS
the oAA powey, so = Jfcosxsin x(1—sin x)dx
vewvite it as Distribute cos x sin? x.
(cos x)(cos’ x).
= f (cosx sin? x —cosx sin’ x)dx
= f cosx sin? x dx — f cosx sin* x dx

Integrating using variable substitution: u= sin x and du= cos x dx.

= fuwdu- fu'du
2 5
ene

: ne)
1
= 3 sin’x—csin’ x +C
3

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 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

21.10 Integrate: fcos® x sin® x dx.

Rewrite sin’ x as (sin x)(sin? x).

This problem is very similar to Problem 21.9, except this time sin x is raised
to an
odd power and cos xis raised to an even power. Do the same things to sin’ x that
Problem 21.9 did to cos’ x.

f cos® xsin xdx = f cos® x: sin®x-sinxdx

. 3 9 e

e 8 2 :
= f cos x(1—cos x)sin x dx
uy 8 : im
= [cos x sinx(1—cos x)dx

= Jfcos* x sinx dx — J cos" x sinx dx

Use variable substitution to integrate both expressions: w= cos xand du=-sin x dx.

=—|
Ju'du-(—fu'du)
ubdu—(—|{ udu

eR en
Sey. 2 St]
]
=—=cos’x+—cos'!'x+C
9 11

21.11 Integrate the expression: fsin’ x dx. Power-veducing

iAentities like
this one ave useful
According to a double angle identity, cos 2x = 1 — 2 sin? x. Therefore, when you've got co-
1—cos 2x Sine ov sine vaisea to
sin? x=
2 tes even powers, either all
Hfsin? xdx = f eaea dx
by themselves (like in
1
== f (1—cos2x) dx Cos” x Ax) ov multi-
2 plieA together (like
1 - - 2 4
= 5Side —5fcos2x ax in} sin” x cos” x Ax),

du
Use variable substitution to integrate ifcos2x dx: u=2x and du= 2dx, so — = dx.
1 i |
=— | dx——-— | cosu du
2J ee
Bist
=-—x——sinu+C
ae oe
1
=—x—-——sin2x+C
2 4

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 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

21.12 Integrate: f sin’

«dx.
This is the same
way Problem 21.10 Rewrite sin’ x as (sin x)(sin? x).
stavts. Technically,
COS K is Vaiseda to an fisin® xdx = f sinx: sin? x dx
even power in this
= f sinx(1—cos’ x)dx
integval: (cos x)° = |, so
(cos x)? (siw’ x) = siw’ x, = f sinx dx — f sinxcos® x dx

Use variable substitution to integrate f sinx cos? xdx: u= cos xand du =-sin x dx.

= fsinx dx— (-f wdu)

u
a

I
=—cosx + <cos’ x+C

21.13 Integrate: fsin‘ xdx.

Apply the sin® x power-reducing formula from Problem 21.11: sin’ x = ——

ifsin* x dx =is (sin? x) dx

=/(—=
—cos2x |ae

Remembey.
CoSihe ov sine omen
= fj 2cos ne
=+ cos* 2x |
by itself inside ay
tutegval and v aisea eish
to an even Power cos 2x dx + ifcos” 2x dx)
eg (f lan = 2 ;
usually veauive Ss the
Apply the power-reducing formula cos” 6 = ao to integrate f cos” 2x dx.

ml 1+ cos2(2x)
= 5]
Stas 2f cosanars fP2S2E 4

ao ldx —2 | cos2x ee (1+ cos4x)dx

4 2

= 5]
fds 2f cos2xix+5(fart feostxas)]

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

37 0
 | Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Use variable substitution to inte grate the trigonometric integrals:

w= 2x and
d
eta
2
lis 1 lee
[x-2-fsinae+ {xr tsinas)]ec

1 1
[+-sinaxtbcttsinas| +c

“il
2

3
3

Ii
1
pe rsindx+ Fsindx]+

lee
There
ave thvee
—x ——sin2x +—sin4x+C proAuct-to-sum
8 32
fovmulas in Appendix
C. This one is used
21.14 Integrate using a prodict-fo-sum identity: yiCOs only to vewvite the
x Cos 2x dx. product of two
cosines.

Apply the identity cos A: cosB = pole Bia9 os(AteBy) eee

B= 2x.

(x + 2x)
x cos 2x = cos(x — 2x) “cos
cos
Cosine is ay
even function,
cos(—x) + cos (3x)
and all even
2
functions have the
_ COsx + cos 3x
Pvopevty £(-x) = L(x).
2 That's why you Avop
+cos3
Substitute cosxcos2x =aie aaa the hegative sign
into the integrand.
tn the next step,

+ 3
Jcosxcos2xdx= f= dx

I 1
= 5 J cosxdx +5 fcos3xdx

Use variable substitution to integrate FLcos 3x dx.

1 Tt
eo a *—sin3x+C

ae Ls
=—sinx +—sin3x+C

21.15 Identify an alternate solution to Problem 21.14 by applying a trigonometric

identity to integrate i cos x cos 2x dx.

/
Apply the double angle identity cos 2x= 1 — 2 sin? x.

Jfcosxcos 2x dx = Jfcosx(1 —2sin® x)dx

= Jfcosxdx —2f cosxsin® x dx

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lems
371
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Apply variable substitution to the second integral (w= sin x and du= cos xdx).

= fcosxdx—2f udu
3

etgite Soto eC
3
oie
= sinx — 7sin’ x+C

21.16 Integrate the expression: f7xsinx’ sin4x”

dx.

Apply the product-to-sum formula sin Asin

A-B)—cos(A+B
B=uA eee to rewrite
: : 9
sin x* sin (4x”).

cos (x? — 4x? )— cos (x? + 4x”)

ipTxsinx’? sin4x” dx = f 7x 3 dx
In the -ivst
integval, w= 3x?
==f x[cos(-3x") — cossx* Jax ’
ana Au/é = x Ax. In
the second integral,
Vv = Sx and = 7f x[cos3x’ —cos5x? |dx
Av/|0 = x Ax.
= 7fxcos3xtdx— 2fxcossxdx

Apply variable substitution to integrate.

1 1
= 2. feosudu-2:— fcosudy

a 7
= —sin 3x” ——sin5x* +C
12

21.17 Integrate the expression f sec’ xtanxdx using the variable substitution’ w= sec x.

Expand the sec’? x factor in the integrand.

fsec? xtanxdx = f secx-secx:tanx dx

Differentiate u = sec x to get du=sec x tan x dx.

372 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

21.18 Use the variable substitution u=tanx to integrate f sec? xtanxdx and
verify
the solution to Problem 21.17.

If w= tan x, then du= sec? x dx.

JSsec? xtanxdx = f udu

u?
=—+C
2
tes
=—-tan°x+C
2 2 times some
1
Set gan x+C
eee unknown number
equal to oe x+C and prove that the expressions are
is some other
equivalent. Multiply by 2 to eliminate the fractions. (Note that Cis an arbitrary unknown number.
constant, so 2C= Cfor the purposes of the proof.)

1
2 tan =+C|= 2|
sec “+C|

tan? x+C=sec?x+C

Apply the trigonometric identity tan? x + 1 = sec? x.

Some unknown
tan?’x+ C= (1+ tan? x)+C number plus |
Note that 1 + C= C for the reasons described above. equals some other
unknown number. |
tan? x+ C= tan? x+C
have no idea why
: : 1
Because this statement is true, the statement gan x+C=
1 , talking like this is
see" x+C is true as
fun but, oddly,
well, which verifies that the solutions to Problems 21.17 and 21.18 are equivalent. tk ts,

21.19 Integrate the expression: f sec®

xtan‘ x dx.

If an integrand consists of the product sec’ x tan’ x, such that where aand bare
5 ‘ ‘ (a—2)/2
natural numbers and ais even, rewrite the integrand as (sec? x)(sec?x) :
Keep a single sec’ x factor separate and rewrite the rest of it as (sec? x)", where n is
an even number. For example, you'd change sec'® x into (sec? x) (sec! x) and then
change sec” x into (sec? x).

ffsec® x tan‘ xdx = f sec? x*sec’ x: tan‘4 xdx

= f sec?x(sec”x) 2 tan* 4 x dx
Apply the Pythagorean identity 1 + tan? x = sec? x to the sec?x factor that is raised
to the second power.

= fsec? x(1 + tan? x) tan‘ x dx

= f sec? xtan* x(1+2tan® x+tan‘ x)dx

= fsec? xtan‘ xdx+2f sec? xtan® xdx+ f sec? xtan® x dx

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lems
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 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Perform variable substitution using u= tan x and du= sec? x dx.

= futdut 2f wdut fubdu

u u’ uw
=—+2-—+—+4+C
3) eee
]
oS ues ey Gn ee C
5 i 9

In 21.20 Integrate the expression: 1 sec’ xtan’ xdx.

Problem
21.19, you
hela sec’ x, If an integrand consists of the product sec’ x tan’x, such that a and bare natural
vewvote the vest . . °
numbers and dis odd, rewrite the integrand as (secx tan x)(sec’ "x tan
— 6-1
x), Note
of the secants that b- 1 will be even (because bis odd). Then rewrite tan’-'x as (sec? x- 1)°°"”.
as (sec x) to some
even powey, and then f sec’ xtan? xdx = f (secxtanx)sec® xtan* x dx
used a Pythagovean = f (secxtanx) sec° x(sec® x— 1) dx
identity. In this
problem, you hela out = f (secxtanx)sec® x(sec* x —2sec’ x +1)dx f
sec x tan x, vewvite = f (see x tan x)(sec” x —2sec® x+sec° x)dx
the vest of the
tangents as (tan’ x) Distribute sec x tan x through the quantity, and separate each term of the
to some even power, integrand into individual integrals.
and then use the
= f sec” x (sec x tanx)dx — 2f sec® x(secxtanx)dx + fsec’ x(secxtanx)dx
Pythagorean
identity. Perform variable substitution: w= sec xand du=sec x tan x dx.

= fudu-2fubdut fuedu
The u? ue

=—-2-—+—+C
11 Oe ay
1 il
=—sec"! eae x+—sec’ x+C
11 9 7

21.21 Given sin 6 = 7 draw a right triangle to determine the value of cos @, assuming
mh
This means 0<@0s—<— 9°
you should Avaw
the vight tviangle Recall that the sine ratio relates the side opposite an angle to the hypotenuse of
x
in the Fivst quadvant, the right triangle. If sin 0 = 4° the side opposite 0 is x and the hypotenuse of the
which means you Aout right triangle is 4. According to the Pythagorean theorem, the remaining side of
have to wovvy about
the triangle has length V16—x° .
the signs of the sides
like in Problems 7.26
ana 7.27.

374. whe Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

16-x

Figure 21-3 Constrict this right triangle to illustrate an acute angle 0 lntegvation
with opposite side x and hypotenuse 4; you can then use it to ny tvig substi-
evaluate other trigonometric functions of 0. tution (Proble
ms
2l -22-2].29) he
lps you
\ntegvate thin
Recall that the cosine of an angle is the quotient of its adjacent side and the gs like
<2 & Fa. Juzaf
ms
V16—x’?
hypotenuse of the triangle. Therefore, cos 0 =
4 AnA yur+ a
Containing fuic
tion y
ANA veal numb
er a.
21.22 Integrate the expression: f V16—x° dx.

This integral requires the technique of trigonometric substitution. The integrand ee

is of the form Va’ — u?, where a= 4 and u= x. Given radicals of this form, make Y D a IN
the trigonometric substitution u= asin 6. Substitute u and a into the equation.

x=4sin0

Divide both sides of the equation by 4 to get 7= sin @, which is the equation from So, if it’s a
Problem 21.21. Differentiate x = 4 sin 0.
tvig substitution
dx=4cos
0 d0 problem and you see
Now to address the integral ifV16—x°dx. Rewrite the integrand as a trigo- a — ue , the ivst
nometric function based on the triangle in Figure 21-3. According to Problem thing you wvite is

2191. cos.d =
Jig=a?
4
2

, so 4cos@ = ¥16—x*. (Note that the cosine ratio is chosen

U=asneg,

so that the constant leg of the triangle, 4, is used rather than side x, to reduce the
number of variables involved.)

f V16-x?dx = [ 4cosOdx
Replace dx using the derivative identified above: dx = 4 cos @ dé.

= [ (4cos@)(4cos0 40)
=16 f cos 040

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 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Integrate using a power-reducing formula (as demonstrated by Problem 21.11).

this is Fi6f ee
wmpovtant
‘
because you cam = = fide+ f cos2646|
only use the triangle -
tn Figuve 21-3 to figuve
= 89+8-5sin20+C
out single augle tvig
functions (like cos 6
Apply the double angle trigonometric identity sin 20 = 2 sin 0 cos 0.
aNd tan 8), not
Aouvle angles = 80+ 4(2sin@cos@)+C
like sin 26.
= 86+ 8sinOcos0+C

You must now replace 6, sin 0, and cos @ with expressions written in terms of x.
Recall that x = 4 sin @. Solve for 6 using the inverse sine function.

x=4sin@

ane
4

arcsin (=)=@
4
x
Substitute the values of sin 8 and cos @ identified above: = = sin 8 and
4
V16—x?
cos 0 = aa Substitute all of these values into the antiderivative.

tetas
80+ 8sinOcosO+C = Barcsin(*)+ (2) = +C

1
= Barcsin(*)+gtvl6— x +C

21.23 Given sec9 = Fr draw a right triangle to determine the value of sin 0,‘assuming
oye.
0<0s—
2.

3
If secO = 5 then cos? =v8 , So the side adjacent to 0 has length ve , and the
x
hypotenuse has length x, as illustrated by Figure 21-4.

Figure 21-4
The cosine of an angle
is the quotient of its
adjacent side and the
: hypotenuse, so
x -3 3
cos@ = ee According
to the Pythagorean
theorem, the opposite
a stde has length

en sss
376 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

: 2
=o
According to Figure 21-4, sin@ = = , the quotient of the side opposite 6 and
the hypotenuse of the triangle. _ iv
| arpa oS
21.24 Integrate: fseen fe &
. ee
This integral contains Jy? —q@? (where u= xand a= 3), and requires the vA
trigonometric substitution u= asec 6.
mer Once
anand You get this
x equation
—=
3
= sec0 Mey or
CaN Avaw th
;
triangle € vight
in Figure ;
Note that (not coincidentally), the triangle in Figure 21-4 is based upon the
é 2 |-4—that’s the
equation sec0 = ¥ Differentiate x = V3 sec 0,
information Problem
dx = V3 sec @tan@d0
About the
Rewrite the integrand using this derivative and the conclusion drawn by Problem
Ne 2 =3
21.23: sind=
x

sa
dx = Jsin0(V3 secOtandd0)

i
= V3fsind:
—
cos
-tanod0
sin@
= V3 tan0d0
Saas ‘
= V3 ftan?
040
Apply the Pythagorean trigonometric identity tan* 6 = sec’ 6 - 1.
= V3 f (sec? @—1)d0 Because
=i /3 [f sec’ ee
0d0 f 140|
that's the
ade cprestere

= /3[tan6 —0]+C Aividead by the

side adjacent
x? —3 to 6.
According to Figure 21-4, tan@ = a Solve the equation x = V3 sec@ for to

find an expression equivalent to 0.

x= aS sec0
x
— =sec0
V3
arcsec (=|=0

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 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Write the antiderivative /3 [tan@ —0]+C in terms of x.

Vx? —3 %
lane-0}+6=.5| a -areee{4)4

=x? -—3 - arcsec +}+c

Rationalize the expression.

3
Vx? -—3-— Baresee|"5+ C

21.25 Construct an equivalent solution for Problem 21.24 by replacing the inverse
trigonometric function.

x x
The expression
Pp arcsec] —=|
3 is g'generated byYi,solving g the equation
q sec@
=V3
—= for 6.
of couvse, eee

you coula use Based on Figure 21-4, you a can define @ in terms of any other trigonometric ratio;
the sine function (ov alg 2ctia igi tes
any of the ethos trig for instance, tan@ = B and sin@ = . Solve the tangent equation
x
Le
functions for that a
matter). oe
6 =arctan| —~——
V3

This value of 0 is as valid as 0 = arcsec (+) from Problem 21.24, so substituting it

for 0 in the antiderivative J3 [tan@ —0]+C results in an equivalent solution.

V3[tand-—0]+C= 5)
An
B EL
B
= Vx? =~ arctan] SF)+c

N Yo 21.26 Given tan@ = xv

Ye’ draw a right triangle to determine the value of sec 0,

re YAR assuming 0 <0 < -

Recall that the tangent of an angle is the quotient of its opposite and adjacent
sides. Therefore, the side opposite 0 has length xV/5 and the side adjacent to 6 has
length V6 , as illustrated in Figure 21-5.

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378
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques
ee

V5x° +6
5 «v5

2 Because
that’s the side
V6 Adjacent to 6
Figure 21-5 Apply the Pythagorean theorem to calculate the length of the Aided by the side
missing side—in this case the hypotenuse. Opposite 6,

According to Figure 21-5, cos@ = =, v6 :

so sec9 = —_—_.,
V5x? +6 V6 iy
Ce
21.27 Integrate: —
= i (eS)

This integral contains Vu" + a’ and requires the trigonometric substitution

u=atan 0, where u=~V5x? =xV5 and a= V6.
Heve ave
u=atand the three
xvV5 = 6 tan@ Substitutions you
ei heed to know:

ee ee aA’ — u? uses
This trigonometric expression is illustrated by Figure 21-5. Solve for x and
4uses= asin,
u —
fu? 32
% : 4 As
differentiate the equation. ec 6, ana
le W+ a’ uses
Sg oe” w= atané

V6
dx = —=sec’ 6d0
V5

V5x? +6
According to Problem 21.26, sec@ = Mee so V6 sec@ = V5x" +6. Substitute
this into the original integrand.
feces
x dx =f x” dx
V5x? +6 V6 secO

6
Also substitute the values of x and dx generated above: x = eco and

dc= v6 sec” 6d0.

V5

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379
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

Dividing 7
V6 ot eee
[2ano [Ps oas|

vy (6 sec 6 as V6 sec

is the same as

multiplying by 3 v6
aan allose2 oad , Seeeeo
i
|
Vo seco cna eee

5V5V5
WbsecO
6V6 tan? Osec 0 dO
i 5(5)
cs eee Osec Od
25

The integrand is a product of tan @ and sec 6 with the tangent function raised to
an odd power; use the method described in Problem 21.20 to integrate.

= 9 fsecOtan0(tan?6)a8
= 9 frecOtan6(sec!61) ab

= SF fsce!OsecOtanbd0— fsec6ran9d0]

The antiderivative of sec 0 tan @ is sec 9. Use variable substitution on the left
integral: u=sec 6 and du= sec 0 tan 0 dé.

= PF fvtdu fsecOtan6d8]

6
= 8 Lec’ 9—secd|+C
Rewvite

(enPx
<) as Recall
eca that
a sec0 2
V6
ae

Ws e) (eee)
The squave voot and the
squave in the left Lactoy = , ee
cancel out, andeeyou Aout
ie e 1 (5x7 +6)V5x°+6
: a -
bx? +6
absolute value signs
because Sx? + ¢ is : A
2 2
always positive, + 6V6 (5x? + 6)V5x" +6 J5x2+6 ee
25 18/6 V6

380 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques
Oe

Multiply the right fraction inside the brackets by ue in order to establish common
denominators and combine the fractions. 18

.ne +6)V5x" +6 _18V5x"

eles, +
18/6 18/6
56 | +6) V5x? +6 -18V5x" +6 |+c
95 18J6

Because (5x? + 6)V5x° +6 and —18V5x? + 6 contain common radicals (i.e., their
radicands are equal), you can combine their coefficients: 5x? + 6 -18 = 5x? — 12.

_ BNE] (5
5x” —12)V5x? +6 -
| 8 B a
_ (5x8=12)V5x" +6
75

dx
21.28 According to Problem 20.15, . ee =arcsinx + C. Verify the antiderivative
—*
using trigonometric substitution.”

The denominator has form Va? — u?, where a= 1 and u= x. Use the method
outlined in Problem 21.22, applying the trigonometric substitution x= 1(sin 6).
Differentiate the equation to get dx = cos 0 dé.

V1-x*
Figure 21-6 If x = sin® then sin 0 = a Therefore, the side opposite 0 is x
and the hypotenuse of the right triangle is 1.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

381
 feChapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques
eee

According to Figure 21-6, cos@ = V1—x*. Replace the radical expression and dx in
Because the original integral with functions written in terms of 0.
that’s the f dx fen
adjacent side Aeae cos@
ArEs <*}divided = {do
by the hypotenuse (1). =0+C

Rewrite the antiderivative in terms of x. If sin 0 = x, then @ = arcsin x.

=arcsinx +C

dx
21:29 Intecrate: |
Ge % J Vx* —8x—9

Complete the square in the denominator.

iL dx =[ dx

Use the equation Vx" —8x-9 Vx" —8x+16-9-16

U= asec 6. Substitute (oa
Uand ato get \(x—4)?
—25
K-~4=S sec 6 ond
solve Lov x. The denominator has form Ju? —a*, where u= x—4 and a=5. Use the technique
sagen described in Problem 21.24, applying the trigonometric substitution
x=5 sec 6 + 4. Differentiate the equation to get dx = 5 sec 0 tan 0 dé.

x—-4
V(«-4)y -25

x
5
Figure 21-7 Solving x = 5sec0 + 4 for sec @ yields the trigonometric ratio
me
Goin sec 0. Therefore, cos 0 = atten: the side adjacent to 9 has

length 5 and the hypotenuse of the triangle has length x — 4.

382 Ne Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques
naar a a_i. .iaetrhcoanienriatan bar

V(x- 4)? - 25
According to Figure 21-7, tan@ =ven). therefore, 5tan@ = (x — 4)" — 25.
Rewrite the original integral in terms of 6.

5sec@tan@d@
———

V(x
—4)? -—25 5tan@
= fsec0d0
= In|sec0
+ tan6|+C

x—4 a(x
—4)? —25
Recall that sec@ = 5 and tan@ = Se 5

—4 (x—4)*-25
5 3

: 1
It is customary to factor = out of the expression and expand the perfect square
into its original form.
the leg
1 of something
= Ingfx—4+ Va" —8x-9|+C
multiplied equals
Expand the expression. two logs aAAeA
together: log ab =
=In=+Inlx—44" —8x-9]+C log a + log b.
i 1 ,
Note that In= is a constant, so In=+C is merely another arbitrary constant
C. More rigorous treatment of the arbitrary constant is neither required nor
necessary.

= In|x—4+ vx? —8x-9| +

One
of the limits of
integration (or some
humber between
Improper Integrals them) can't be
Integrating Aespite asymptotes and infinite boundavies plugged into the
function

21.30 What characteristics classify an integral as “improper”?

Two conditions characterize the vast majority of improper integrals: discontinuity Definite
of the integrand on the closed interval defined by the limits of integration or the integrals neea
presence of an infinite limit of integration. veal number
boundaries Soh Sue

of the limits is oo ov
21.31 When is an improper integral considered “divergent”? “eo, the integral is
Automatically

As discussed in Problem 21.32, improper integrals are evaluated by means of a improper,

limit. If that limit does not equal a real number, then the corresponding integral
is described as “divergent.”

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems 383
 Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

21.32 Determine whether or not f.sin 0 dO converges; if it does, evaluate the integral.

The definite integral f,sin 6d6 is an improper integral because its upper limit of
integration is infinite. In order to evaluate the integral, replace the infinite limit
with constant a and find the limit of the integral as a approaches infinity.

J; sino. d= lim(f*sinoa0)
= lim (—cos Al))
ano

= lim(—cosa—(—cos0)).
= lim(-—cosa +1)
= —lim cosa+ lim1
amon a>

=—limcosat+l
azo

Unfortunately, lim (—cosa +1) does not exist, because y= cos 6 oscillates infinitely
as aapproaches infinity. The graph is periodic, and cycles through the interval
-1 < cos a 1, never approaching a single finite value. Therefore, if» sin@dé
diverges.

10 a :
Determine whether or not f» Inxdx converges; if it does, evaluate the integral.

Although y= In xis continuous on the x-interval (0,), it is not defined when

You have to x = 0. Replace the invalid limit of integration with constant a and evaluate the
APPVOACh from limit as a approaches 0 from the right.
hs vight, beca
=n xisnta
use Jy inxde = lim(f"nxax)
to the left of
a According to Problem 21.3, the antiderivative of In xis x In x— x.
(you can't take
the
hatuval log of he = lim|
O
(xInx 10
«)|, |
gative
numbers), The
litt e = lim[(101n10 —10)-(alna-—a)|
Plus sign in the
limit is
Just For notation = lim (101n10 —10) — lim (aIna) + lima
—it
won't affect a> a>0* a>0*

your work,
Whereas lim (101n10—10) =101n10—10 (the limit of any constant as a
approaches any value is equal to the constant) and lima =0 (by substitution) you
must apply L’H6pital’s Rule to evaluate lim (ana).
UHdpital’s a>0

Rule only ee
works on Practions, ee ee
so vewvite a ln a— . Ina
multiplying by a is the y iin
same thing as dividing
by the veciprocal Differentiate the numerator and denominator individually.
of a.

384 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 rr
Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques
—

Eliminate the complex fraction by multiplying the numerator and denominator

by -a’.

Substitute the values lim (101n 10 —10)=10In10-10, lima=0, and

a> aot
lim (aIn a)=0 into the antiderivative.
10
J, Anxdx= lim (10110 — 10) — lim(aIna)+ lima
a>0* a>0r a>0t

=10In10-10-0+0
=10(In10-1)

: # dx converges; fas
21.34 Determine whether or not f1, :
if it does, evaluate the integral.
: x

The integral is improper due to the infinite upper integration limit. Replace © The graph

oun( 8
with aand evaluate the limit of the integral as a>. of y=Inx has
o AX a dx
an x-intercept
Xx ear x
of (1,0), so
wl=0.
= lim(In|x||')
= lim(In|a|—1n1)
= lim In|a|—lim0 The
azo azn

= lim In|a| bigger the

a x, the bigger
: ‘ ; , : the natural log.
Because y =1n increases without bound as a approaches infinity, the integral The graph of
diverges.
y = nx Acesu't have
a vertical asymptote,
: -1 dx ey : so it incveases with-
21.35 Determine whether or not f—o —z
x
converges; if it does, evaluate the integral.
out bound as x
approaches infinity
The integral is improper due to the infinite lower integration limit. Replace —« (even if it Aoes
with aand evaluate the limit as a approaches —~, so kind of
slowly).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
385
 paChapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

> = lim 1+ lim —

a>—o a>-% Y

=1+0
=]

x —1
21.36 Determine whether or not it: dx converges; if it does, evaluate the integral.
2 . . .

x1

This integral is not improper because of its limits of integration, but because
the integrand is discontinuous at x= 1. Split the integral at the location of the
discontinuity. ‘
3 3
2 xr rel 2k 3
He wae: dx =f a dxt fi aA dx

Replace the invalid limits in the integrals with constants, and evaluate the limits
Use of each integral as the constant approaches | from the appropriate direction (i.e.,
the daiffevence from the left in the left interval and from the right in the right integral).
of perfect cubes
formula to factor =tin[f;* fax) tim{{2% tax
a e—] FJ

x a>\" x
x - |: -’) ae

(a - vb)? + ab +b’). . A x] (x —1)(x? +x +1)

Factor the rational expression: = = + —— . As long as x #1, you
x—-l x—l
can eliminate the common factor x— 1 in the numerator and denominator:
x —1
as =x*> +x+1. Because you are calculating the limit as a approaches (but does

not equal) 1, it is safe to assume that x #1.

: a ; 2
=lim|f (x? +x+1)de]+lim| (x8 +x+1)dx|

a x? x? 2

+ linn) |
a>l* 3 2
0 a

gna 8 al a
= lim|
in| —+—+a-
9 a-0 i
+ lim —
(F+2+2] —|—+—
qaeouint

oi Let]

386 the H uUmongous Book of Calculus Problems

 | Chapter Twenty-One — Advanced Integration Techniques

21.37 Determin e whether or not .an2 dx

a converges; if it does, evaluate the integral.
1+x°

There are no x-values for which the integrand is discontinuous; however, neither
the upper nor the lower limit of integration is finite. You must split the integral
into the sum of two integrals and address each invalid boundary separately.
Because the integrand is defined for all real x, you can choose to split the integrals If theve
at any real number. To simplify the ensuing calculations, it is advisable to use x= 0.
ave two baad
2 dx ® dx 2 dx boundavies, you'll
Tree
iat ti have to take cave of
. 0 dx : 6 dx thew one ata time,
= tim(
f ar}+tim(fp) Using one limit on
each of the two
dx
According to Problem 20.15, f aka =arctanx+C, integvals.
x

= lim (arctan x )+ lim (arctanxl) )

azo b>

= lim (arctan0 —arctana)+ lim (arctan b —arctan0)

= lim arctan0 — lim arctana+ lim arctanb — lim arctan 0
a>— a>—o

: TEENA ar 3 A
Because lim tanx =, lim arctanx = 9° Similarly, lim arctanx = a5 because
x>1/2 >0 x xX—>— 00

lim tanx =—,

a= /2

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
387
 wai Bas
e ale ve)
 Chapter 22
CROSS-SECTIONAL AND ROTATIONAL VOLUME

Please put on your 3-D glasses at this time

This chapter modifies the technique of calculating the two-dimensional area of
a region (originally introduced in Chapters 18 and 19) to calculate the volume
of three-dimensional solids. As Riemann sums added infinitely many areas of
rectangular regions to determine the area of a region, the methods herein
calculate infinitely many cross-sectional areas of a solid to exactly calculate its
volume.

Even though all of the Problems

in this cha ptev Aeal with three-Aim
figures, none of theformulas you’ ll use look much ensional
Chapter 18 and 19. That's be Aiffevent than the ones fr
cau Ase theve ave lots of Sn om
eaky ways to calculate
: oe) tS cvoss-sections—t
he layers yowA get
at big silvery wm i
Aeli that turns giant boulders
of voast nee into . en
The ivst set of problems deals a eS
with selids that "grow Upward”
theec coordinate plane, and the Lye = as
vest of the problems Aeal with
Swinging Some vegion of the solids
7S cre
eae
tee
d b
coordinate Plane avound an
axis of votation :
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Volume of a Solid with Known Cross-Sections

Cut the solid into pieces and measuve those instead

22.1 If a three-dimensional solid has cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis along

the interval [a,b] whose areas are modeled by the function A(x), what is the
volume of the solid?

The volume of the solid will be iyA(x)dx. This formula states that the three-
dimensional volume ofa solid can be determined by slicing the solid into
infinitely many, infinitely thin cross-sectional slices, deren nie the volumes of
the cross-sections, and then calculating the sum.

Finding the formula for the cross-section’s area is the trickiest part. Once you
figure that out, you just integrate like you’ve been doing since Chapter 17.

Note: Problems 22.2—22.4 referte

to a region Bin the coordinate plane thatis bounded by
y=vx,y= 0, and x = 4.
If the 22.2 Calculate the volume of the solid with base B that has square cross-sections
cross-sections perpendicular to the x-axis, as illustrated in Figure 22-1.
ave perpendicular
to the x-axis, then
the formula ana
the integral you'll
use shoula both
be th tevms
of x,

Revion B Solid with base BS

Figure 22-1 The base of the solid (region B) determines the size of the solid’s cross-sections. The
darkened rectangle on the left graph corresponds to the darkened square cross-
section on the right.
It’s a
JO00A iAen
Consider the graph of Region Bin Figure 22-1. The problem states that the solid
to Avaw a davk
has square cross-sections, so visualize a square lying along the darkened rectangle
line ov rectangle
on the left, perpendicular to the x-axis and the printed page, growing upwards
like this, one that's from this book rather than lying flat against it. The sides ofa square all have
Pevpendiculay te the the same length, so the square is as tall as the darkened rectangle is long. By
Covvect axis ana calculating the length of the rectangle, you are also determining the length of the
Stvetches acvoss sides of the square cross-section.
the vegion.
The rectangle is bounded above by y= Vx and below by y= 0. Therefore,
the length of the darkened rectangle in Figure 22-1 is Vx -0= Vx, the

39 Q The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

upper boundary of the region minus the lower boundary. The square cross-
sections have side length s = f(x) = Vx, so the area A(x) of those squares is 5:
A(x)=s?2 = (Vx) = x,

Apply the formula from Problem 22.1 to determine the volume of the solid.

f/A(x)ax = Jovax
2 4
Xx

Z 0

16
=—-0
2
=8

Note: Problems 22.2-22.4 refer to a region B in the coordinate plane that is bounded by
y=vx, y =0, and x = 4.

22.3 Calculate the volume of the solid with base B that has rectangular cross-sections
of height 3 that are perpendicular to the y-axis.

The region is the same as Problem 22.2, as is the orientation of the cross- "Representative
sections (perpendicular to the x-axis), so you will use the representative length lengths” ave the
calculated in Problem 22.2: Vx — 0 = Vx. In this problem, that length represents lengths of the
one dimension of the rectangle; the other dimension of the rectangle is stated Aavkenea rectangles
explicitly—the rectangles have afixed height of 3. like the One ay. awn

oh Figure 22-].
Construct a function that represents the area A(x) of the cross-sections; the area
of a rectangle is the product of its length and width.
A(x) = length width = Vx +3
Apply the formula from Problem 22.1 to calculate the volume of the solid. Use the
integration limits from Problem 22.2, as the region and orientation of the cross-
sections are the same.

f°A(w)ax = J.3Vx ax

=3 fx dx
3/2 |4
=3
3/2,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
391
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
ja eel

Note: Problems 22.2-22.4refer toa region Bin the coordinateplanethat isboundedb po

22.4 Calculate the volume of the solid with base B that has square cross-sections
perpendicular to the y-axis. oo

oF THUMB: If If the cross-sections are perpendicular to the y-axis, you should draw the represen-
the cross-sections tative length horizontally instead of vertically, as illustrated by Figure 22-2. Fur-
ave perpendicular thermore, you must express the functions in terms of y instead of x. To do so, solve
to the x-axis, solve the equation y= Vx for x.
the equations aw 2
Rov y. If they've y* = (Ve)
perpendicular to x=
the y-axis, solve the
equations for x.

Region B
Figure 22-2 The shaded region B is identical to the region defined in Prob-
lem 22.2, but this solid has square cross-sections perpendicular
to the y-axis. The right boundary of the region is x = 4 and the
Because
all of the
left boundary is x =’.
functions ave
im terms of y th To calculate a horizontal representative length, find the difference between the
is
time, the integral right and left boundaries: 4 — y*. The area of each square cross-section is
) A(y) = 8°? = (4-—°)? = 16 — 8y? + y*. Calculate the volume of the solid.
boundovies shou
la
be as well. Desc
ribe JS’A(y)dy =f° (16-85? + y*)dy
where the soli
a is
along the y-axis— 8y3 5 \7
Prom y = 0 to 5
3 0
y =2.,
oo
5” 5
_ 480
—320+ 96
: 15
_ 25615

392 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Note that the solution differs from the solution to Problem 22.2. Using cross-
sections with different orientations usually changes the shape and volume of the
ensuing solid, even when the solid has the same two-dimensional base.

_Note: Problems 22.5-22.6 refer to region R, which is bounded by the circle x + y' = 25.
22.5 Calculate the volume of the solid with base Rthat has semicircular cross-sections
perpendicular to the y-axis.

Because the cross-sections are perpendicular to the y-axis, the cross-sectional

area, the function must be written in terms of y. Solve the equation of the circle
for x.

x+y? =25
x* =25—y?
x =2+,/25—y°
The circular equation can be expressed using two functions written in terms of y:
x = /25—y° and x =—,/25— y’, as illustrated in Figure 22-3.

NINTy
i
4
4 Sh
PH
LEER
ai/]]
[]
be
ry
77
e777)
a

Solid with base R

Figure 22-3 The darkened representative length (in the left graph) is horizon-
tal because the cross-sections are perpendicular to the y-axis. The
darkened cross-section in the right graph may not look semicircu-
lar, but that is due only to the isometric angle at which the graph
is rendered.

Calculate the representative length in Figure 22-3 by subtracting the left boundary
of the region from the right boundary.

25-9 — (-25—9")= 25-9? + 25-9" = 225-7

According to Figure 22-3, this length represents the diameter of the semicircular
cross-section. Divide it by 2 to determine the radius of the semicircle.
meno

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems 393
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Construct the cross-sectional area function, A(y), by substituting the radius into
the formula for the area of a semicircle.

You Aowt need JU

;
eS Ne
5 5 (25-9")
(Ob 2
to use absolute
values to simplify this,
Calculate the volume of the solid.
because the vadius
of the sewicivcle
will always be
f-Ab)a= 5Fe(28- y’)dy

52-3]
3 5

|
A yy

a 125 125
=| 1195 ——— 125%
9 (a 3 :e ail
3
This
SoliA is a sphere 7} (250)_(_ 250
of vadius 5 cuti in ee Lee ate
half. The volume of that
spheve is =a]
¥

Ee eet S000
3 3 3 /.
a
ie
2507

ana the answer to

Problew 22.5 is half
Note: Problems 22.5-22.6 refer to region R, which is bounded by the circle x’ + = 25.

22.6 Calculate the volume of the solid with base R that has semicircular cross-sections
perpendicular to the x-axis. Are the volumes of this solids described Problems
22.5 and 22.6 equal? Why or why not?

In order to calculate the representative length for this solid, you need to solve
the equation of the circle for y: y=+V25—x". Therefore, the upper boundary
of the circle is y= V25—x*, and the lower boundary is y=—V25—x*. Compute
the representative length by subtracting the lower from the upper boundary:

25 = x* = (—J25— x?)= 25-2? + /25—x* =2,/25— 2". This length

Like represents the diameter of the semicircle (as it did in Problem 22.6), so
Problew _ 2/25 — x?
22.6, this solid = /25—x”*. Use the formula for the area ofa semicircle to construct
2
is a hemisphere Atx):
(a spheve slicea
in half) of vadius A(a)= 22 =e a) = 5(25—%')
S, just genevated in
a slightly Aifferent The upper and lower x-boundaries of integration mirror the upper and lower
way. No matter how y-boundaries from Problem 22.6 when you apply the volume formula.
you make that
half-spheve, it f-A(w)ax = 5S (25-2* ax
has the same
volume. The only difference between this integral and the integral in Problem 22.6 is
the variable used (x instead of y). The label used to represent a variable does not
. fs a\ 7. _ @ ps ert eeoUyE
affect the value of an integral, so 5 J (25 — 1% )dx = 9 J (25-y )dy = ee

394 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Note: Bele 22.7-22.8 refer to region G, which is bounded by the graphs ofy = —cos x and X >

aoe
y=sin 3 on the interval [0,2].
Se
22.7 Calculate the volume of the solid with base Gwhose cross-sections are fH ON
equilateral triangles perpendicular to the x-axis.

Consider the darkened representative length illustrated in the left graph of

x
Figure 22-4. It is bounded above by y= sin 9 and below by y =~-cos x. Therefore, it
has length sin —(=cosx)= sing + cos x.

Region G Solid with base G

Figure 22-4 The darkened rectangle in the left graph represents one side of
the equilateral triangle cross-section.

In order to construct A(x), the area of an equilateral triangle with side length s,
2
apply the area formula of an equilateral triangle: a , as illustrated in Figure
JAK

Figure 22-5
To find the height of an
1 equilateral triangle, divide
area =—b-h it into two congruent right
triangles and use the 30°-60°-
1 )S| 90° right triangle theorem
Ss —E
from geometry, which states
; that the leg opposite the 30°
57/3 angle is half the length of the
ie wy hypotenuse, and the leg oppo-
’ site the 60° angle is /3
tumes the length of the other leg.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
395
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
Jp]_

Substitute s=sin—+cosx into the area formula to generate A(x).

2 2

A(x) = stv8 a B(sin+ coss = x3 sin” SOC ody sine enCOe: :

4 2 4 2

Calculate the volume of the solid.

Siac ae=F fi (sin?

$+2cosssinZ + cosx}
Integrate
the first NS eel
7a sin?dx +
ax OS J,oe cosxsin5
a kede+—— fi cos* x dx
thing using the
Power-veduci
ng Integrate using the techniques from Chapter 21.
formula from
Problem
21.1] along with
V3 px(1 cosx 2/3 a(sin(3x/2) sin(x /2) v3 G ot)
Vaviable Substi
U=x/2 and 2A
tution:
y = ax
ca lilg ca | calms caeee ale ae cae
a
Use a ProAuct- V3 x ZN3(2 3x x\" V3 Le,

Sie Sede Se
te- =, (x—sinx)|, FAS [oacone acon | +2 (245sin2x]
sum formula (l 8
ike in 0 0
Problems 21.15
anda
21.1) on the Se
cond
integral), AnA they a3 ANB a3

FSveAuction
back +o power- 7 Se at,
formulas
Loy the thiva - 623 = 8/3

integval, 24

_ Z(8a-4)v3
Z-12
_ (380-4) V3
12

Note: Problems 22.7-22.8 refer to region G, which is bounded by the graphs of'y = —cos x and
x
y= sin 5 on the interval [0,x|. o
Just like it
AiAnt matter 22.8 Determine the volume of a solid with base G whose cross-sections are se
ellipses perpendicular to the x-axis with a fixed height of 2.
mi-
which has the
length and width
of the vectangle in The area of an ellipse is ab, where ais half the length of the major axis and b
Problem 22.3. You've
just going to multiply is half the length of the minor axis (for the purposes of this problem, it doesn’t
them togethev, and b a
matter which is which). Therefore, a semiellipse has area es= 5° ,
iM multiplication,
the ovdey Aceswt You are given one dimension of the ellipse—the fixed height of 2 is the distance
matter, from the center to the endpoint of one of the axes, so let a= 2. The representative

length sin—+cosx, as calculated in Problem 22.7, is the remaining axis of the

ellipse. Divide it by 2, because bis half the length of the axis: b = alsin + cos :|

396 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

SS
Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
—

Generate the cross-sectional area function A(x) by substituting a and binto the
formula for the area of a semiellipse: ou

A(x) =Sab

1
= =| (sin + cos “|

= —|sin—+cosx
2
= | 2
:

Calculate the volume of the solid.

Jo.(sng
9 + coss|= 3[-20 +sins
:
A
=[0-(-2)]
=—/!0-(-2

= 7

Disc Method
Civcles ave the easiest possible cross-sections
If youve
votating
22.9 Determine a general formula to calculate the volume of a solid whose circular AVOUNA A
cross-sections are perpendicular to the x-axis from x= ato x= b.
hovizontal line, this
is the disc method
According to Problem 22.1, the volume of the solid isif A(x)dx, where A(x) is the formula. Make sure
area of the a cross-section. Because the cross-sections are circular, A(x)= 2[r(x)]? you Avaw a vertical
given radius 7(x). Substitute this into the volume formula from Problem 22.1.
vepresentative vadius
f-A(w)ax = S-alr@oy dx = xf '[r(x)} dx and put everything
(including
poundavies) in
This formula is referred to as the disc method and is used to calculate the volume
terms of x.
of rotational solids. If the cross-sections of the solid are perpendicular to the
y-axis, use the formula 7 fi
“[r(»)] dy ¢

22.10 Rotate
2 the region bounded by the graphs of y= e, y= 0, x=—-1, and x= 1 about Whe
the x-axis and calculate the volume of the resulting solid. ae
votate avound
A vertical line, use
Figure 22-6 illustrates the region described and the three-dimensional solid this formula and
created by rotating that shaded region about the x-axis. Avaw a hovizontal
vepresentative vadius
ANA put everything
in terms of y.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

397
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Ze
T <
TT
Lo
~
|
ne
Mu Ww
It Aoeswt
matter where
you Avaw the
vepvesentative vadius.
All that matters is that
it goes from the upper
poundary to the lower Figure 22-6 If the darkened representative radius in the left diagram is
youndavy of the rotated about the x-axis, it creates a circular cross-section of the
solid, the radius of which is the length is the segment itself.

The darkened length in Figure 22-6 is a representative radius of the solid

Calculate its length by subtracting the lower boundary (y= 0) from the upper
boundary (y= e*): r(x) = &-0=€e.

Plug r(x) into the disc method formula from Problem 22.9.
Make the
substitution xf [r(x] dx = rf (e
w= 2x and Au/2 = Ax.
Don't forget to change =a fe*dx
the boundavies by
plugging x =-| ana
x= | into w= 2x,

Sa
Z(¢-e)
eee ee

It 1
sce
n(e = 1)
y 20”

22.11 Rotate the region in the first quadrant bounded by y= e, x = 0, and y= eabout
the y-axis and calculate the volume of the resulting solid.

When rotating about a vertical axis, use a horizontal representative radius that
extends from the left to the right boundary of the region (as illustrated in

39g The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Figure 22-7). You must also ensure that the left and right boundary equations are
expressed in terms of y, so solve y= ¢ for x.

ag Just like in
iene ina" the last section,
eee a hovizoutal
Iny=x
veprvesentative length
MEANS You need to
solve the boundary
equations for x (to
Put them in terms
of y) ana use y-
boundawies on the
integral,

Figure 22-7 Rotating the shaded region at left results in the solid on the
right. Note that the representative radius is written r(y), as it
must be expressed in terms ofy.

Find the length of r(y) in Figure 22-7 by subtracting the left boundary (x= 0)
from the right boundary (x= In y) of the region: r(y) =In y—0 =In y. Substitute
this expression into the disc method formula, using a= 1 and b= eas the limits of
integration (because they define, respectively, the lower and upper y-boundaries
of the region).

af[ry] =2f/ (ny) @

Apply integration by parts: w= (In y)? and du= dy, so du= me and v=y.
J
e

xf ‘(Iny) dy= aa iaeak Pa

1
e
= x|(In): ~ 2finydy|
1

According to Problem 21.3, finydy =ylny-y.

=x y(Iny) — 2(yIny—y)]
= |e(Ine) — 2(elne—e) |-[1(In1)" —2(1In1 -1)|
= a[e—2(e—e)]—[1-0-2(0-1)]
= 1(e—2)

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

399
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

X > 22.12 Rotate the region bounded by y= xsin xand the x-axis between x=0 and x=
= about the x-axis and calculate the volume ofthe resulting solid.

Consider Figure 22-8, which illustrates the region, the representative radius, and
the three-dimensional solid of rotation.

Raaii in the r(x)= xsinx

disc method ave
perpendicular to
the axis of votation.
Vertical radi, Vike
vertical lines, ave
Aescribead using

Figure 22-8 Using the disc method to calculate the volume generated by
rotating a region about the x-axis requires boundary functions
in terms of x, limits of integration in terms of x, and a vertical
representative radius.

Find r(x) by subtracting the lower boundary from the upper boundary:
r(x) = xsin x-—0 = xsin x.
xf [r(x)f dx = mf (xsinx)’ dx

= mfx sin? x dx

Use the integration by parts tabular method, as described in Problems 21.5 and
21.6, to find the antiderivative.
This integral
is calculated iin

Problem 21.1.
1
—x——sin?
x Fee x
2
2
cee
3
x
—
19 + —
ign

400 ~e Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
a

au

af? x’ sin? xdx=2 a a zsin2)- 2x a

fel—COS 2xZX |+2 Sop s 2
4°38 aie
a == =

nu
3 3 *
(=_x% =sin’s _|*_ 4 xcos2x 4 x, sin2x
(= 2 4 6 8 7

[z z 9°
-0- 2 —-—+—+0]-(0-0

eet _a,%
eke Os.7
ra 6

_% =oe

Fs pe ~3)
a 12

22.13 Rotate the region bounded by the graphs of y = x°— x + 1 and y= 1 about the line
y= 1 and calculate the volume of the resulting solid.

As illustrated by Figure 22-9, the upper and lower boundaries reverse at x = 0

Therefore, you must calculate two separate volumes, one for the region on the
x-interval [—1,0], and one for the region on the x-interval [0,1]

ie) = 1 (xr — wT)

Figure 22-9 Because the boundaries for the two regions are reversed, you
must use different representative radii for each region, denoted
7,(x) and r,(x). Though the bounding functions are the same
(y=x’ —x+1 andy = 1), each serves once as an upper
boundary and once as a lower boundary. ‘

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

401
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Apply the disc method twice, using the representative radii identified in Figure
22-9: add the results.

Because
a2—x+1-1] dxtaf [1-(xBa dx
(x? - x) ana vax )dxt+af( —x° +x)
(-x’? + x) ave
opposites, theiv Se arnt (x° —IQx* + x dx

“U5
squaves ave equal,
x crane ray fe Dx? oe?
just like a number = +a|—-——+—
7 5 - 7 5 3 ;
and its opposite have
equal squaves:
see 4, = 7|(0-0+0)- (12 telft-Zet)t-20]

; (a5) * lis)
_ 16x
105

22.14 Rotate the region bounded by the graphs of x = y? - 6y + 4 and x =—4 about the
line x = —4 and calculate the volume of the resulting solid.

Consider Figure 22-10, which illustrates the region and its representative radius.

Figure 22-10 Rotating about a vertical axis requires a horizontal representative

radius, whose length r(y) is equal to the right boundary (x = —4)
minus the left boundary (x = y — 6y + 4).

402 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Substitute r(y) into the disc method formula, using y= 2 and y= 4 as the lower and
upper limits of integration, respectively.
Those ave the
lowest ana highest
xf,[-4-(y°-6y+4)} & values veachea by
= af [-)* +6y— 8] dy the shaded vegion
th Figuve 22-10,
=f. (y'-12y? +529? —96
+64)
ydy
5 52 3 } .

=2 2. 3y4 4 J —48y°
+ 64y
5 a ,
(== =|
= 7|— —-—_
Pe io
* 2 l6x
15

22.15 Use the disc method to prove that the volume of a right circular cylinder with
radius Rand height h is wR*h. (Assume Rand hare positive real numbers.)

Consider the rectangular region in the first quadrant of the coordinate plane
bounded by x= 0, x= R, y= 0, and y= h, as illustrated by Figure 22.11. If this
region is rotated about the y-axis, it produces a right circular cylinder with radius
Rand height h.

» (AA)

sae
Figure 22-11 Because you are rotating the shaded rectangular region about a
vertical axis, you must use a horizontal representative radius, r(y); its
length is the right boundary (x = R) minus the left boundary (x = 0).
The limits of integration must be in terms ofy as well: y = 0 and y = h.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
403
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
[es

Apply the disc method.

RE can af [r(y)] ay=af, (RY %

b 2 h

be pullea out oh
=R*| d
of the integral Noete eta on on es J09
becouse it’s a = 2 R?( yh,
coustaunt, = Ri)

= 0R*h

22.16 Use the die Pethod. to prove that the volume of a Spas with radius i
(Assume Ris a positive real number.) :

A circle centered at the origin with radius R has equation x* + y’ = R’. Solve the equa-
tion for y to determine the equation of the semicircle pictured in Figure 22-12.

y=VR- x? y

Is tt me,
ov does that
sphere look
EXACTLY like the
Death Stoav from
Stoav Waws? The
force (mass times
Figure 22-12 Rotating the region defined by the x-axis and the semicircle with
acceleration) is radius R generates a sphere with radius R.
stvong in this
one.
Apply the disc method, writing the representative radius and limits of integration
in terms of x.

af [r(x)] dx = clon
8
Because

Risa Constant,
ieee:
a="
a a(n!t
JR ax 2 Bbecause ee ea
3
ee R= ebsiekt

sles + =8h°
—3R>++R”
ne
Biea a

“ts 4 oR:

404 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

ae Pal ,

22.17 Use the disc method to prove that the volume ofa right circular cone with radius oes
5 1
Rand height his guth - (Assume Rand hare nonzero real numbers.)

Consider the first quadrant region bounded by x=0, y= 0, y= h, and the segment
with endpoints (0,0) and (R,A), as illustrated by Figure 22-13. Rotating this region
about the y-axis generates a right circular cone with height hand radius R.
|cae

Figure 22-13 The linear equation serving as the region’s right boundary must
be solved for x, because the disc method integrand and limits of
integration must be written in terms ofy when revolving around
a vertical axis.

i The slope of
The equation of the line connecting the origin and the point (R,h) is y= R* : the line is
Solve the equation for y.
h
i ana the y-intercept
R is 0. Plug these into
ikea slope-intevcept form
R R (y = mx +b) to get
Determine r(y), the length of the representative radius: i 0= es and apply the equation:
the disc method.

af'Lro)Fa=2f-(45)
2

R® pa
eed, y’dy

_ aR? yl
i \.3 0

2 =F(4
Ba\ 3
_ aR*h
3

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
405
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Washer Method
Find volumes even tf the “solias” aven't solid

Note: Problems 22.18—22.19 refer to region K in Figure 22-14.

22.18 Explain why the disc method cannot be used to determine the volume of the
solid generated when K is rotated about the line y = cin Figure 22-14.
)

In other
words, f(x) is always
above 9(x). Figure 22-14 Region K is bounded by f(x), g(x), x = a, and x = b. Notice that
f(x) = g(x) for all x on the interval [a,b].
ee

In Problems Notice that a gap separates the lower boundary, g(x), from the axis of rotation,
22.10-22:17 the x= c. This gap is rotated about the line y= cas well, resulting in a hollow cavity
AXIS you votateA within the rotational solid, which is clearly visible in Figure 22-14. The disc
AVOUNA was also one method can be used only to calculate the volume of a solid with circular cross-
of the boundavies sections, which is not true of the rotational solid in Figure 22-14.
of the vegion. When
that’s not true, Note: Problems 22.18-22.19 refer to region K in Figure 22-14.
you have to use
either the washer 22.19 Use the washer method to construct a definite integral representing the volume
methea ov the of the rotational solid in Figure 22-14.
shell method.

The washer method, like the disc method, uses representative radii that are
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. However, it uses two radii: the outer radius
(which extends from the axis of rotation to the outer boundary of the region)
Find the and the inner radius (which extends from the axis of rotation to the inner
lengths of Rix) ana boundary of the region). In Figure 22-15, R(x) represents the outer radius and
v(x) the Same way r(x) represents the inner radius.
YOu Aid with the disc
methoa—the upper
boundavy of each
vaAius minus its
lower boundavy,

6 The Humongous Book of Calculus Prelblems

40
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

R(x)=f(x)=¢

r(x)
=g(x) =c
Figure 22-15 Both the inner and outer radii extend from the axis of rotation
to an edge of the region. The inner radius extends to the edge
that is closer to the rotational axis and the outer radius extends
to the edge that 1s farther away.

According to the washer method, the volume of the rotational solid is

4 fi
;([R (x)] = [r(x)] Jax. Substitute the values of the radii determined in
Figure 22-15.

af" (Ls (x)-e] —[g(x)-c] )ax

es sede

en 20 Use the washer method to constemer a definite integral

representing the volume
_of the rotational solid inLees 4216. c-=

Figure 22-16
Subtract c from f(y) and 2()), respectively,
to calculate the lengths ofR(y) and r(y).
In other words, subtract the left boundary
from the right eanea when given
horizontal radii. se

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

407
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

This region is similar to the region pictured in Figure 22-14, but because the
region is rotated about a vertical axis, the functions and limits of integration must
be written in terms of y.

<F a
-[e)-T)
af'((RO)T -F-O)T )o=28!((46)-
| Note: Problems 22. 21-22. 22 referto the region M in the first ee thati
is boundedoO.the
graphs of y = yy eee - :

22.21 Determine the doin ofthe solid generated by oun Mabout thex-axis.
The washer
method is
actually the disc Consider Figure 22-17, which identifies the region and the outer and inner radii
required to apply the washer method. Determine R(x) and r(x) by subtracting the
method twice in the lower boundary of each radius from its upper boundary.
same problem,
af. [R¢x)]” Ax is the R(x)= cos x- 0
volume if there weve
no ewpty cavity inside,
and you subtvact
> 2
xf. [v(x)] ax, the
‘olume” of the
cavity.

r(x)=sinx- 0

Figure 22-17 Note that the outer radius R(x) extends from the axis of rotation
(y = 0) to y = cos x (the region boundary that’s farther away from
the x-axis), and the inner radius r(x) extends from the axis of
rotation to y = stn x (the region boundary closer to the x-axis).

Substitute R(x) and r(x) into the washer method formula.

Cosine and
sine intersect af. ([R (x)] _ [r(x] ax = oy [(cos x)’ —(sin x) |dx
at lots of places,
not just at one point, = nf. (cos? x — sin? x)dx
but youve looking for
the spot that marks The region’s left limit of integration is a= 0. To determine the right limit }, you
the vight edge of the must identify the x-value at which cos x and sin x intersect. Set the functions
shaded aveain equal and solve for x.
cosx = sin x
Figuve 22-17.

cosx _ sinx
cos x COS Xx
l=tanx
A
x=—
4

EEEE eee
pe
408 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
ee a eee eee

Substitute aandbdinto the integral.

eS
=nf me) (cos 2 x — sin
- 9
x)dx

According to a double angle identity, cos 2x = cos? x— sin? x.

a/4
= i cos 2x dx
Dow't
Apply variable substitution: u = 2x and ee dx. forget to
change the x-
1 pa boundavies into
oy *cosu du
u-boundavies
wy, .
= 9 sin u)|,
/2 by plugging
each of them
n n tuto u = 2x,
= (sin -sino
2 2

.
2

Note: Problems 22.21-22.22 refer to the region M in the first quadrant that is bounded by the
graphs of y= sin x,y = cos x, and
x= 0.
—

22.22 Calculate the volume of the solid generated by rotating M about the line y= “LL

Like Problem 22.21, region M is rotated about a horizontal axis. However, R(x) In this problem,
and r(x) are different due to the different axis of rotation, as illustrated by Figure R(x) = cos x - Cl) =
22-18. cosx+ | and
v(x) = sin x + |,

Bee emcee tt
-ll R(x) r(x)
ks
Figure 22-18 The outer and inner radii are each exactly one unit longer
than the radii in Problem 22.21, because the axis of rotation is
exactly one unit further away from the region.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

409
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Apply the washer method using the limits of integration from Problem 22.21.

= af” [(cosx +1)? —(sinx+ 1)° Jax

= af” ’[cos* x2 coswet I= (sin? x+2sinx +1)Jax

a/4 7% :
=n [cos® x + 2cosx AT — sin? x—2Qsinx I |dx

Regroup the integrand into two integrals.

= af" (cos® x — sin” x)dx + 2a f""" (cosx —sinx)dx

a/4 4 Mf
According to Problem 22.21, nf. (cos® x —sin® x)dx = 9
This iswt the = a+ 2a f*"""(cosx — sinx) dx
SNLY acceptable
Auswey, It woula = =+ 22[sinx + cos xr"
have been perfectly,
fine to stop simplifying
= st 2n|
(sin +cos |—(sin0+ cos 0|
two
: Steps AIO, but |
Suppose this Aves
look =—+2nJ/2 -27
enlitHe Move
Compact ;
Since it’s a Sing
le | :
fraction,
favo
B
2 ee
a (4 /2 me
= Ceteo t3
r
)

Note: Problems 22,23-22.24 refer to region J, which is bounded by the graphs of ) = 2 and —
Y=vx, Foe :

22.23 Calculate the volume of the solid generated by rotating Jabout the x-axis.

Consider Figure 22-19, which illustrates the region and the radii necessary
to apply the washer method. To determine the points of intersection, set the
functions equal and solve for x.

Figure 22-19 Determine R(x) and r(x) by subtracting the top boundary of each
radius from its bottom boundary: R(x) = Vx -0= Vx and
x x
r(x) 5
eS 0 5
=> ae

pT EETT—EEEEeeeeeeeeee
he Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
410 ~*
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

x“.
ee Vx

: This time,
(=)= (vxi: the points of
intersection mavk
:
Ps the left ana vight
edges of the vegion,
x? =4x so they become the
x? —4x =0 limits on the washey
methoa
: Aefnite
x(x—4)=0
integvall.
x=0 or

These x-values represent the limits of integration for the washer method: a= 0
and b= 4.

x
Note: Problems 22.23—22.24 refer to region J, which is bounded by the graphs of ) = 9 and
ude 9 bas
22.24 Calculate the volume of the solid generated by rotating J about the y-axis.

Because the rotational axis is vertical, the radii (and therefore the boundary
functions) must be written in terms of y. Solve the equations for x to get x= 2y
and x= y*. Figure 22-20 illustrates region Jand the horizontal outer and inner
radii, written in terms of y.

Figure 22-20 Find the lengths of R(y) and r(y) by subtracting the left boundaries from
the right boundaries: R(y) = 2y — 0 and r(y) = y — 0.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

All
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Apply the washer method.

Problem
22.23 says xf ‘(ROT lO )a=2f-[2s) - 6°)Ja
the graphs
intersect at
= f°(4y - y*)dy
2
x=OandAx=A4,
Plug these x's into
y = x/2 to get y-values: 39 39
0/2 = 0 and 4/2 = 2. -7(2-2)
That meous a= 0
and b = 2 in the = “(—*)
washer methoaA 15
formula. _ 640
15

Note:Problems 22.25-22.26 oe to region A, which iss bounded bytheee

is
2.25Calculate the volume of the solid generated byrotating Aabout the
line ee

Graph the region, the axis of rotation, the outer radius, and the inner radius (as
illustrated by Figure 22-21) and calculate the lengths of the radii.

Figure 22-21 — The inner radius extends from the x-axis (y = 0) to the axis
of rotation (y =—2), so r(x) = 0 — (—2) = 2. The outer radius
extends from the curve y = 3 — x° to the axis of rotation, so
R(x)= (3-»%) -(-2) =5- x.

412 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Determine the limits of integration by setting the boundaries of the region equal
and solving for x.
3-x? =0
i2

x=+/3

Substitute R(x), r(x), a=—-~V3, and b = 3 into the washer method formula.

nf: ([R@w)] —[r(x)] Jax =f LOW x) (2) Jax

es +x! —4)dx
. mf
S (x! —10x* + 21)dx
v3
10x°*
Raa
5 x
3
“(2 sceeaa (-8 105 -218)|

evs too sae)

er

1282J3
5

Note: Problems 22.25-22.26 refer to region A, which is honsidedd by the a of y = 3-—x and
the x-axis.

22.26 Calculate the volume of the solid pellerated by rotating A About the line y= 3. |

Consider Figure 22-22, which identifies the region to be rotated and the radii
necessary to apply the washer method.

Figure 22-22
The inner radius extends
from the axis of rotation
(y= 3) to the inner boundary
of the region (y= 3 — x’).
The outer radius extends
fromy =3 toy =0.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

413
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Construct expressions for R(x) and r(x).

The vegion R(x)=3-0=3

Aidan} change— r(x) =3—(3—x?) =x?
only the line youre
votating about is Apply the washer method using the same limits of integration as Problem 2.25.
Aiffevent than
Problem 2. 25 that xf ([R(@)f -[r@)f)ax= nf |(8)"— (x? )°Jax
Changes Rix) ana = af (9—x*)dx
v(x) but not a
ANA b, V3

903 -18V3) | :
5
_ 72aV3
ah

Note: Problems 22.27-22.28Sete- the

Gd L, ate1s jonsided by the graphs ofx=
X= a) - > , and 22= 4,

22.27 Calculate the ee thesolid generated by rotating L about the line x= a

Consider Figure 22-23, which illustrates the region and the radii required to apply
the washer method.
i Figure 22-23
© The graph of x = i
! identical to the graph
| ofy = a Solve the first
x

equation for y or the

second equation for x
to generate the other
equation.

414 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
SNe
ee

Determine the lengths of the radii.

The
Apply the washer method. poundoawies

af'(RO} -LO) )o=af“46+4)“ 2 of the integral

3 we A= awa
b = 4, because you
i (eke nee need to use y limits
= xf,.{2-+8-+16-16 a of integration with
hovizontal
= af (9? +89"")dy
1/2 vad,
4

n{-1+8m
J 1/2

x|(-7+ sina)-(-2+sin;]|
4 2

= x|(2-3}+8{In4-ins]|
4 2

Apply the logarithmic property log a— log b= log ,

You're
still votat-
ing AvOUNA
See 1
a vertical axis
Note: Problems 22.27-22.28 refer to the region L, which is bounded by the graphs of x =—, (like Problem
I a 22.26) so the limits
x=0,y= > and y = 4. of integration ave
the same ana you'll
22.28 Calculate the volume of the solid generated by rotating L about the line x= 6.
still use hovizoutall
vadii, but these var
The axis of rotation x = 6 is to the right of the region—unlike the axis of rotation Ai will be totally
x =—4in Problem 22.26, which was left of the region. Therefore, the region aiffevent.
boundary that was once closer to the rotational axis is now farther away, and vice
versa. The radii changes are reflected in Figure 2-24.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

415
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Figure 22-24 The right boundary of each radius is now x = 6, so the length
of each radius is 6 minus its left boundary.

Apply the washer method.

tf.((RO -bO)F)o=2f ‘{o :(>: 1js

= a +
‘26= [so Ilo
ace
sD

Sol")
a 4-41 25 22,

= »{12In}|+2|
1/2

1 1
= x|(
12In4+—|-
2In ~
;] [12n3-+2)] .

=a|~Z412{In¢~in3}
4 2

Apply the logarithmic property log a—log b= log

= n{12(In8) = 4

$5
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
416
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Shell Method
Something to fall back on when the washer method fails

22.29 If the region pictured in Figure 22-25 is rotated about the line x = ¢, the shell
method calculates the volume of the resulting solid according to the formula
Qn aid (x) h(x)dx . Explain how to determine the values of a, b, d(x), and h(x).

d(x)
Figure 22-25
In order to calculate the volume of this
rotational solid, the shell method requires
only one representative radius.

Unlike the disc and washer methods, the shell method uses a representative This
radius parallel to the axis of rotation, rather than perpendicular to the axis. is tvue
Because the region in Figure 22-25 is rotated about a vertical line, so you must of ALL the
therefore use a vertical representative radius. A vertical radius must be written in volume formulas
terms of x (as must the integrand and its boundaries). Notice that the boundaries from this chapter.
of the region along the x-axis are x= aand x= b.
Put things in terms
of x when you use
Determine the length of the representative radius h(x) in Figure 22-25 by
vertical vadli, and
subtracting its bottom boundary from its top boundary: h(x) = f(x) — g(x). The
use y's when youre
remaining variable expression in the shell method formula, d(x), describes
working with
the distance from the axis of rotation to h(x). Calculate the length of d(x) by
hovizontal
subtracting the left boundary from the right boundary. While the rotational
vaAil.
axis has an explicit location along the x-axis (x = c), h(x) does not, so describe its
position along the x-axis generically, as “x.” In Figure 22-25, d(x) is equal to the
x-position of h(x) minus the x-position of the axis of rotation: d(x) =x-¢
Unless
the vadius is
Note: Problems 22.30-22.32 refer to region H, which is bounded by the graphs ofy = x sin x, hovizontall, in which
y=0,x=0, andx=n.
case you vefer to
the vadius as ‘y.”
22.30 Problem 22.12 uses the disc method to determine the volume generated when H
is rotated about the x-axis. Explain why the washer method cannot be applied to
determine the volume if His rotated about the y-axis. °

If the region were rotated about the y-axis, the washer method would require
the use of horizontal radii. Therefore, the function y= x sin x would need to be
rewritten in terms of y, but to do so would require solving the equation for x, and
that is not possible.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

4\7
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

Note:Problems 22.30-22.32 refer to region H, whichi

isboundediby He ae of I=
=x sin1X,
yaOx= 0, andx =x. es

2.31 Use the shell method to calculate the volume of thesolid re by rotating
The fancy _ Habout the yraxis.
name for the
shell method is
“the method of Consider Figure 22-26, which contains the region to be rotated and a graphical
cylinavical shells representation of d(x) and h(x), the expressions needed to apply the shell method
.”
formula.

h(x)= x sin x

fix) = xsin x

Figure 22-26 Using the shell method to calculate the volume of a region
rotated about the y-axis (a vertical line) requires a vertical
representative radius h(x) and the boundaries of the region
Use along the x-axis: a= 0 and b =n.
integration
by parts:
The radius h(x) appears to the right of the rotational axis (y= 0), at position x.
w= x’, Au= 2x Ax,
Find d(x), the difference of the x-positions of h(x) and the rotational axis:
AV = sin x Ax, ANA
d(x) =x-0=x. Next, define h(x), the difference of the region’s upper boundary
V = -COSs x. (y= xsin x) and its lower boundary (y= 0): A(x) = xsin x—0 = xsin x. Substitute
d(x), h(x), a=0, and b=z into the shell method formula.

Qn fd (x)h(x)dx
=20f"x-xsinxdx
= 20 f°x sinx dx
= 2n(-x* cosx + 2xsinx + 2cosx)|:
= 2a (-2° cosa + 27 sin + 2cosz) — (0+0+2)|
= 2n(n* +0-2-2)
aes)

KR Y Note:Problems 22.30-22. 32 ree toregionH, which is bounded by thegraphs ty

y=xssi
y=0,x=0, andx=x.
s Se
Hf=o 22.32 Find the volume generated when His rotated about the line x = —

Except for d(x), this problem is nearly identical to Problem 22.31, as illustrated by
Figure 22-27.

A4l8 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume
ee ee eeeeee eee eeeee

PG\enok
2 h(x)= x sinx ne :

Figure 22-27 Recall that d(x) represents the horizontal distance between the
; : IU :
axis of rotation x = yt and the radius h(x).

To calculate d(x), first note the relative positions of the radius and rotational
axis—d(x) equals the difference of their x-positions: d(x) = “ — x. Apply the shell Integrate
Av = x sin x by
method.
pavts. Use wu, and v,
Qa fd (x)h(x)dx = 2af;(° —x)(xsinx)a so that you Aow't get
the u's ana v's mixeA
5at a‘ up: U, = x, Alu.) = Ax,
Integrate by parts: u= 60 x, dv= xsin x dx, du=—dx, and v=—x cos x + sin x.
AW,) = sin x Ax, ana
a

es2a(= o x(a cosx+sinx)— f (-xcosx+ sins)(-éx) V,= -COS X.

0
1

= 2n|
(5%—x](-xeosx-+sina)~ fcosxde+ fsinxds
0

Use integration by parts to determine that {ix cos x dx = xsinx + cosx.

a

= 27 (=~ x}(-xcosx+
sins)—(xsinx+ cosx) ~coss|
0
a

(=~ x}(-xcosx+sinx)~xsina -2cosx|

0

=2n (F(a)+ 2e -2)|

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

419
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

2.33
‘Along to Problem 7 23, the volume oft lid generated byrotating the Zs
_ region bounded by )= : and y==x about tthex-axisis equal eesyy the
- solution using the shellmethod.

Rotating the region about a horizontal axis requires a horizontal radius and an
E : x
integral in terms of y. Solve y=— and y= Vx for x and construct a graph of the
region that identifies the segments d(y) and h(y), as demonstrated in Figure 22-28.

Figure 22-28 The length of the radius h(y) is the difference of its right and
left boundaries; d(y) ts the vertical distance between the radius
(y) and the axis of rotation (0). Let a = 0 and b = 2, the upper
and lower boundaries of the region along the y-axis.

Apply the shell method.

Qn fd (y)h(y)dy = 2af°y(2y—
9°)dy
= 2a f*((2y? -—y°)dy

-20(22-2)
=24{(3-4]
2a(
Q =
2

420 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

22.34 According to Problem 22.25, the volume of the solid generated by rotating the \ o
_ Tegion bounded by y= 3 — x* and the x-axis about the line y= -2 is aa Verify Ge
4
the solution using the shell method. J SA,

Draw a graph of the region indicating d(y) and h(y), as illustrated by Figure 22-29.
Note that the axis of rotation is horizontal, so the radius used in the shell method
must also be horizontal, and the integrand and the limits of integration must be
The SHELL
written in terms of y. Solve y = 3 — x° for x. method uses
PARALLEL YaAdii. It
y=3-x? vhymes (sort of),
x? =3- y
pasey
The portion of the parabola that is right of the x-axis has equation x = ./3— y,
and the portion of the parabola left of the x-axis has equation x = —,/3 — y, as
indicated in Figure 22-29.

h(y)= 2/3-y

Subtvact
Figure 22-29 The equation y = 3 — x’ must be rewritten in terms ofy in order thew in the right
to apply the shell method. ovder—whatever's
above minus what
Generate h(y) by calculating the difference of its right and left boundaries.
€ver's underneath,
ln this case, hi) is
h(y)= 8-9 -(—/8-y)
= (8-9+(8-9=2,/8-9 above the axis
Define d(y) as the vertical distance between the radius (at position “y” along the and the rotational
y-axis) and the axis of rotation (at y =—2). / AXIS is below it.

d(y)=y—-(-2)=y+2

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

421
 Chapter Twenty-Two — Cross-Sectional and Rotational Volume

The boundaries of the region along the y-axis are a= 0 and b= 3. Substitute a, },
d(y), and A(y) into the shell method formula.

an f'd(y)h(y)dy
=20f(y +2)(2/3=
9)dy
=| (y+2)(J3—y) ay

Integrate by parts: w= y+ 2, du=./3—ydy, du= dy, andv= -=(3- Hii

ce sf ase]
3
= a2 \ a ee naa e

ac Jer-is 3/2 4 5/2

An

|
53 oe ows 32)

ee 3 8
=47
oe

= an|=
=an{ 3293
_ 1282/3
5

422 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter 23
ADVANCED APPLICATIONS OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

Move problems involving pounded integvails

In the preceding chapters, definite integrals have been applied to the calcula-
tion of area and volume, the identification of a function’s average value, and the
measurement of accumulated change. Though the majority of definite integrals
are used toward one of those ends in an elementary calculus class, additional
applications of the definite integral abound. This chapter discusses a small and
diverse remnant of those applications: arc length, surface area of rotation, and
centroids.

IF you can calculate the avea

betw een cuvves and the volume
(created either by votating of solids
Something ov slicing Something
Sooo) youve mastered about into know
5% of the Aetinite integral proble
see ae typical calculus class. How : Sa
evey, theve’s a small contin a
Briieations fov the Aefinite integr - ne
al that textbooks like te ee ree topi
avent usually covered in much Aep
th ov for very long, so some peo 2
very confusing. Each of fi ef, wee
the sections im this chapter is
vevy Pee —v aS a

section as its own island, independ

the others: also, Aowt Seu the ine / penAent of
| you usually would Figuring out WH
Formulas wovk—Lor this chapter, jus Y the S
t wovvy about How they oA
;
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

27 Arc Length
You Aowt
know what
How fav is it vom point A to point B along a curvy voad?
L(x) looks like be-
tween these points. 23.1 Given a continuous and differentiable function f(x), what is the length of fe)
Is it a line? a pavabo- between points (a,f(a)) and (,f/())?
la? a semicivcle? Whe
knows? That’s why
The length of the arc formed by f(x) between x= aand x= bis equal to
the generic term
“ave” is usea. S-yl+Ls @T ax.

a
Calculate the length of the function f(x) = In(sinx) between x = 4 and x= ae

Differentiate f(x) with respect to x.

Apply the arc length formula from Problem 23.1.

The Aevivative
of a natural
log SVitLe fF , Vitcot® x dx
Jax = ‘fee
function is the
Aevivative of According to a Pythagorean trigonometric identity, 1 + cot® x= csc? x.
what's
inside the log
Aividea = fa/4
32/4
csc? x dx
by what's inside
the
log. (Same thing 32/4
as = f csc
xdx
| over what'si\n mu/4
side
times the Aevi The antiderivative of csc x dx is -In |csc x + cot xl.
vative
of the inside

[Het
»
=—In|cscx + cot x
32 32 mA
il
z
CSC ee + cot—]]—| In csc — + cot—
4

“loka an

[pte Fl a
Apply the logarithmic property that states log a— log b= log be:

= —ln|-—_
(2—v2)/v2
(2+2)/2
aoe

as V2no
542no

424 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
eee

ee the denominator by multiplying the numerator and denominator by

2-2
The answer
(2-v8)(2-18)|_ 4-4 /2+2| | 4jn(824v2
= —In|3-2y2|
In(3+2V72) is
4—9" |) Nwae also covvect. It’s
the same value
jumbled up using
1 log properties.
23.3 Determine the length of. g(x) = (4 —x)” between x= 0 and x= 4.

Differentiate g(x) with respect to x.

5 s(t x) "(= 1)=-5V4- x Dowt forget

to use the chain
Apply the arc ae rarula. vule and take the
Aevivative of what's
SiVitLe' Jax = f° 1+ (-3a= )
ae inside the vadical,
That's wheve this
-| comes frou,
=f ccx) dx

Factor
fe out of the
vadical to get %, and
then pull % out of
the integral.

When
ee you change
==, f 1/24 the limits of
me . integration from
=-=-=(u'/*) 0 ana 4 into & anda
23 4, they feel upside
shee (4°? -8°/?) Aown—the bigger
3 number is suddenly
e oe(e ~162) on the bottou.
3 Dont change
8(2V2 -1) it—everything
ba
a aa Bh works itself
out.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

‘23.4 Verify that the circumference of a circle is 2arr. i

To simplify the calculations, assume that the circle is centered at the origin—its
placement in the coordinate plane will not affect its circumference. Solve the
standard form equation of a circle with radius rfor y.
etyer
pt ekae

= tyr? — x?
A circle is not a function, but it can be described by the pair of functions
yer - x? and y=—V r* —x°*, each of which is the equation for a semicircle of
the same radius. Therefore, you can calculate the arc length of one semicircle,
f(x), and multiply the result by 2 in order to calculate the circumference of the
The full circle. Differentiate lee) = Vr —x’ with respect to x.
function
, styl re 1/25 oe —x
Fx) vepresents
the top half of
the civcle, which Apply the arc length formula.
will tntevsect the
TAKIS At -v ANA y.
A circle with center
(0,0) ntevsects b oth
of the axes y units
Away from the

Pull the constant

v (vom the
numerator) outside
the integral,
{ du uU
According to Problem 20.17, {f— = arcsin(“} Set d=7r, w= x, and’ du=dx
[2 2 ;
aie a
and apply this antidifferentiation formula.
ed
Accovaing =a la? ere wu

gal
to Problem 7.28,
ei < avesinx < mI = r| arcsin—
a =F

ot r

so avcsin(-|) #—— ea:

= 7| arcsin—
even though r
ae

Bipbait oe le|
(hee
=i (arcsin1 — arcsin(— 1)
iE

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

42 6
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
eS
i

Ifa semicircle with radius rhas arc length a7, then a circle with radius r has
circumference 27.

23.5 Approximate the length of h(x) = vx between x= 1 and x=4 using the trapezoi-
dal rule with n= 6 subdivisions and round the estimate to three decimal places.

Differentiate h(x) with respect to x.

1 1
h'
(x) = —y
5% 1/2ue
Apply the arc length formula.
2
[ 3 1
ihe 1+[h'(x)] dx =f 1+(7] dx
- x
4 ]
=| 1+— dx
1 4x

=e
[4 +1
a dx
IP you need
J 4x A ick veview of
the trapezoidal vule,
look at Problems
Use the trapezoidal rule to approximate the value of this integral. To clarify
I7.18-17.2¢,
4041
notation, set k(x) =

fe ofS 48 4 fa 7] (SE
4 [4x41 a A] 3 5 2) You've
i k|—|4+ 2k(2)+ 2k] —|4+ 2k(3)+2k|—|+R(4
J1V 4x a ahr? 2 che 3] (3) E (4) APProximating
9 10 17 the avea »
eneath

x= 4, not the area

= 3.1699645 beneath x.

Surface Area
Measuve the “skiw’ of a votational scliA Youve
not votating
a vegion like most
23.6 Rotate the curve defined by f(x) = Vx between x= 0 and x= 3 about the x-axis of the problems in
and calculate the area of the surface generated.
Chapter 22. When
you votate a piece of
Differentiate f(x) with respect to x. A graph, it creates
pe
Pe) Ss nx
an infinitely thin
three-dAimensional
surface, not a
solia,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

427
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

The surface area generated by rotating the portion of f(x) between x= aand x= b
iande
alll the x's to y’s about the x-axis is equal to on f°f(x) yl +[ f(x) * dx. Substitute f(x), f'(x), a= 0,
if youve votating and b= 3 into the formula.
AYOUNA the y-axis,
like in Problem 23 aes
Qn f HOE ea tes

= 2a fvx 1+
Pull 4
out of the = 2a fvxait,
vadical to get
fz and then pull aon. aoe
% out of the
integral. &+1
=e z dx

=2n(5)f, —s
d
Apply variable substitution: u= 4x + 1 and du= 4dx, so =z = dx. Rewrite the limits

eye
of integration in terms of was well: 4(0) + 1 = 1 and 4(3) + 1 = 13.

= TS.edu

fg 13
= a a rice |

=-=(113°/2 =—1"/7}
—

= (18vi8 -1)

BT ‘Find the area of the surface generated Byreo theportion of f (yara

between y= 0 and y= 2 about the y-axis. | _

1
Differentiate f(y): f iy) = 303y’) = y°; apply the surface area formula.

anf’ f(y)Jl+[s'(y)] ay =20 f° (39)f+ DT dy

=2a(3\S yt y*dy

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

42 8
 Cc hapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

; Pe a Pe s d
Apply variable substitution: u= 1+ y’', me= y'dy, a= 1,and b= 17

wae
2

“zee
=r(17/t— 10)
= 5(1717-1)

23.8 Prove that the surface area of a solid right circular cylinder is 27r(r + h), if ris
a the radius and his the height of the cylinder.

As illustrated in Figure 23-1, revolving the region bounded by x= 0, y=0, x= 7, and

y = habout the y-axis generates a solid right circular cylinder.

Area of
circular face

Figure 23-1 This is a solid of rotation, not a surface of rotation. Therefore, you
must account for the surface area of the cylinder’s circular faces at y = 0
and y =h. Both circles have radius 1, so each circle has area 1°

The surface of the cylinder is (excluding the circular bases) generated by rotating Even though
the portion of f(y) = rbetween y= 0 and y= habout the y-axis. Apply the surface theve ave wo y’s on
area formula. the vight side of the
equation, this function
(Note that ris a constant, so f’(y) = 0.) is in terms of y because
it is solved fov x. It’s
anf" f(y) fl+[f'(o)] =20f- ryl+ (0) dy the equation of the
oe hay i rdy vertical line x =v
with fy) in place
= 2ar f. YD of x.
= (277) d.
= 21h

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

429
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

As noted in Figure 23-1, the total surface area of the solid is the sum of the areas
of the top and bottom faces of the cylinder and the surface area of rotation.

Total surface area =areaoftop face + area of bottom face + rotational surface area
Snr +707" +2arh
= 27? + 22rh
=2nr(r+h)

23.9 Prove that the surface area of a sphere with radius ris equal to 477°.

According to Problem 22.16, you can generate a solid sphere by rotating the
region bounded by f(x)= Vr* —x* and the x-axis about the x-axis. Therefore, you
can determine its surface area by rotating f (x)= Vr? —x? between x=—rana x= 7
Theve
ao about the x-axis. Differentiate f(x) with respect to x.
WAS anv ih
heve, but you TAS) — ee:_ x? ho (—2x) = ewe ts
take the square 2 re —x?
voot to get v, and Apply the surface area formula.
then move it outside
the vadical, because anf’ f(x)J1tL f(a) dx = 20
f" Vr? “tyal
it’s a constant.
Theve’s an v out
front that waswt =2nf" dr? ae i
theve in the
=2nf" age US
rmx +x
last step.
r—x*

Recall that the product of two radical expressions with the same index is the root
of the product: Vavo = Jab.

= Qn f"

= Qar f”1dx

= 2ar[r—(-r)]
= 277 (2r)
=47r°

430 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

Vy
23. 10 Prove that the surface area of a solid right circular cone with radius rand height
his equal tomrvh? +r°
“Yes
As illustrated in Figure 23-2, rotating the first quadrant region bounded by x = 0, f
-
y=h, and f(y) vd Ke about the y-axis results in a solid right circular cone with
radius rand height h. This
line passes
through the
points (0,0) ana
(v,h), so the equa-
tion of the line is
y = Ax. Just like
Area of 2 the Aisc and washer
4 = Ur
circular face methods, everything
needs to be in tevms
of y when you vo-
tate about a
vertical
Figure 23-2 Aside from the rotational surface area, this cone has a circular base AXIS.
with radius r at y= h. The area of the circle, mr, must be added to
the rotational surface area in order to calculate the total surface area
of the solid.

7
Notice that f’(y) = he plug f(y), f(y), a= 0, and b= h into the surface area
formula.
2
b Te a( 7 r
anf f(y) yi+[F'O)] &=22f, (=5] a dy
= 270
S Wiis
=2nf"(- +r°
ee
ho
eerEd.

=2
“J,i laa
r [p24 08
Because ih and “se are constants, they can be removed from the integrand,
leaving behind only y dy.

es ryVi 2 +r? f'y ay a 2

+r° x :
= geet 2 me 2 | By2 ss pte.
h h 2 j\, h s
/

As explained in Figure 23-2, add the area of the circular face.

arvhi +r? +ar° =ar(r+ i +1°)

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431
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
ne

Centroids
Find the center of gravity for a two-dimensional shape
“Centroid”
A
means ‘like 23.11 Region Ris bounded by continuous functions h(x) and k(x), which intersect at
USE
center), DECA points (x,,y,) and (x,,y,) as illustrated by Figure 23-3, Identify the ce
, y)
wrer ©
it is the ce oLtheregion, «3
e center
mass (o¥ th ,
v ae
of gravity) Lo
ware
vEgiOn. If you on
the vegi
bo Dalance
233 on Your
*
®

im Figure
finger tip (like ee Figure 23.3 a
eometvic Region R is bounded above by h(x) and
Clopervorrer), PAY below by k(x). a
Our Kj
mger wnder
i

. the cenrvoia.

Draw a horizontal and a vertical representative length across region R, as

The vertical demonstrated by Figure 23-4.
baw is x units from
the x-axis, and the
hovizontal baw is y units
from the y-axis. Those
values ave marked I(y) = k(y) — A(y)
(nena eres
along the axes in
Figuve 23-4,
k(x)

U(x) = h(x) — R(x)

Figure 23-4 The lengths of the representative lengths are equal to the dif:
ferences of their boundaries. The vertical length equals the up-
per minus the lower bound (in terms of x), and the horizontal
length equals the right minus the left bound (in terms ofy).

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

432
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
i

Calculate the area of the region: A = if. [h(x) —k(x)]dx. This value serves as the
denominator in the centroid formula below.

c ve SixUx)ax fot) ay
viene A
=( fix-Ua)ae OL
Note that /(x) represents the length of the representative vertical length (in terms
of x) in Figure 23-4—a length that stretches from the top of the region to the
bottom; aand bare the boundaries of the region along the x-axis. Therefore,
U(x) = h(x) — k(x), a= x, and b= x,. Similarly, /(y) is the length of the represen-
tative horizontal length (in terms of y), and the boundaries of the region along
the y-axis are equal to cand d. Therefore, /(y) = k(y) — h(y), c= y,, and d= y,.
Substitute these values into the centroid formula.
as 1 pr 1
(%,5)= (+S. x[h(x)—A(x)]dx, 5 f° »[k(y)— H(>)Ja)

23.12 Identify the centroid ofa rectangle with width w and height h.

Construct a rectangle in the coordinate plane and draw representative horizontal

and vertical lengths, as illustrated in Figure 23-5.

(0,2) (w,h)

Ais the avea of

TO eatn ere AP)

ne rectangle, which
iS Just its width
times its height.

Figure 23-5 The rectangular region is bounded by y = 0 (the x-axis), x = 0

(the y-axis), x = w, and y = h.
/

According to Figure 23-5, the length of the representative vertical length is

I(x) = h-90; and the x-axis boundaries of the region are a= 0 and b= w. The
representative horizontal length is /(y) = w—0, and it has y-axis boundaries c= 0
and d= h. Apply the centroid formula from Problem 23.11, noting that A = wh.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

433
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

Begin by calculating x, the x-coordinate of the centroid.

ga 4 frets)
ae lanes
=— x-l(x)dx

wets “x he dx
whe °

Remove the constant h from the integrand.

=F fonds

Now calculate y, the y-coordinate of the centroid.

we) eo
9= TSFyrth)ay
1 pa
Serato

No giant = 5fiyay
suvpvise heve.
The balancing
point of a vectangle
ts vight in the center
both hevizontally ana
vertically, wheve its
diagonals bisect
one another.
a h
The centroid of the rectangle is (5) = (2)

Note: Problems 23.13-23.17 refer to the region bounded by f (x) =r? — x’, a semicircle with
radius r centered at the origin, and the x-axis.

23.13 Identify the x-coordinate x of the centroid for the region.

The representative vertical length is bounded above by f(x) and below by y=0
along the x-axis from x=—rto x= 7, as illustrated by Figure 23-6. The area ofa
2
pee ; , 2 Ur
semicircle with radius ris A = sae

434 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
Ce
eee eeeee eeeeennesta’s

Figure 23-6 The length l(x) equals the difference between its upper bound-
ary (the semicircle) and its lower boundary (the x-axis).

Apply the centroid formula for x.

lh ie I(x)d
x=—] ele) dx
Ae 2B
2 q
=| (=. if_ NY 2 — x" 2 end.dx

If the limits
. oe d
Apply variable substitution: u= 7 — x* and —~ = xdx. Substitute x=—r and x= of integration
into u= 7 — x to get the corresponding u-boundaries: u= 7 — (-r)? = 0 and
of a Aefinite
u=r— (7)? = 0.
integral ave equal,
} the Aefnite integral
mr 2
fiw?du equals 0. You Aowt
cover ANY aver

tf you start and

stop at the same
integration limit.

'
Note: Problems 23.13-23.17 refer to the region bounded by f (x) =r? — x’, a semicircle with
_ radius rcentered at the origin, and the x-axis.

_23.14 The functions that bound the region are even. Draw a conclusion concerning
_ the centroids of such regions and explain your answer.
Re

IP £(x) is an even
If the boundary functions of a region are even, the graphs of those functions are function, that
symmetric about the y-axis. Therefore, the region is split by the y-axis into two means PRx) = L(x),
regions of equal area. The balance point of the region, then, must lie along the ln other words, if
line x = 0 (the y-axis), and x = 0. the point (a) is
on the graph of
This conclusion can be further generalized: if a region is symmetric about any L(x), then so is
vertical line x= c, then x = c for that region. Similarly, if a region is symmetric (a).
about any horizontal line y= k, then y= k.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

435
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

"Note: Problems 23.13-23.17 refer to theregion bound

ae r centered at the orig, pee the x-axis.

2.5 Identify the yeoordinatejy of the centroidfortheregion.

Construct a graph of the region, rewriting its boundaries in terms of y (as

PO mae in Figure 23-7). To express the semicircle in terms of y, solve the
Hovizoutal standard equation of a circle (centered at the origin with radius 7) for x.
lengths (like ae:
hovizontal vadii in iar y = a
Chapter 22) vequive x =ro—y
everything in terms of xat fr?—y?
y, including functions
and limits of
integration.

ye ae
noe Ut = 9?- Cd=9? = 2? -9?
r?

70)

Figure 23-7 Two functions ofy are required to describe the semicircle, a posi-
tive radical expression when x > 0 and a negative radical expres-
sion when x < 0 (shown as a dotted graph). Length I(y) is defined
as the difference of its right and left boundaries.

2
Substitute /(y) (as calculated in Figure 23-7), A= oe y, = 0, and y, = r into the
formula for y.

9= TSF iy) ay= (=5)f/9-2 ra dy = <a fiyyr’-

9 dy
— 1 la 2 Tr 4 a

: se d
Apply variable substitution: u= 7 — y*? and = = ydy. Substitute y= 0 and y= rinto

“0
u=r-—y?’ to get the corresponding u-boundaries: u= 7-0? = rand u= r- r=0.

alent
4 1
Ur

Peale

=a Oe)
4 2\3/2

4
Saget ty)
_4r
3a

A436 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
I sl leche eli ltl eld dda deat

Note: Problems 23.13—23.17 refer to the region bounded by f (x) =r’ — x’, a semicircle with This
radius r centered at the origin, and the x-axis. shovtcut
23.16 Verify that the alternative formula y= a p (It »]}- [eof dx, where j(x) is the calculates
y ov an infi-
upper bound of the region and k(x) is the lower bound, returns the same value nitely thin vect-
fory as Problem 23.15. angle located along
x=* (the vertical
line that cuts the
The upper boundary of the region is j(x) = f(x) and the lower bound is k(x) = 0.
vegion inte two balanc-
Therefore, [j(x)]* — [k(x)]? = [f(x)]? - 0? = [f(x)]’.
ing halves). The thin
vectangle ana the
Dita cast vegion shave the
same y-value,

Even though
youve calculating
¥, the shovtcut is in
terms of x, so use the -
Same x integration
limits as Problem
23.1 a=-y ana
b=y,

Note: Problems 23.13-23.17 refer to the region bounded by f (x) = vr? —x*, a semicircle with
radius r centered at the origin, and the x-axis. .

23.17 Explain the practical value of the alternative formula,

Heve’s anoth-
= a fie(jo} - [ace] dx, as applied in Problem 23.16. a! benefit: Some-
mines rewviting every-
thing th terms of y pro-
Calculating y by means of the alternative formula is usually more efficient than
She r Auces an ugly integral
the formula y = li : L(y)dy, which requires c, d, and /(y) to be in terms of . that's Aif-ficult if not
As demonstrated in Problem 23.15, writing those values in terms of y requires you mPossible, te calcu-
to transform one equation into a pair of equations, calculate a new representative late by hana,
length /(y), and rewrite the limits of integration in terms of y. On the other
hand, the alternative formula in Problem 23.16 used the same region boundary
equations as the formula for x in Problem 23.13, the same representative length
function /(x), and the same limits of integration, which is both expedient and
convenient.
/

_ Note: Problems 23.18-23.20 refer to the region bounded by the graphs of f (x) =~/x, y = 0, and
x= 4.

23.18 Identify x, the x-coordinate of the centroid for the region.

Graph the region and /(x) in order to calculate the representative vertical length,
as illustrated by Figure 23-8.
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
437
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

1 9 ee 4

1(x)=Jx —0

Figure 23-8 — The length of I(x) is defined as the difference of its upper and
lower bounds.

Calculate the area of the region using the fundamental theorem of calculus.
4 2 16
A= fix'@de=23 (0? Mh,= 3 (8) = 3 =

= 16
Evaluate the formula for x given A= ae I(x) =x, x, =0, and x, =

x=ah x*1(x)dx

=— af de

Son dx

eeF(a”),4
eas _

3
= 4 22)

ae
5

Note: Problems 23,18-23.20 eeto the region bounded i the graphs off (x)=vx, y= 0, and
In other
words, Aout use
the shovtcut (until 23.19 Calculate y, the y-coordinate of the centroid for the region, using theformula
Problem 23.20, from Problem 23.11.
that is).
Graph the region and draw /(y) in order to calculate the representative horizontal
length, as illustrated by Figure 23-9.

438 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
Seeeee eee

Figure 23-9 When l(y) has nonzero boundaries, it sometimes results in a more
complicated integrand. However, that is not true in this case, as
you'll see when you compute the definite integral.
The ovientation
: 16 te of the vepvesentative
According to Problem 23.18, A= 3° calculate y given /(y) = 4—’, y, = 0, and
length changed (from
y= 2.
vertical to hovizontal),
y= TJ,rae ty)ay but the vegion (and its
avea) stayed the
3 same,
ote (4— 9")dy
3
A (4y—y°) dy
2
med Sea de
- {ay a

Note: Problems 23.18-23.20 refer to the region bounded by the graphs off (x) = Vx, y = 0, and
x= 4. xe
The formula
23.20 Verify that the value of y generated by Problem 23.19 using the alternative from Problem
formula for 9. 23.16.

Evaluate the alternative formula using values written in terms of x: ad(x)= Vx ’

k(x) =0, x,=0,x,=4,and A= =. Note that [j(x)]? — [k(x)]? = [/(x)]? - 0? = [f(*)]’.
These ave
the same x, %,
and A values that
ave used to find * Wm
Problem 23.18.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

439
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals
pe

5= 5,5. (lok feoof ax

3 4 2
Sacaoly* us
ae
327°(Pye:
ee
4
3 .

32\
2}|,
3
=30°)

Calculate the area of the region using the fundamental theorem of calculus.
You alveady
x/3
know that AO A= J" (cosx 5 Jax=(sins-3) =
because the problem me = 3 S%
‘ 2 2)\, 2a 6
Specifies a “fist Suad-
vant YEJOn,
veaion” ANA you To determine the value of x,, find the intersection point of f(x) = cos x and y= 3
by setting the functions equal and solving for y.
con tell from Figure
23-10 that the left 1
cos
x= —
€Age of the region is 2
the vertical line
arccos X = arccos 9
n= 0,
a
x=—
3

440 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

Evaluate the formula for x, given A = —,

3/3— 1 a
U(x) = aan: x, = 0, and x, =—.5

tet Latex,
xa T Six Ux)dx

Be : J"x{cosx ——|dx
5}A
3/3 —2 = 2
6 ie Ps 1 Ja
= ; x x——X |x
3/3 -—2°°? zm

According to Problem 22.32, f xcosxdx = xsinx +cosx.

a/3

= :
—_—_—_ xsinx + cos x
x-—
; S/S ap 4

2 ( 843-2 )-o11-0]
BI8rll Shue LAO
Heh bons (NS ATR oD
3/3-2\ 6 36 2
_ 6 (62V¥3-2?-18
3/3 — 2 36
_ 61V3
-2°-18
6(3V/3 - 2)

Note: Problems 23.21-23.22 refer to the first quadrant region bounded by the graphs of
(x) = cos x, y=", and x= 0. : ew

23.22 Calculate y, the y-coordinate of the centroid for the region.

3/3 —2 a, :
Substitute A = , I(x) = COS x, Rx) =5,x, = 0, and x, = 3 into the alternative
formula for .

es 1 Xg ; 2 2
y= oe (Lico] — [A(x)] Jax

6 n/3 FTN
= Eels [co:- (5)i

3 x/3 - 7]
= cos x——|dx
set ( 4

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

44l
 Chapter Twenty-Three — Advanced Applications of Definite Integrals

1+cos20 aie cos 20

Apply the power-reducing formula cos” 6 = 9 9 9
You can
vefevence alll of 3 x/3i{1 1 1
the important trig = Goat (5 =<+ =COS2x
ae x] |— |1ave
iAentities (like this
one) in Appendix C. =
3 a/3 1
—cos2x +—
|
|dx
saat 3 -
a/3

eas
- 8V3-a 24
4 3/3 + 2
~ 8(3V3 -2)

442 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 _ Chapter 24
PARAMETRIC AND POLAR EQUATIONS

y
Writing equations using Move vavialbles than just x ana
Although the study of elementary calculus focuses primarily on equations
and functions in rectangular form, a brief discussion of alternate graphical
representations is in order. Though parametric and polar forms of equations are
both worthy of in-depth study, this chapter will limit itself to differentiation and
integration skills already discussed in terms of rectangular equations, such as
calculating rates of change, measuring arc length, and calculating area.

bees ious (And every single chapter in this book

vegulav” functions that ave Aefned tn tevms of x and y,until now)cal
Techni Aeals wiwith
,
ing, these ave callea “vectangulay equation
s,” because they ave ae ;
axes perpendicular to one
another like the sides of a vectangle ans i ae
Aiscusses pavametvi c ana polay equations,
which Aescvi om - mee
mentally aiffevent wary, cvtbe equations in a Lunda-
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
jp

Parametric Equations
Like vevolutionavies in Boston Havboy, just AAA +

Note: Problems 24.1-24.2 refer to the parametric equations x =? -landy=1-t’.

It theve 24.1 Graph the parametric curve.

ave tvig
functions in the
pavametvic equations, To visualize the shape of a parametric curve, you must substitute a sufficient
plug in t values between number of ¢-values into both parametric equations. There is no single number
0 and 27. If not, try of t-values that is appropriate for every parametric problem,*but in this case,
Aiffevent t-values substituting integer values on the interval [-2,2] is sufficient to visualize the
between -|0 ana curve. To begin, substitute ¢ = —2 into both equations
10.
x=P—1 y=1-¢
x =(-2)'-1 y=1-(-2)
x=3 y=-3
The Aomain Therefore, the point (x,y) = (3,-3) is on the parametric curve. The graph in
of the parametric Figure 24-1 is generated by substituting additional values of t into the parametric
curve is the vange equations and plotting the resulting coordinates. Note that the graph has domain
of the x-equation, [-1,0) and range (—,]].
and the vange of the
Pavametvic curve is
the vange of the
y-equation, 9|#= C2) -1] y= 1-02)
2 2

=3 =-3
pa-1 |#2 CD -1] 9=1-C
2

=0 =0
reo | *= OF-1 | y=1- (OY
2

=-] 02 7

a ge1- (1)
2
|

ES no |
z ll
— = —_—
=F
ear

Figure 24-1 The graph of the curve defined by the parametric equations x |= t? —1
and y =1-?’.

Note: Problems 24.1-24.2 refer to the parametric equationsx=-—landy=1-€.

24.2 Write the equation of the parametric curve in rectangular form.

Solve the equation x= @ - 1 for t.

x=-1
xt1l=2

tJ/x+1l=t

444 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
= eee eee

Eliminate the parameter ¢ by substituting this radical expression into y= 1 - ¢.

y=1- (+ oe 1)
y=1-(x+1)
ie oe
The rectangular form of the curve is y = —x, a line with slope -1 and y-intercept 0.
Notice that this aptly describes the graph in Figure 24-1 with one exception: that
graph is only defined for x = —-1. Therefore, this restriction must be applied to the
rectangular form of the curve as well. Dont worry
avout vestvict-
Wg y—vestvicting
t+J]
Note: Problems 24.3-24.4 refer to the parametric equations x = a and y= t-—t?. x will take cave
of everything. You
24.3 Graph the parametric curve.
just want the line to
aovuptly cut off at
The ¢-values —2, -1, 0, 1, and 2 are nearly sufficient to construct the graph. In the point l,l) like
Figure 24-2, the x- and y-equations are evaluated for those values of t, and the it Aoes in Fig-
resulting coordinate pairs are plotted to determine the curve. uve 24-|.

Figure 24-2 This parametric curve is a parabola whose equation is identified in

Problem 24.4. Notice thatt = 3 is evaluated in order to determine
the vertex of the curve, thereby increasing the accuracy of the graph.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

445
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
[|

Note: Problems 24.3-24.4 refer to the parametric equationsx = a0 and y=t-?.

24.4 Write the equation of the parametric curve in rectangular form.

Solve the equation containing x for the parameter ¢.

t+1
x =—
2
tal= 2%
t=2x—1

Substitute this value into the parametric equation containing y.

yi

The y = (2x —1)—

(2x -1)°
Pavametyic y = 2x —1—(4x? —4x +1)
Curve isn’t cut y =—4x* + 6x—-2
off anywhere like The rectangular equation requires no restrictions, as the parametric curve and
Figure 24-| WAS, so
it looks exactly the the rectangular graph are exactly equal at all points in their domains. —
Same as the vect.
angulay gvaph of
Note: Problems 24.5-24.6 refer to the parametric equations x = 3 cos @ and y =4 sin 0.
the parabola
Y = 4x? + ¢x - 27 24.5 Graph the parametric curve.

Because the parametric equations are defined trigonometrically, substitute a range

of 6-values between 0 and 27 to construct the curve, as illustrated in Figure 24-3.

3cos0 y= 4sin0
=0
as a

Figure 24-3 After substituting values for0 between 0 anda, the elliptical nature
of the graph is clear. However, you should substitute a few values
between 1 and 27 to ensure that the remaining portion of the graph
acts as expected (1.¢., ensure that it falls below the x-axis).

the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

446
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

Note: Problems 24.5-24.6 refer to the parametric equations x = 3 cos 6 and y= 4 sin 0. X a

24.6 Write the equation of the parametric curve in rectangular form.

AS;
Ge

Solve the first parametric equation for cos @ and the second for sin 0.

x =3cos0 y =4sin0

;= cos0 ‘=sin0 This ellipse

has stamndava
Substitute these expressions into the Pythagorean identity cos’ 8 + sin? @= 1, x
2 2
form a + ae
2 7 |/
(cos@)’ +(sin@)’ =1

5}+03)
where ais half the
length of the major
AXIS ANA b is half
the length of the
minorv axis,

This is the equation of an ellipse (in standard form) that is centered at the origin,
has vertical major axis length 2/16 =8 and horizontal minor axis of length
2V9 =6, y

24.7 What parametric equations define an ellipse in standard form? ; f 3

The standard form of an ellipse with a horizontal major axis is

2
AY —k
eat tt
posi = 1, such that ais half the length of the major axis, bis half The \Aentity an
a a
the equation
the length of the minor axis, and (h,k) is the center of ellipse. According to of the
ellipse both Cont
a Pythagorean identity, cos* 6 +-sin’ 0 = 1. Therefore, cos” 0 =
(x-hy
; a nd the sum of two
ain
a things
that AVE SQUA
VEA, and
(y-k) Solve the equations for x and y, respectively.
sin* 0 = periei> in both cases,
the sum
is l. Set the ti
vst teviy
in the ellipse eq
Bia,
cos §= Taig
(x = hy . on =
sins @ :eh: tansual ieto
: és
(x—h)’ =a" cos’ 6 (y-k) =" sin’ 6 ‘iparity, and then Ao
2 [2 2 2 me thing Foy the
V(x —h) =Va' cos’ 6 VQ _ k) = Vb" sin? 0 SECONA terms.
x=acosOt+h y=bsinOd +k

The above parametric equations apply only if the major axis of the ellipse
is horizontal. If the major axis is vertical, reverse aand bin the parametric You Aout have
equations: x= bcos 0+ hand y= asin @+ k. to write “+” in front
/ of these vadicals, be-
cause the cosine ana
sine Punctions handle
the sign changes for
you.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

447
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

(24.8 What parametric equations defineacircle centered at the origin with radius r?

A circle is actually an ellipse with major and minor axes that are the same length.
Therefore, you can use the parametric equations from Problem 24.7 and set
a= b=r(the radius of the circle) and (h,k) = (0,0). Either set of the parametric
equations defined by Problem 24.7 result in the same parametric representation
of the circle.

x =acosO+h y=bsinO+k
x =rcos0 y=rsind

Polar Coordinates
Convert from (x, y) to (v,6) and vice versa
_. The ABSCiss
is the fivst of the
two numbers na
: 4.9 Describe how to plot the polar coordinate pair (7,6) inthe coordinate plane.
CoovAinate paiiv, so
the abscissa of
(ab) is a, The abscissa of a polar coordinate pair represents its distance from the pole and
the ordinate is the measure of the angle formed by the polar axis and a terminal
ray passing through the coordinate whose endpoint is the pole (as illustrated
in Figure 24-4). Note that positive angles are measured counterclockwise and
negative angles are measured clockwise.
The ORDINATE
is the second number
iW A Coovdinate pair,
The ovdinate of (a)
is b,

|
\\ \ N Ws 3 a / eis
:
polar axis
N \ ae ole BC / x
\ \ ei Ee Z
ees
N N
a. oo
a oe
ys
Ss a > es ea oe 7
< a
~ Se
= —

Figure 24-4 In this diagram, 0 measures approximately 135° = =radians

and the point (1,0) is 4 units away from the pole. Therefore,
Jit), : ;
(7,0) = (4,72) is a fair representation of the polar coordinate.

Although any pole and polar axis can be used, it is customary to superimpose
polar coordinates on the Cartesian plane, placing the pole at the origin and the
polar axis on the positive x-axis.

448 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
eee oer aan

24.10 Plot the polar coordinate pairs on the same plane: A= (14 » B= (s%),
C= (2-2),
2
and D= (-4=2}
3

Refer to Figure 24-5 for the locations of A, B, C, and D in the coordinate plane—
as stated in Problem 24.9, the pole should be placed at the origin and the positive To plot
x-axis serves as the polar axis. Note that C contains a negative angle, and D D, instead of
contains a negative directed distance. traveling up the
vay in the secondA
quadvout, extend
the vay across the ovi-
gin (along the AotteaA
line in Figure 25-S), and
travel 4 units nto
the fourth quaa-
vant.

‘ Le
ot ne / /
6=— 6
=210 ie Coe
=
WD Vy 7GA e. D=(-4,2%
ie
a.
Bea ee ye
—— ead
ZX
pa By

9=-= =-90°
2
Figure 24-5 Positive angles are rotated counterclockwise from the positive x-axis and
negative angles rotate counterclockwise.

24.11 Unlike the Cartesian coordinate system, in which each point on the plane is
expressed by a unique coordinate pair, each point in the coordinate plane can
be represented by an infinite number of polar coordinate pairs. Find two polar
coordinate pairs that represent the same point on the plane as (2.2}

As illustrated by Figure 24-6, replacing 2 with a coterminal angle, such as = or

11 . ; . ; Z
sas will not alter the location of the point; therefore, the polar coordinate pairs
13% It :
(22) and (2) represent the same point on the plane as the polar
/
coordinate (2.2). You can identify yet another polar coordinate pair with the same
graph by adding z to @ and multiplying rby -1. page beeeden ret eeeA
(-2%)
(,0+2)=(-2,2+2)=

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

449
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

Figure 24-6

The polar coordinate pairs (22)P

(224) and (-222] all represent the

same point.on the coordinate plane.

: 24.12 Convert the point (—3, 2) from polar to rectangular coordinates.

Given (7, 0) = (-3, 2), apply the formulas x= rcos 0 and y= rsin 0.

x =—3cosa y=—3sinz
ae et y=-3(0)
x=3 y=0

Therefore, the polar coordinate (—3, 2) and the rectangular coordinate (3,0)
represent the same point in the Cartesian plane.

73 and the polar coordinate

The rectangular coordinate pair (-2.-8) pair(7.2)
represent the same point in the Cartesian plane.

450 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

De eee ee Chapter Twenty-Four
eee — Parametric and Polar
a Equations
uations

24.14 Convert the point (4, -4) from rectangular to polar coordinates.
Like Problem
24.\\ explains,
Given (x,y)
(x,y) == (4,
( -4),
), apply th
apply the ion
conversion formulas
formulas r=./x?
r yy+? an
and n tand=25 theve’s move than
to
one covvect Answev
po-
r=/4? +(—4)
—4
et as this problem. Lots of
na te s wil l ove v-
lav coovAi
(p= 32 tand=—1 lap the vectangular
r= 4/2 sax a coovaAinate (4-4).
4
Infinitely many angles have a tangent value of —-1 and you can replace 0 = irwith
any of them, including 6 = -7, =, and ae However, the polar coordinate must be

located in the fourth quadrant to match the rectangular coordinate

(4, -4). Therefore, ris positive for all angles terminating in the fourth quadrant

and negative for all angles terminating in the second quadrant. Correct polar
coordinate representations of the rectangular coordinate pair (4,-4) include

(2-5) (W872) (48.57) and (-8.-27)

x 7x 37 5a

24.15 Convert the point (- 1,V3 )from rectangular to polar coordinates.

P :
Giv
iven (x, ) =(—1,V3),
( V3 ) applyapply th the conversion feformulas
1] r=./x°+y° an tan ==.y
=,/x?+y and
Note that (-1,V3) is in the second quadrant, so the terminal side of 6 is in the If you Caw’t

second quadrant (for r> 0) and in the fourth quadrant (for r< 0). Figure out how
to get this angle,
— (-1)’ +(V3) tan@ =—J3
look at Problem
§.30,
r=2 Uae

Correct polar coordinate representations of the rectangular coordinate (- 1,V3)

: 27
eek 8x Ete sey eea
ee -2 —3
include 2, 3 \
(2,3 \( 2; =}and ( 3

Graphing Polar Curves

Graphing with v and 6 instead of x and y

24.16 Graph the polar curve r= 5,

The curve consists of all the points 5 units away from the pole, regardless of the
angle 6. As convention dictates that the pole be placed at the origin, then this
curve is the collection of points exactly 5 units away from (0,0). In other words, its
graph is a circle centered at the origin with radius 5, as illustrated in Figure 24-7.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

45|
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

This is one
of the Strengths
of polav equations—
Sometimes they've
much simpler looking
Figure 24-7 The polar curve r = 5 has the same graph as the (comparatively
than the vectangulay
more complex) rectangular curve x? + y’ = 25.
Version of the same
graph.
24.17 Graph thepolar curve: = -2.

Consider the line that forms the angle 5 with the positive x-axis, as illustrated in
Figure 24-8.

Figure 24-8 The graph of0 = ae is a straight line.

452 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
eee eee

Any point along this line (regardless of its distance, 7, from the origin) belongs
to the curve 9= ora including
: ate in
the points Pay
the second quadrant once the line is
extended across the origin. You have to
extend the line
because v coula
24.18 Graph the polar curve: r= 3 cos 6. be negative, For
Snore (-3, 4
é
The most effective way to graph a polar curve is to use a table of values. The range is in the Secona
of @-values you should use to construct the table depends on the polar equation, Wadvant, 3 units
but the complete graph of most polar equations containing trigonometric func-
tions can usually be generated using the 6-interval [0,27]. Even fewer 0-values are Away from the
ovigin along the
needed to graph r= 3 cos 8, as the entire curve is drawn between 6 = 0 and 0 =2
line in Figuve
(and repeats between 6 = 7 and 0 = 22).
24-9,
r=3cos0
r =3cos0=3(1)=3

a
eR
als
ae
SBE 6

x | r=3cosaz =3(-1)=-3

2 '
Figure 24-9 The graph ofr = 3 cos @ is a circle centered at(2.0) with a

radius of 5

(24.19 Graph the polar curve: r= 4 cos 26.

Like Problem 24.18, construct a table of values for the curve. Substituting values
of @ in the interval [0, 27] is sufficient to construct the entire curve, as illustrated
in Figure 24-10.
/

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

453
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

r = 4cos(20) 2.
aE
aE
r=4cos
r =4cos(2:0)=4(1)=4 —

Tr =4 cos 9.—6
a
Il r =4cos| 2- Il 4(0)=0
s]alg]ols
a ae

r =4cos 9- i} Ho =SoSSIl oS r =4cos| no 2° Il we | ll | no

asLa Ci nl
ee”

nol ST
eo
a
r =4cos| no 2- ll nN | i | no r =4cos 2° 4(-l= | >

adola See
nol els
——~ Ss|2
rm

Sree
Or
or
9>
~I
" nm

2-0
r=4c0s(2-]=4(0)=0 = r=4c0s(2- 4) =4(2}=2

|
Plea
eee
eae
Stee
r= 4cos{no

r = 4cos(27)=4(1)=4

Figure 24-10 The graph of the polar curve r = 4 cos 20 is described as a “rose.”
The number of “petals” in a rose graph (in this curve there are
four) varies based on the constants in the polar equation.

| 24.20 Graph the polar curve: r= 4 sin 20.

Use a table of values very similar to the table in Figure 24.19. All of the angles
will remain the same, but rather than multiply 4 times the cosine of each angle
to calculate the corresponding 7, you will multiply 4 times its sine. The graph,
illustrated in Figure 24-11, is very similar to the graph of r= 4 cos 26 as well.

Figure 24-11 The polar curve 4 = 4 sin 20 is equivalent to the graph

of r = 4 cos 20 rotated 7;radians either clockwise or
counterclockwise.

454 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
it

24.213 rap th e polar

Graph i curve: ir r =
=sind—-—.
sin0 9 Rectangular
avaPh transforma.
tons Ao hot apply to
Use a table of values to plot the curve, as illustrated in Figure 24-12.
Polar equations, For
example, the graph
1 | =e :
0 using '@ r=sin@—— ofy Sin 6 te lis
hot the vi
0; r=sin0->=0-5=-2 {7 r=sinn-5=0-5=-5 k ae of
i Yo sl
a Sac es I 0 |7a Sa Lo 1 : moved
= =sin——--=—---= — |r=sin——-=---=— =- .
6 6 2 22 1 6 eugene 2 WP One Unit
a
po4
ert
es aa
btryae ee oe
ak J2-1 =0. | 5
sais a
bu
eae
1
akpee
=)Dit ae
r 9 9 2 14 r an 9 Lz

eee3-
Le 1Se |pesine—2= -v3 vB a1
- 4
3 Se 2 3 3 2
1 1 13.
= r=sin=-==1-==05 ES (mate ees
2 2 12 ae 2
Qn | 5a f 1_-V3-1
—— i |r=sn——-== =-14
3 3 Biase 2
3 aiiON
Be 2
8ON og pT ial? =
a. te 1 de
4 4 2 '4 4 2 2
5a RO die, | 1lz llz 1 Veh
See a SU | — | r=sin— -—-—=----=-1
6 Gre Seo 2 1 6 ee3S ae
'Qn |r=sin(27)—--~=0-—=-—
I ae:
2 Ba.

Figure 24-12 Polar curves ave classified according to their shapes. The curve
r=sin0— 3 is a limacon.

24.22 Write the polar equation r= 3 cos 6, from Problem 24.18, in parametric form.

According to Problem 24.12, individual polar coordinates can be converted to

rectangular coordinates using the formulas x= rcos @ and y= rsin @. To construct
parametric equations that correspond to the polar curve, substitute r= 3 cos @ into
both equations.

x =rcos0 y=rsin0
x =(3cos@)cosé y =(3cos@)sin0
x = 3cos" 0 y = 3cos@sin@

1
24.23 Write the polar equation r = sin@ — 9° from Problem 21.21, in parametric form.

Substitute the polar equation for rin the parametric equations x= rcos 6 and
y=rsin6.
x =rcosé y=rsin0 ,

=(sin
ane - 5 Joos0 rane
= (sing an
)sino

, 1 Ne a ae
x = cos@sin@ ——cos@ y =sin one

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

455
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

Applications of Parametric and Polar Differentiation

Teach a new dog some ola Aifferentiation tricks

24.24 Given a curve defined by the parametric equations x= f(t) and y= g(t), _
d d .
determine a and 2 , the first and second derivatives.

Apply the derivative formula for parametrically-defined curves.

dy _ dy/dt
dx dx /dt
ee)
f'(t)
Note that the second derivative of a parametrically-defined curve is not simply the
To get the d
Second Aevivative, derivative of oe with respect to {—it is the quotient of that derivative and oe :

ali)
differentiate the
tivst Aevivative ana d’y _ dt\dx
divide by the same dx? dx
Se you dt
WIAA by in the ' t
d
tivst Aevivative. Recall thatrs = a

d(g'(t)
_ d\ f'(t)
f@

24.25 Given the curve defined by the parametric equations x = = and y=t-@
_ (from Problem 24.3), calculate ma

Differentiate each of the parametric equations with respect to the parameter t.

1
x= ott) y=t-0

dx 1 Denes
dt 2 dt
According to Problem 24.24, the derivative of the curve is equal to the quotient of
dy/dt and dx/dt.

dy _ dy/dt
dx dx /dt
iow
SelKe
= 2(1-2t)
=2-4t

456 the H UMOnJOUS Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

24.26 Verify the solution to Problem 24.25 using the rectangular form of the
parametric curve and its derivative.

d
Problem 24.25 states that os= 2—4t. Rewrite the derivative in terms of x by
. , : t+1
solving the parametric equation x = Toe for t.

Novmallly,
x= ue
: youa stop
heve ana leave
Beaks
the pavametvic
d bean 1 Me Garten terms
Substitute ¢ into Be 9 ~ At.
of +. The vest just
= d shows that the
TF =2- 4(2x -1)
Aevivatives ave
=
equa, whether you
a 2-—8x+4
Aaifferentiate in
oe
pavametvic ov
% =—-8x+6
vectangulay
§
form,
According to Problem 24.4, the curve defined by the parametric equations
x= = and y= t- # has rectangular form y = —4x° + 6x-— 2. Differentiate with

respect LOK:

Dd =-8x+6
dx

The derivatives are equal, verifying the parametric derivative calculated in

Problem 24.25.

Note: Problems 24.27-24.29 refer to the curve defined by the parametric equations x = e' and
y = cos 3t.

24.27 Calculate the slope of the curve when ¢= 2.

dx
Differentiate the parametric equations with respect to ¢: Bn e' and
= = -3sin 3t; apply the parametric derivative formula.

dy _dy/dt _ —3sin3t
dx dx/dt e
dy
Evaluate — when t= 2.
dx
—3sin(3-2) _—_—3sin6 /
2
e é

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

457
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
ee

Note: Problems 24.27-24.29 refer to the curve defined by the parametric equationsx =e' and
y = cos3t. oo 2

To write 24.28 Write the equation of the tangent line to the curve when ¢= 2.
the equation
of a line, you need
Substitute ¢= 2 into the parametric equations to determine the point of tangency.
a point (the point
of tangency) and a nme ser y = cos 3t = cos6
slope (the Aevivative
at that point, When t= 2, the point of tangency on the curve is (é, cos 6). According to Problem
calculated in the
24.27, the slope of the tangent line at that point is — ee Apply the point-slope
last prolblew). eet
formula to generate the equation of the tangent line.

ey =m/(x—x,)
3sin6
y—cos6=— 2 (xe)
3sin6
y=cos6=-| oe Jr3sin6
e
3sin6
y=-( ste
e }x3sin6-+cos6

Note: Problems 24.27-24.29 refer to the curve defined by the parametric equations x = e' and
y = cos 3t.

: 24.29 Determine the second derivative of the curve. _

Apply the second derivative formula from Problem 24.24, substituting the values
This fraction
has functions in ie of fy and a from Problem 24.27.
dx dt
Wumevator AND the

ila
Cnominator (becaus e
there4 ave ts in both), so d*y _et dt\dx
you've gt to use the dx* dx /dt
quotient vule, d fee .)
_ a e
e!

7 4(-S*)
e dt e

i i¢(—9cos(32)) - (—3sin(3¢))(e' ]

a)
e!

a 2% (—3cos(3t)+ =n)
et e! -@'

i 3(sin(3¢) — 3cos(3¢))
2t
é@

458 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

Note: Problems 24.30-24.32 refer to the curve defined by the parametric equations x = 6 cos 0
and y = 2 sin 0.
The
24.30 Find 2,the derivative of the curve, in terms of t. Lovmulas in
Problem 24.24
have ts in them,
Apply the parametric derivative formula.
Dut you can change
dy_ dy/d@ _ 2cos0 ]
t+ to whatever
=——cotd pavameter is used
dx dx/d@ -—6sin@
by the problem,
like 6.
_ Note: Problems 24,30-24.32 refer to the curve defined by the parametric equations x = 6 cos 0
and y= 2sin0. Heche : XY LG
24.31 Rewrite the parametrically-defined curve in rectangular form and differentiate
et |
with respect to xin order to verify the derivative in Problem 24.30.
Ge
‘3
YR;
Solve each parametric equation for the trigonometric function within.
x =6cos0 y= 2sin0

~ = cos 2 = sino
6 2
Square both sides of each equation.
2 2

36a ae cos’ ee 0 2i eesin” 0 Vee Vae

Substitute into a Pythagorean trigonometric identity. Me ee iaplicit:

aiffeventiation.
cos? @+sin?@=1 For move help, look at
Problem |6.97—it has a
ee ae
2 2

very similay equation

36 «64
anda derivative.
Now that the equation of the ellipse is in rectangular form, differentiate with
respect to x.

dy x
dx 9y

Write the derivative in terms of 6, recalling that x = 6 cos @ and y= 2 sin 0.

2 6cos@ 6cos@ en
de 9(28n0) 18sin6.- 8

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 459

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
Pe

Note: Problems 24.30-24. 32

oretothecurve defined by the parametricequat n
andy= 2sin0. oo

24.32 Find “, the econ derivative of the curve, in terms of 0

x
The sine ana

Cosecant functions dy dx
Ave veciprocals, so Substitute the values of rf
— and 7 from Problem 24.30 into the parametric
Aividing by Sine is the second derivative formula.

d { dy are 1
ay _eee ier
dx? dx/d0 —6sin9 —6sin@ 18

Note: Problems 24.33-—24.34 refer to the polar equation r = 2 sin 0.

24.33 Differentiate the polar equation,

Replace v
with 2 sin 6 in the Express the polar equation parametrically and differentiate the parametric
formulas x =v cos 6 equations with respect to 0.
and y = vsinG, like in
Problems 24.22 anda x=rcos0 y=rsind
24.23. x =(2sin0)cos@ y = (2sin8) sind
x =2sin@cos0@ y = 2sin’ 0

d
Apply the parametric derivative formula. Note that requires the chain rule
y dé
and — requires the product rule.
Check a@
Appendix C for a list dy _ ay/d0 _ 4sin@-cos@ __ 2sin@cos@
of trig identities, dx dx /d@ 2[sin@(—sin@) + cosO(cos 0)] cos? @—sin? 6

Replace the expressions using double angle trigonometric identities

_ sin26
= tan20
cos 20

Note: Problems 24.33~24.34 refer

tothe polar equation r = 2 sin 0.
24.34 Find the second derivative of the polar equation

) d
Substitute and 2 from Problem 24.33 into the parametric second derivative
formula. “ ag
ale) d
d’y _ d0 dx 79029) osc? 90
= _—_—OrOor_r_-_—- = 3

dx® dx/d0 cos 20 cos 20 ascend

460 The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

24.35 Identify the equation of the tangent line to the polar curve r= sin 6 — cos 26 at
3 :
0= "e and write the equation in rectangular form.

Express the polar equation parametrically.

x = rcos@ y=rsin0
= (sin6 — cos 20)cos0 = (sin@ —cos20)sin@ That
= cos @sin8 — cos@ cos 20 meawms the
= sin’ 0 —cos20°sin@
line will contain
Determine the rectangular coordinates of the point of tangency by substituting x's ana y's, not v's
aes. : q and 6's.
@ = — into the parametric equations.

out ST ou
Ne ras eae y=[sin=) = CO8 sie
4 9 f 2 4d

_{_v2 v2\_{_v2\) _(¥2) _@(2

2 2 2 2 2

: ah
mee 2

‘
‘ of tangency, shared by the tangent line bul
The point and the polar curve, is Sl:
Differentiate the parametric equations with respect to 0, using the product and

chain rules. A double

angle trig iAentity
tells you that
“ =[cos6(cos@) + sin@(—sin@)|— [cos@(—2sin 20) + (cos 26)(—sin6)] cos’ @ — sin? oe
cos 26,
= cos” @—sin’ 0 + 2cos@sin
20 + cos20sin0
= cos 20+ 2cos@sin 20 + cos 26 sin

oe 2sin @cos 6 —[cos20cos6 + sind (—2sin 26)|

= 2sin@cos@
— cos@cos 20 + 2sin@ sin 20

Apply the parametric derivative formula.

dy _dy/d@ _ 2sin@cos6 —cos6@cos 26 + 2sin@ sin 20

dx dx /d0 cos 26 + 2cos Osin 20 + cos 20 sin

Evaluate the derivative at 6 = - :

2(/2 /2)(-V2 /2) - (-v2 /2)(0)+2(V2/2)(-1)

0 +2(—V2 /2)(-1)+(0)(v2/2)
sie
hats ;

__N2+2
2

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

46l
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
eS Ee ee

Apply the point-slope formula to write the equation of the tangent line, with
Lay ate
(x,,1) aS (-3.5] and m= ee

y—y
=m(x—x)
peer
VAS
1
=
ee
eeges
ete
Ks
2

9 9 9

Applications of Parametric and Polar Integration

Maybe some integvals might also interest the new Aog

24.36 Calculate the length of the curve defined by the parametric equations x = In t
1 _
and y= 2 between ¢= 1 and ¢= 3. Use a graphing calculator to evaluate the
definite integral and report the result accurate to three decimal places. ~

Ifa curve is defined by the parametric equations x= f(t) and y= g(t), the length of
2 2

the curve between x= aand x= bis equal to Hs (=) Bs (2 dt. Differentiate the
e p t
This parametric equations with respect to ¢.
integral is too
dod 1 dy Jd 7s 2
— = —(] jj=- = 45" =——
hava to calculate dt gen) t dt a ) ac
by hana—wmost Pova-
ernc avo length Substitute the derivatives into the parametric arc length formula.
tntegvals ave,
» |(dx\ (dy\ 3 {(1\ on a hed 3 tt +4
f. (=) +(9) a=f (7)+(-4 a=fe atpe=f, p dt

Use a graphing calculator to determine that f.

+4
ie
dt ~ 1.470.
These
boundavies
AVE impovta
nt— 24.37 Prove that the circumference of a circle with radius ris equal to 22r by
YOU want to Av
aw calculating the arc length of a parametrically defined curve.
exactly one civc
le. If
YOU use boundA
awies of
Oana 41, the According to Problem 24.8, the parametric curve defined by x= rcos 6 and
civcle
gets Avawy tw y = rsin @ is a circle centered at the origin with radius r (for 0-values between 0
ice
\ (even though it and 2s). Differentiate the parametric equations.
’s hava
to tell that fr
om the
graph, becaus d. d
e 7 rsind 7 770088
the civcles
ovevlap),

462 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

Apply the parametric arc length formula from Problem 24.36.

f-» (=)
|(dx\ +(2)
dy :
Ce Qn a aXe
(—rsinO@) +(rcos6) 2 dé

= [V
sin?6+
r r?cos?040
= ie r (sin® 6+ cos” ))do
0

According to a Pythagorean trigonometric identity, sin’ 6 + cos’ 6 = 1.

=f VP) db =rf-"
do=r(6)," = 120-0)
=2arr

24.38 Construct a definite integral representing the circumference of an ellipse with

major axis length 29a and minor axis length 2b.

The orientation of the ellipse (i.e., whether its major axis is horizontal or vertical)
is irrelevant, as is the center of the ellipse. Assume the ellipse is centered at the
origin and has a horizontal major axis. According to Problem 24.7, the ellipse
is defined by the parametric equations x = acos 6 and y= bsin 6 for 0 S$ @ S 2z.
Differentiate the parametric equations.

Bg ee LION ECD
dé do
Apply the parametric arc length formula.

2 d 2 rr
fie (= +(2) d@= fi (—asin@)° + (bcos6)°
dé

= fove sin? 0 +b” cos” 6 dO

24.39 According to Problem 24.18, the graph of the polar equation r= 3 cos @ isa
circle centered at (5.9)with radius >which has area 4° Verify the area of the Basea
circle by calculating the area bounded by the polar curve between 6 = 0 and on the formula
A S16 v? from
G=7, geometvy.

1
The area bounded by a polar curve is equal to eiler’d0. Note that aand bare the
bounding values of@ stated by the problem: a= 0 and b=.
Polay equations
1 1 pa :
Bett i, (3cos0)° dO ave wvitten “vy =” sg
plug whatever v equals
= 5S,00s!0d0 into the integrand v’,
Dow't+ forget the %in
front of the Aefinite
integral.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

463
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations
itch tails deinen bscsshssdseslunaee ee

1+ cos20
Apply the power-reducing formula cos* 0 = oar ‘

9 pa
So (1+ cos 20) dé
a

= (0+ 5sin26)

_ on4
0

24.40 Calculate the area bounded by one petal of the rose curve r= sin 38.

Each petal of the rose curve begins and ends at the origin, so set r= 0 and solve
for 0 to determine the 6-values that bound the petals.
sin 30 =0
30 = 0,2, 27,37,°::

go ene
3 3

Figure 24-13 illustrates the region of the polar graph bounded by @ = 0 and
d= 7 one petal of the graph.

Figure 24-13 The congruent petals of the rose curve r = sin 30 occur on the
0-intervals [a2|‘ E 72 , and EB n|

Apply the polar area formula.

Ba
1
rdo=—
po 9 1
J,7/3,sin? 3046

464 ve Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

16.
According to a power-reducing formula, f sin? 36.40 = ifT= .cos =-30)

=f 1 p2/31—cos60
ao Replace 6
in the normal power-
vedAucing formula
1 p23
a (1—cos60)d0 with 36,
n/3
1 1
=
ll —
ssin66)
1

The polar graph in Figure 24-14 is generated by plotting 6-values on the interval
[0,22]; calculate the values of 0 in that interval at which the polar curve intersects
the origin (i.e., where r= 0).
1-2sin0 =0
2sin@=1

an@ete
Z
aut OF /
6° 6

Consider Figure 24-15, which illustrates different regions of the graph and the
angles, 6, that bound those regions. According to the diagram, the shaded region

Yt | The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

465
 Chapter Twenty-Four — Parametric and Polar Equations

J ; 30 ;
in Figure 24-14 is equal to the area on the 6-interval [=.22| minus the area on

9 > 5

6=0 to 0==
6

9-72 @ 0=2n

Figure 24-15 Regions bounded by r = 1 — 2 sin @ and varying 0-values on

the interval [0,270).

a
" (1-2sin6)’ ao- 5fa-
miley 2sin0)° dO
Jasin’ a8
fen
3a
—4sin9 +4sin? 6)d0 — fs (1— 4sin9+4sin’ 6)40
=4) 5
Apply a power-reducing formula to determine the antiderivative of 4 sin? 0.
=2}(\ — cos 26) Ad
1
= 26 — sin26 =a (6+ 4cos0 + 26 —sin 20)|"
3/2 —(6+4cos6 + 26 —sin 20)(""" |
1 .
= 5[(30 + 4cos@ — sin26)”hy — (30 + 4cos6 — sin 20)|” al

=|1 (61+4-0 9n 5a 4V3. V3 370

Ge M (FF
s +0-0!-(2
=| See ae
2 enel2 eee )
Sb22Seer 2
onI(m , 8+3V3
ate 2
_ 1+84+3V3
4

466 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter 25
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Equations that contain a Aevivative

While the study of differential equations is sufficiently complex that it requires

focused attention in a mathematician’s coursework, it is both appropriate and
useful to introduce them once the concepts of differentiation and integration
are explored. This book limits its discussion to ordinary differential equations
(equations presented in terms of a single independent variable). Equations
whose solutions can be determined by means of the separation of variables
are presented, as are visualization and solution approximation techniques for
inseparable differential equations.

A differential equation is an equation

that contains a Aevivative and
eae it like a vavialble. In the beginnin
g of the chapter youll ooeben ith
equati ons whose Aevivatives ave the Aiffevential Soot in the a S
Through a process called “separation of vaviables,” you'll
start with ae
Ay/Ax = PK) ANA enA up with a solution y = 9(x), whe
re P(x) is
the Aevivative of
90). Unfortunately, not alll Aiffevential
equations can be solved b . a ‘
vavialbles, so the vest of the chapter Aea
ls with ways to Ps eee
solutions to those kinds of equations.
oO
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Separation of Variables
Sepavate the y's and ay’s Prom the x's and Ax’s
eae Note: Problems 25.1-25.2 refer to the differential equation = 4
:
te
: ; : d

yarino es

means Moving the 25.1 Find the general solution of the differential : equation.
:
y-rermss
ana the
ofUne lett side oF Multiply both sides of the equation by dx in order to separate the variables.
he equation a a
roving the A* ON" Wt dy = 4x dx
xrerms +o ne ay
<iae (ov ywice
Integrate both sides of the equation.

yersa): i dy =4 fixdx
2

ya4-+C
y = 2x? +C
The Aevivative
of 2x’ + Cis Ax, The family of curves represented by the equation y= 2x* + Care solutions to the
That makes 2x2 + ¢
a solution of the differential equation “ = 4x.
ie
Aiffevential
equation 4x,
Note: Problems 25.1-25.2 refer to the differential equation o = 4x.

25.2 Find the specific solution of the differential equation that contains the point
7 3h. —

According to Problem 25.1, the general solution is y = 2x? + C. Substitute the given
x- and y-coordinates into the solution and solve for C.

y=2x? +C
7=2(-3)
+C
7=18+C
-11=C
The specific solution of the differential equation is y = 2x? - 11.

Seo the gen-

eval solution of 25.3 Describe the difference between a general solution of a differential equation
AY/AxK = Ax Co (such as Problem 25.1) and a specific solution (such as Problem 25.2).
ntains
Every single e
i
that oe ike.
oer The general solution of a differential equation is an infinitely large collection
Plus some number
, of al] of curves that are identical apart from the constant term in each function.
those possible So
lutions Graphically, the solutions to differential equations are equivalent, except for their
Problem 25.2 wa
nts as vertical positions in the coordinate plane. The specific solution of a differential
the one Specif
ic 4 equation is the unique member of the family of solutions that passes through a
Solution that
Passes point identified by the problem, called the initial value.
through
3,7),
the point

EEE
he Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
468 ~
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
eee

axl
Note: Problems 25.4—-25.5 refer to the differential equation a = oe :

25.4 Find the general solution of the differential equation. theve’s

YO VEASON
to write 2C,
Cross multiply the proportion to separate the variables. because you have
no idea what C is. It
y dy = (3x —1)dx
would be weiva to say
Integrate both sides of the equation. “2 times lavger than
yx 3x? a number we'll
ee = +O nevev know.”
2 2
Multiply the equation by 2 in order to eliminate the fractions. Note that the
product of 2 and an arbitrary constant is another arbitrary constant.

y= 3e-2x+C
Solve for y.

y =+V¥3x? —2e +C

5 guy Mathe-
Noddy obletas 254205 §refer to the viffereniial equation > <2: maticians
ey ana engineers
25.5 Find the specific solution of the differential equation that has x-intercept (-1,0). who deal with
Aifferential equa-
tions for a living might
According to Problem 25.4, the general solution of the differential equation is cringe at this solution,
y =+V3x" —2x+C. Substitute x =-1 and y = 0 into that equation and solve for C. becouse it has a t iv it
and the graph has two
0 =+/3(-1)° —2(-1)+C branches. However, this
0=+/5+C iswt a Aifferential
0=5+C equations course, so
Aont sweat it.
—5=C

Substitute C into the general solution of get the specific solution y = +V 3x” — 2x —5,
Note that this solution may differ slightly from the solution reported in a differential
equations course, in which the answers are typically restricted to single, continuous
intervals, but it will suffice for the scope of this course.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

469
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Note: Problems 25.6-25.8 refer to the differential equation = = .

25.6 Describe the family of solutions of the differential equation.

Cross multiply to separate the variables and antidifferentiate both sides of the
resulting equation.
. ydy
= xdx
Jfydy = f xdx
2 p

Je 4G
2° 2
Multiply the equation by 2 to eliminate fractions.

yp =x +C

Look at This solution represents a family of hyperbolas centered at the origin with
Problem ¢.29 transverse and conjugate axes of equal length. To verify this, isolate the constant
if you need help and divide each term by C—the result is a hyperbola in standard form. _
understanding the 2 2
standava form of Dace
a hyperbola. CG
ae2 3 2
ae es eee |
Cai

, ‘
_ Note: Problems 25.6—25.8 refer to the differential equation = ee.

25.7 Graph the specific solution of the differential equation that passes through the
point (—1,2).

Substitute x=—1 and y= 2 into the general solution identified by Problem 25.6.

yeyer
2 2

CG
Oo oe

Cera ae
4-1]
—— =]
C
G=3

Substitute C= 3 into the general solution of determine the specific solution

(illustrated in Figure 25-1) that contains the point (-1,2).

[Eee
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
470
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

2 2
Figure 25-1 The hyperbola = _ = = 1 is centered at (0,0), has a vertical
transverse axis of length 2./3, has a horizontal conjugate axis
of length 2,/3, and passes through the point (-1, 2).

ae
Note: Problems 25.6-25.8 refer to the differential equation = ie
y
2 2
25.8 Verify that = = = =1 isa solution of the differential equation by demon- Need help?
strating that the derivative of the solution is the differential equation. Look at Problem
16.9,

Differentiate implicitly.

2y dy 2x
3 dx 3
2y dy 2x
3 dx 3

BN B dx} 3\2y
dy
_ 6x
dx 6y
dy x
dey

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems ATi

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

oe ah
25.9 Find the general solution of the differential equation: a = xy(x +3).

Divide both sides of the equation by y and multiply both sides by dx.

ee Geay is
y

2 = (x? + 3x) dx
y
Integrate both sides of the equation.

Dvop the
f= fle + 3x)dx
absolute values—e
to any power is a 3 2

positive number, Inb|= 5 +—-+C

Solve the equation for y by exponentiating both sides of the equation.

orb = A /3)+(3x* /2)+C

= As /3)+(3x /2)+C

Apply the exponential property that states x**’ = x*x’. Rather than writing each
lf Cis ay term in the exponential sum separately with base e, transform only the last
unknown numbey,
exponential term, C, into its own factor.
then e¢ is another
unknown number. You y = oe /3)+(3x" {2 ef

might as well keep y= Col” /3)+(3x? /2)

writing the unknown
value as C.

25.10 Find the general solution

ea of the differential equation: i = oea 5

Divide both sides of the equation by y and multiply both sides by dx to separate
the variables.

a ees
d' x

er ED

The inverse Integrate both sides of the equation and isolate In |y|. Use an inverse trigono-
tangent formula metric integration formila and variable substitution to antidifferentiate the right
iI Au side of the equation.
pa
u+am

Pave lta
d' x

|
Pe arctan
W —+C
aA 1 e
In|y| = eee 5 iG

a= 5.

472 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Exponentiate both sides of the equation to solve for y.

abt =e (1 /V5)arctan(e* /V5)+C

ly|= o{t/6)arctan(e* /5) F ef

y = Colt/5)arctan(e" /Nb)

Rationalize the exponent: y = Cet Sasson e828)

25.11 Identify f(x), given f"(x) = 2x-cos x, f'(7) =0, and f(0)= ;

Integrate f"(x) with respect to x to get f’(x).

f' (x)= Jf(2x -cosx)dx =x* —sinx+C

Substitute x = into f'(x) and recall that f'(7) = 0 to determine the value of C.
Any
f' (a) =" -sina+C
coustant
0=7°-0+C
has an integral
—m* =C of bx. Because
Therefore, f'(x) = x°-sin x—2°. Integrate f'(x) tofind f(x). —o’ is a constant,
3
de = + cose ax +C its integral is
f(x) =f(x? -sinx—2
—49'x.
Recall that f (0) = s
£(0)= 2 +cos0-2" (0)
+C

7 =1+C
2
eC
2
3

Therefore, f(x) = a +cosx—m°x+ >—1.

The vavwi-
ables ave ¥ ana
+ (according to
the Aevivative
Exponential Growth and Decay Ay/At), even though
when a population's change is proportional to its size there's no t in the
equation. keep k
on the ¢ side of
dy d the equation, be-
25.12 Assume y is proportional to its rate of change adi
2, D =f. y (where k is a nonzero
cause you'll eventu-
real number). Find the general solution of the differential equation. ally solve foy yana
woulda have to move
Divide both sides of the equation by y and multiply both sides by dt to separate the it anyway,
variables.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 473

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

oe
y
foqanfa
y
In|y|
=ke+C
Exponentiate both sides of the equation.

ela = Fane

Apply an exponential property, as explained by Problem 25.9: e*°= &eé&.

el — eltef

y= Ce

Note: Problems 25.13—25.15 refer to a scientific experiment, at the start of which a scientist
observes 125 bacterial colonies growing in the agar of a Petri dish. tele six hoursee es
number of colonies hasgrown to 190.

25.13 Construct a mathematical model that describes the number of bacterial colonies
present ¢ hours after the start of the experiment, assuming exponential growth.
Exponential
growth means
the bigger the A population y experiences exponential growth if and only if y is proportional to
population, the a According to Problem 25.12, populations experiencing exponential growth are
faster it grows.
Exponential Aecay is modeled by the equation y = Ce, where Cis the original population, tis elapsed
the other side of the time, and yis the population after time ¢ has elapsed. Determine the value of k
Coin—sometimes the
based upon the given information.
bigger something
s, the faster it The original bacterial population is C= 125; and after t= 6 hours, the population
Aecays. has grown to y= 190. Substitute these values into the exponential growth
equation.

y= Ce”
190 =125e*

Isolate e“ on one side of the equation.

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation and solve for k.

38
In5s a ine™

ooeee
95
In(38 /25)
=k
6

SSS ee
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
474
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
$A SS

It is often useful to express k as a decimal: k ~ 0.06978505581. Therefore, t hours

after the experiment begins, there are approximately y =125¢%°”°""! bacterial
lf youve
colonies in the Petri dish.
going to write
k as a Aecimal,
Note: Problems 25.13—25.15 refer to a scientific experiment, at the start of which a scientist DON’T ROUND
observes 125 bacterial colonies growing in the agar of a Petri dish. Exactly six hours later, the IT—use as many
number of colonies has grown to 190. Aecimals as your
calculator can give
25.14 Approximately how many bacterial colonies will be present exactly one day after you. Otherwise,
the experiment begins? Round the answer to the nearest integer. youv answers
might be
Maccuvate,
According to Problem, 25.13, there are approximately y= 125 e%06278505581) Colonies
t hours after the experiment begins. Substitute ¢= 24 into the equation to
determine how many colonies are present after 24 hours (i.e., one day).
y ae 195g OSD) re [ipa etna ~ 667.244

There are approximately 667 bacterial colonies exactly 24 hours after the
experiment begins.

Note: Problems 25.13-25.15 refer to a scientific experiment, at the start of which a scientist This
observes 125 bacterial colonies growing in the agar of a Petri dish. Exactly six hours later, the is an iw-
number of colonies has grown to 190. plicit assump-
tion in all ex-
25.15 Assuming that resources are not a limiting issue to growth, how many hours will ponential growth
it take the total bacteria population to reach 20,000? Round the answer to the problems. If the
nearest integer. pactevia eventually
vun out of Pood ana
space (because the
Apply the exponential growth model from Problem 25.13. Set y = 20,000 and
population is too big
isolate the natural exponential expression.
Pov the Petvi Aish),
90,000 = 125¢%:26278505581() the exponential
20,000 = ¢0-06978505581(+)
growth model
125 iswt accu-
160 = -06978505581(t) vate.

Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation and solve for t.
iy Leb In 9: 06978505581(1)

In 160 = 0.06978505581(t)
In160
0.06978505581 _
72.726 =t
/
The number of bacteria colonies will reach 20,000 approximately 73 hours after
the experiment begins.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 475

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Note: Problems 25. 16-25.18 referto the radioactive isotope Carbon-14, whichhasah
3,730 years.

25.16 Given an initial mass M of Carbon-l4, construct a function at ee the

remaining mass of the isotope after tyears have elapsed.

If an isotope has a half-life of h years, then every h years its mass is halved as
You can its isotopes gradually decay into stable “daughter” material. In this example,
always assume
the initial mass M of C-14 will decay to a mass of > after 5,730 years. Apply the
that half-life
problems involve exponential decay formula and determine the value of k.
exponential Aecay, so = cl
it’s safe to use the Dae
formula y = Ce" A = Met730
fvom Problem 2
Zone: Gras os(7)anacr
. M} 2 M
as= 9730
2
1
Exponential m3 eeu
growth and In(1/2)
Aecay both use the 5,730 =
same formula
y = Ce“), but k is Use a calculator to estimate k: k ~ —0.000120968094. Substitute this value and
positive in growth C= Minto the exponential decay formula.
problems and y=M ¢~0.000120968094 (1)
negative in Aecay
problems.
_Note: Problems 25.16-25.18 oe to the radioactive isotope Carbon-14, which has a haf
teof
5,730 years.

25.17 Given 300 grams aC-14, what is the remaining mass ofthe i‘sotepe after250° :
years have ee Report an answer accurate to three decimal foes

Substitute M = 300 and t= 250 into the function constructed in Problem 25.16 and
calculate y.
y = BOO e™ 0.000120968094(250)

y == 300 ie. 080242023685

y = 291.063 grams

ee e
pe
of Calculu s Problem s
476 The Humongous Book
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Note: Problems 25.16-25.18 refer to the radioactive isotope Carbon-14, which has a half-life of
5,730 years.

25.18 Given N grams of C-14, in approximately how many years will the mass decay to
one third its original measure? Round the answer to the nearest integer.

Apply the exponential decay model from Problem 25.16, such that M= Nand

y= > Solve for ¢.

N eeNe72.000120968094(+)
3
NM “ 7 0:000120968094 (t)
3
1
In5= —0.000120968094
(1) Sn
-—_na/3)_
—0.000120968094
pient envivon
went” is the Sar
vounding Tempera”
t = 9,081.835 = 9,028 years
tuve. For example, if
youre inside, the ra
25.19 According to Newton’s law of cooling, the rate at which an object cools is pient temperature IS
yoom temperature.
proportional to the difference between its temperature Tand the temperature
of the ambient environment 7,. Write a differential equation that expresses this
relationship.

ae . aT :
The rate of change of the object’s temperature is er and the difference
between its temperature and the ambient temperature is T- T,. Two values
are proportional if they are equal when one is multiplied by a constant of The object
proportionality k. has to cool Aown
for this formula to
aT MT T,) wovk (it is Newtow’s
dt Z law of COOLING,
after all) so T has

te be greater
25.20 Solve the differential equation in Problem 25.19 to generate a model for the than T,.
temperature of the object after time ¢ has elapsed. Let 7, be the temperature of
the object when ¢= 0.

The variables in this equation are Tand ¢; T, is constant. Separate them by

multiplying both sides of the equation by dt and dividing both sides by T— T,,.

dT
=kdt
LF. A

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

477
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Integrate both sides of the equation and solve for T°

As wy note on eo
rapa
Problem 25.19 exe
plains, TAT. Since
T- nt, is Alina posi-
In|T —T,|=kt+C
In|T-T, hi
| — pte
one
Fe, you Aon't neea
absolute value TH Type he!
Signs heve,
T =T, +Ce"
Recall that T= T, when t= 0. Substitute these values into the equation and solve
for C.

Ty =T,
+ Ce
T, =T, +Ce°
in = 1, #61
io. 1, =6

Substitute Cinto the solution of the differential equation to generate the formula
for Newton’s law of cooling: T= T, +(T,—T, )e.

2: 2 An uninsulated cupoofcoffee cools from 185°F to 150°F exactly four minutes

after it is served. Assuming the coffee shop maintains a constant room
temperature of 75°F, how much additional time will it take for the coffee to cool
to 95°F? Report an answer accurate to three decimal places.

Apply Newton’s law of cooling, substituting 7, = 185, T,= 75, t= 4, and T= 150 into
the formula from Problem 25.20. Solve for k.

T =T, +(T, —T, )e*

150 = 75+(185 —75)e"
150 —75 =(110)e*

In(15/22) _
4
—0.095748063064 ~ k
Substitute k, T,, and T, into the formula for Newton’s law of cooling to complete
the model desenbing the temperature T of the coffee t minutes after it is served.

T=75+ (185 aa 75 ye ee tecenedts)

T= 75 +] 10 e7%095748063064(«)

Pee
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
478
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Substitute T= 95 into the model and solve for ¢ to determine when the coffee’s
temperature will cool to 95°. the
95 i 75 oT 107 0:095748068064(¢) question ts
kind of tricky.
20 = 77 9.095748063064(1)
It asks how
110
c much ADDITIONAL
Ins = —0.095748063064 (t) time (AFTER the
fouv-minute cool
=_ 2A) Aown from |8S°F
—0.095748063064 to |SO°F) it takes
t= 17.805 the coffee to
cool Aown to
Approximately 17.805 minutes after the coffee is served, its temperature is 95°F, so
IqS°°F.
the solution is 17.805 — 4 = 13.805 minutes.

25.22 The housekeeping staff in a hotel discovers a corpse, the apparent victim of a
fatal overnight heart attack, and alerts the police. Investigators arrive at 11 a.m.
and note that the body’s temperature is 81°F; by 12:30 p.m., the temperature
has dropped to 77°F. Noting that the thermostat in the room is set to maintain
a constant temperature of 67°F, and assuming that the victim’s temperature was
98.6°F when he died, at what time (to the nearest minute) did the fatal heart at-
tack occur?

Apply Newton’s law of cooling, such that T, = 81, T, = 67, T= 77, and t= 1.5 hours.

TT, +(T— 7; )e*

77 =67+(81-67)e
10 =14¢
5
In—=1.5k
a
In(6/7)_,
eS
—0.224314824414 =k

Substitute k into the original formula to construct a function that models the
temperature T of the corpse exactly ¢ hours after 11 a.m.
T=67+ (81fet Beene

= 67 + 1407 0224314824414(0

To determine the time of death, substitute T= 98.6 into the mathematical model The person
and solve for t. aieA befove
98.6= 67 a 14,070224314824414() ll am, which
31 6 = 14,670-224514824414(¢)
explains the negar
tive answer for t.
pat a 0224814824414 (1)
Instead of counting
14 hours AFTER || am,
n= = —0,224314824414(t) count backwawas
Lyow || am.
_ In(31.6/14)
~ —0.224314824414
t ~ —3.62927324622

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 479

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Therefore, the time of death was approximately 3.62927324622 hours before 11

a.m. Multiply the decimal portion of the number by 60 to convert to minutes.
60 (0.62927324622) = 37.756 minutes
The victim died roughly 3 hours and 38 minutes before investigators arrived, at
approximately 7:22 a.m.

Linear Approximations
A gvaph and its tangent line look alike near the tangent point

25.23 Explain what is meant by “local linearity.”

Heve, “similay”
means “almost A curve and its tangent line have very similar values near the point of tangency.
equal.” Don't get In fact, if a small enough x-interval is chosen around a point of tangency, f(x)
resembles a straight line over that interval, as illustrated in Figure 25-2. The
confused with
practical application of local linearity is the approximation of function values
the geometric
near a point of tangency using the equation of the tangent line rather than the
intevpvetation of function itself.
“similaw,” which means
two shapes ave the
W

Same but oneis just f(x)

a bigger version of
the other.”
ae =
=-
= = =
See =
i =

ae
=_-- =-_-
=_-=- =
-_

Figure 25-2 In the region immediately surrounding a point of tangency on

I(x) (indicated by the magnifying glass in the illustration), the
tangent line and the graph off(x) look remarkably similar. The
higher you increase the magnification (and thus the smaller
the interval around the point of tangency), the more closely f(x)
will resemble the tangent line.

480 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
ea eeeerecta lie tices aha

25.24 Estimate V16.Jusing a linear approximation.

According to Problem 25.23, the graph of f(x) = Vx and its tangent line have very
similar values near a point of tangency. Therefore, f(x) and the tangent line to f(x)
at x =16 will have similar values at x = 16.1. Because f'(x) = au te aee the
1 2 Vx’
slope of the tangent line to f(x) at x= 16 is oVI6 => The point of tangency is (x,
f(x)) = (16,V16) = (16,4). Plug those values into point-slope form to generate the

equation of the tangent line.

]
y—4=— (x-16)

Substitute x= 16.1 into the equation of the tangent line to estimate ¥16.1.
1
y—4=(16.1-16)
1
y =e at(0 )
Ae = 1/1
) (5)
Sages1
) 80
_ 321
180
Therefore, /16.1 = = = 4.0125. Note that the actual value of J16.1 is
4.01248053..., so the approximation is quite accurate.

25.25 Estimate In 1.05 using a linear approximation.

Use the equation of the tangent line to f(x) =1In x at x= 1 to approximate In 1.05.
Note that f'(x) = e so the slope of the tangent line is 1; the point of tangency is
x
(1, In 1) = (1,0). Apply the point-slope formula.
The actual
y-0=1(x-1)
value of In |.0S is
y=x-1 0.048790|C42....

Substitute x = 1.05 into the equation of the tangent line to approximate In 1.05.

y=1.05-1=0.05
Therefore, In 1.05 = 0.05.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

481
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

25.26 Estimate arctan 0.85 using a linear approximation.

Because differentiable functions exhibit local linearity near a point of tangency,

j(x) = arctan x and the tangent line to f(x) at x= 1 should have similar values.
Differentiate f(x) and evaluate f’(1).
‘ 1
J (x) ie
1) oe 1eee
LOS ae 2
This ugly
fraction equals The point of tangency is (1, arctan 1) = (12) and the slope of the tangent line is
0.710398... anda the
f'() = ms Apply the point-slope formula to write the equation of the tangent line.
actual value of
ota a
avcton 0.85 is 0.704494. 7 —_- — =
oe
— —]
)
Not a bad estimate,
even though it’s not Substitute x = 0.85 into the equation to approximate arctan 0.85.
pretty.
IT ol
~==-(0.85-1
ar a )
via
==
bay 4-(-0.15
a )
a ( |
o>4 tela
2\ 100
_ 50m —15
7900

Slope Fields
They look like wind patterns on a weather map

25.27 Explain how to create a slope field.

Make it
big enough
Select a coordinate (a,b) on the coordinate plane. Substitute x= aand y= binto
to see but small
enough so that it the differential equation to find the slope of the tangent line to the solution curve
Acesu't intersect that passes through (a,b) and draw asmall line segment centered at (a,b) with
any of the other that slope. Continue this process at other points on the coordinate plane until you
Segments in the can visualize the family of solution curves to the differential equation.
Slope fielA,

ee UU
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
482
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
Oe ee

Note: Problems 25.28-25.29 refer to the differential equation dy

coo

25.28 Draw aslope field at the coordinates indicated in Figure 25-3.

Figure 25-3
es constructing the slope field for
= 2x, include segments passing through
x
each of these points.

that’s
exactly what
the Aaiffevential
All points on the y-axis will have horizontal segments associated with them—if
equation is saying:
d “Ay/Ax” (the slope of
x= 0, then - = 2(0) =0, regardless of the y-value at each coordinate. In fact, the tangent line) =
every segment in this slope field has a slope equal to twice the x-value of the (is) “2x” (wo times
the x-value).
coordinate at which it is centered.

d
Figure 25-4 The slope field for the differential equation s = 2x.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

483
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
EE eee

Note: Problems 25.28-25.29 refer tothedifferential equation 2 = 2x.

25.29 Determine the specific solution of the differential equation that passes thiou: ho
(1,1) and graph it on the same coordinate axes asthe slope field.

Separate the variables and integrate both sides of the equation.

(=)d& = (2x) dx
dy = 2x dx
JSdy=2f xdx
x2
=2-—+C
“ans
y=x+C

Solve for Cwhen x= 1 and y= 1.

1=1?+C ;
c=0

The specific solution is y = x’, illustrated in Figure 25-5.

This is the Same

Aiffevential equation
Prom Problems 25.7 ana
25.8.
Figure 25-5 The graph ofy = x is the specific solution of the differential
equatio ~ = 2x that passes through the point (-1,1).
x

Note: Problems 25.30-25.31 refer to the differential equation = -

25.30 Draw the slope field for the differential equation. —

The solution in Figure 25-6 is generated by a computer; hand-drawn slope fields

typically contain fewer segments at more predictable coordinates. While your
slope field need not mirror the number of segments in Figure 25-6 or their

484 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
ee eee

exact locations, it should contain a sufficient number of segments to accurately

visualize the solution.

SENe NON SGN

Se nein Af 7 Keep Avawing
ORNS) PNG SN SSG Ss Se Sat RF fy in all
NEN ESO SS OS ee are eee re wt PD segments (i
CNAas comin
aot > OF Pour quadrants)
Wn
y NENRENROAS
S oA
anLy aea . veaict
SNA
Ne NG NS beers,
ny ef sf Hi you Gant a
UA
ATE QS setR ee See TP
tL 4 what
the next seg
Aste NN Tht ment will be without
(Wl ee ea Hal al) alent
actually plugging
| the numbers. Once
|
/
/ you get that “Peel”
me Pov the graph, youve
ee probably Avawn
A
x
enough
ee segments.
NOE
to
Sa
ee,
Se
Aa ie
i
a

d
Figure 25-6 The slope field for the differential equation a ==
“Pw

Note: Problems 25.30-25.31 refer to the differential equation o = :

y aos of the differential equation i = ;on the
25.31 Graph the specific solution —-——=1
Ris
same coordinate plane as the slope field generated by Problem 25.30.

2 iz If you AiA
The graph of = = a = 1, illustrated in Figure 25-7, is a hyperbola with transverse Problem 25.7,
you alveady
and conjugate axes that are the same length: 2/3.
graphed this
hyperbola, but it’s
By OS
KS

Sy eee
Sy eS

retreat
eh asa

ee
worth graphing again
to see how it’s shapea
by the slope fiela of
ihe ts
me

ax y

Lf
SF
SO SO
Sas
RS
= ee
I ov
—
oa
—

sees
Ss
SE
Sc
a eo
a
LDF
PEE
eS
SUSAN
hte
se
See
et
i
SeLOLOL
ee LEE ek a Ses ANS
BAtlas) eS,
/

d
The slope field for the differential equation hacia ;and
Figure 25-7 dx
the specific solution that passes through the point (—1,2):
eae
Bee

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

485
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

25.32 Draw the slope field for the differential equation: = ee

You caw’
Find the solution
of this Aifleven Notice that 2 = 0 for all points on the line y= x; the slope field is illustrated in
tial x
equation easily, Figure 25-8.
because you ca
nt
S€pavate the Va
viables, Dp

At least the slope Bela CE 1S OS PE PN IRTaace

[RE TSS” OR rd Sa ae See Pe) coi Ml le

can give you s CE NOR Pet RAE foia estes

< een OE A PP PT i ieee
useof what the eg STE A Le eee ee
Familyofsolutions Lf RO ed olBaca eee eae
looks like. PL LAT DE PA SIRS pp OSee
PEER EL ADL ECA Rea
CE EMOTE F Pp Pere ee
Wiis eeee ee ee
61k flitt Todi a ea ee
POL ff fag Pots heeee
1 PUP Iehie oti aks ely al me eee
PPE Pe ao We lee aie te
hit) goAbe ok 1STR
DPR po tre NNER ale te alin) iegaae
LifSf SN NON a es an
Ve ee ARS ee ak
7 SSN Ne okt abesie 1 Vad Rapadeat
PS TC CN otal er a
PENS NN SN ih Pa Rese malt DER ihe iret 1 canVat ee Wena

Figure 25-8 The segments in the slope field for the differential equation
5)
tree get steeper as the distance away from the line y = x
gets larger.

25.33 Draw the slope field for the differential equation o ae. ;
The points on x
this line have Co-
ovAinates that look
The slope field is illustrated in Figure 25-9. Notice that ° is undefined along
like (number, d
x

OPPosite number), like the y-axis (because x= 0 for all such points) and - = 0 (resulting in horizontal
Cl I) ana (4-4), The
wUMevator of the slopes) for all points on the line y =—x.

differential equation
x+y adds these
Opposite numbers ty
get
0, ana av slope of 0

Means a hovizouta)
Segment on the
slope fiela,

486 ve Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

mgs
Pea
Seo
eat)ae
fea.aaa See
Se
eee. SS SS SN Le

ye
ee
ee
ssey
teers
| |
7 i NoNS
RR obevuves ee
1 Ma
Varies
NaNO. ape NE
ie

Seen eet Rep

ec
NN St
gee
NNSSKRONA
OA
NX ff — NC
SGN
SN
NERS, OX
NPIS NOoN NCIS
A

hy
So, SONSS \ Sra Noes
ON Si NEON
SB, | Ne)
Re
RS ee
ee ge eae ee gi Ree
Ea By,
ee Nearer
er he,
ae RS
rm er
eeee
ee
ead
oss ee SS taal”
eS
SSS ee ie lle
AC
ae
Se eS
ey A
eSa ee
ers pyii
OS
r
“ ®2
ay N ~ &
2. S3 S OS % «3 Ss5 Ss
a3
ll
ces +|
x

Nw pe!wT
a Bp femi 2
=
RS
cooe
ee
g
6 a Sa
& cae oO 2 5 * ~

2ie3
;

Hb 28osvseg
a S SeSe S cot SS ae
bp B a= a S 'S 8 oe) Ss 3 e, o q 2 S i S on ~ Sto
a
| Be
dear
oo f=
-—-+-+~
2 a =eSSSNe Seee
Sone -— —
a SSS = —---

a ee GASP —
Steg ee
a See
a ee Weel ee --

wo See
ire,
eS toe Ne =
eae Se
eye = oN,
Sa =I YONUEayra
S-—-~

es
Os sae
= neN, NG hun V =. SUN
a
\ \ GPR
yu
IM

ae) IPeIB, NSS \n~----

~~

\
ak
BNC ee -

-
Nek SS -

Se ee H-
=

ee =

=a
ee
SeS|
8
aGuy
ne
SE
fey
SS
ONY
oes,
So
=e
hal MN
rN
on
ate
ee
=5
\\n~~-s
SS
Sy
ge
AM
ee
i
a s
[In\
SEEN
Sl
ale
~N\
ae,
SS
SSS
Aeee
eae
i}
\~—~---—-—-
Se

d
Figure 25-10 The slope field for the differential equation = x%y7.
/

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

487
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Euler’s Method
Take baby steps to find the Aiffervential equation’s solution

25.35 Given a line with slope 7 that contains points (-1,3) and (-5.<},find d.

The symbol
“A” is callea The slope ofa line is defined as the quotient of its vertical and horizontal change:
‘Aelta’ and means
m= By = Jy Calculate Ax.
“chavge in.” This is a Ax x =,
formula from way back Ax = %, — % OA
1
ale
1
re
in beginning algebra:
the slope of a line 1 ; :
Substitute Ax = — and m= :(the slope of the line containing the points) into the
is AetinedA as the
change in y Aividea slope formula. Ay
by the change woe,
\m x 3 Ay

1
Ne ,
Multiply both sides by 9 to solve for Ay.

Heve’s
what all
Note that Ay = y, — y,; substitute Ay = 3. y, = 3, and y, = dinto the equation and
this means, +, solve for d. 8
aavel Prom the Ay = 9, — 9,
Pont (-1'3) to the om
Point ot ae 5 Toke
>:4 7 YOu ys=

have to go Ax = al 8
2
of A Unit vight anda

Ay = a Units up, 25.36 Given a line with slope | that contains es (2,-9) and (Lp),findpe 2 7

Note that Ax = x, — x, = 1-2 =-1. Use that value and the slope m = zt to
determine Ay. 5

—A Ax
_1_Ay
5 -1
1
-—=A
5 y

Ja
TF"
48g The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations
eee eee eee

Calculate p.
Ay = Ye — dr
1
a wol(—9

1
—-~9=
5 p
“Euler”
vhymes with
“poiley,” not
“Puel-ev.”
25.37 Describe the role of Euler’s method in the investigation of elementary
differential equations.

Euler’s method is used to‘approximate y-values on the graphs of specific solutions

of differential equations, particularly when those specific solutions cannot be
determined easily. The technique is based upon the principle of local linearity,
IF you cant
and uses the equations of tangent lines near points of tangency (calculated at
fixed values of Ax) to approximate the values of the function to which the lines
actually sepa-
are tangent. vate vaviables to
solve a Aiffevential
equation but know
that the solution
25.38 Use Euler’s method with two steps of width Ax = 1 t0 approximate y(4) if
dy _xty 2 contains, let’s say,
and the point (3,0) belongs to the graph of the specific solution of the the point (3,4), then
dx x
differential equation. you can take a fixea
number of “palby
Apply Euler’s method twice because the problem calls for two steps of width steps” using Ay/Ax to
1 guess what other
Ax = 3" In order to reach x= 4 from x= 3 (the x-value of the known point on the nearby points
4-3 1 on the solution
solution graph) in two steps, those steps must have width Ax = —— = -.
2 2 graph ave.
Step one: From point (3,0) to point (3 + Ax, 0 + Ay).
d
Calculate = at the point (3,0) by substituting x = 3 and y= 0 into the differential
equation.
dy x+y
mori
—_-—=
We yalude
oe
ep the pont On
dy 3+0 ° A when
—_—= solution Ovar
dx 3 ‘
d K - °

Sy
dx

Therefore, the slope m of the tangent line to the solution graph is 1 when x= 3,
Use the method described in Problem 25.35 to determine Ay.

oo
~ Ax
A
1=—
Lire
ae
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
489
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Substitute Ax = Ay = — into the destination point (3 + Ax, 0 + Ay).

The whele
point of step ; \
one is to figure Begin at this point instead of (3,0) for the second and final step of width Ax = 9°
out wheve youll i 7 1
end up if you go Ax Step two: From point (Z| to (Z+ Ax, Be as}
units vight and Ay
units Up ov Aown from dy xty 7 1
Evaluate —— = —— when x = 9 and y= Py
the point (3,0) that
you weve given. Turns
out youll end
Za)
ae 7/9
ae d 8/2
pati |. sadh Saiat
- es | Te
eee
One

Calculate the corresponding value of Ay.

7 1
Substitute Ax and Ay into the coordinate (Z AX: 9 + As)to determine y(4).
Stovt ar
(0,-2), AnA take
three steps to the (4,y(4)) R (Z+ Ax, 5+ As)
9 ht (each one
Ax= |73 units long)
to
reach Some point (|, 7), See)
Duving each step, plug nay
+ € Cuvvent po i 414
A
int
Into Ay/Ax, use (xy)
that 15
value for ™, AN Therefore, y(4) = —.
erefore, (4) 4
A solve
ny
“= ae
ey
Pov Ay.
s

25.39 Use Euler’s method with three steps of width Ax = 3 to approximate y(1) if
d:
a = xyand the y-intercept of the solution of the differential equation is (0,-2).

1
Step one: From point (0,—2) to (J= 2+ ay}

490 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

d
Calculate = when x= 0 and y=-2.

D= xy=(0)(-2)=0
1
Determine the value of Ay when Ax = 3 and m= 0.

_ Ay
~ Ax
_ Ay
Cnr
0 = Ay
; Plug Ay = O into the
Therefore, step one ends at the point 5-2} point (4
ute PS 7
ate ay]
3
Step two: From point (Z.-2)to (2.-2+ as} from the beginning
of step one,
dy 1
Calculate — when x=~= and y=-2.
dx 3

Determine the value of Ay when Ax = ;and m= ae

AwA Ax

_2_ Ay
$ 173
9
—-—=A
es
2 at 20
Therefore, step two ends at the point(?.-2 = ;)=(2 ->)
Ro)
Dome) 20
Stepep three:three: FFrom ponint |—,.—-—|> tof
(2 1-29 say}
y

Calcul =| when
alculate — h f=3 an d y oar)
9"

gd _ -(2(-2)--3
ie ea 27
1 40
Determine the value of Ay when Ax== andm= on"

Ay
OR ie
_40_ Ay
Siew isos

eek
Te
: 20) 40 220
Therefore, step three ends at the point | 1,—-— — *)= (.-22 and
9. «631 81
y(
1) = 220
m 81 3

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

49|
 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

25.40 Use aoe s methodwith three steps of width Ax= -;to approxima c y(-2)
Ces y and the point (—1,4) belongs to the ae of the solution ofthe
dx
differential equation.

4
Step one: From point (—1,4) to (-4,4+ ay}

2 Plug XK and y
nto the Aiffevential When x=-1 and y= 4, i = -—5, so Ay = -5(Ax) =-5(-5] = > Therefore, step one
xX
equation: Ay/Ax=
A 4
—oa
5 Ars
d- )--4= -S. ends at the point| 3” 4+—-—4=}|——,— |.
( 3” =|

This is the
equation w= ~
4 17 dy 77 es ) 77
Wh i — =—,— =-_, = ——|-—|=—. Theref tep t
Ay. SDN BOS Ug ag epee) gn19\ 75-5 apt ae
foecey
you multiply bothfor
solved
Sides BelieeTs 5 ae281ss
of the equation by Ax. a ee point(333 5) (-3” 36 }
you get Ay = w(Ax),
a 281 281
Step three: From point{-73ayeo(-
2,27 + Ay}

5 281 dy 1,513 “| | 1,513

When x 3 and y
=_—— =e
BG OO
Me 180 , so A
Ay =— 180 |a 3 540 . Therefore,

1,43
step three ends at the point (-2,25+27?) -(-a | and y(-2)
= =

} 25.41 Use Euler’s method with three steps of width Ax = .to approximate ii.if
ON d
a3= x’ and the point (1,,0) belongs to the graph of the solution of hy oe
a differential equation. oS

i Step one: From point (1,0) of

to + ay}

dy dy Lise
Wh en x = land
and y y=0,
— =1°
a T =1, so Ay=—(Ax)
=1,s0 Ay oa = (z)=+:
x)=1 rile Therefore, step

one ends at the point(2, 0+7}= (3.

7}
4 4 4

492 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Five — Differential Equations

Did a
Stepep two:two: Fivom poin t & “): oy A »}
(3.4
This ugly
Fraction equals
5 ver 4 0.5143429 Leta
When x= re and y= 2 2 = (=) = 45/4, so Ay= 174(3)= a

Therefore, step two ends at the point é.it \ a = >I+ os |

3 i £ df
Step three: From point
(2,
120A)
oe o (2,272 + ay}

3 1 4/ (1+4/574)/4 (1+4574)/4 (1+4574)/4

When anaes
roo and a> gd -(3] , SOay=(5) (;)- R=
Ae oe heels 4 4

and (2) #4874

erEee etveratsa
4 4 (1+45/4)/4 Approximately
nersaees
4

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

493
 a ya ee
Ma 1B Pes

F. aleae
en PP Pd. HA! «
1

4 te ye re
re 7 é
 Chapter 26
BASIC SEQUENCES AND SERIES

y.
What's uglier than one fraction? Infinitely man
Two-semester calculus courses typically conclude with the investigation of
infinite series, with a specific focus on series that approximate nontrivial
function values. Since the advent of powerful, portable calculation technology,
the use of interpolation via printed tables of values has waned. However, the
technological tools are not merely storage vessels for said tables. Rather, they
implement infinite series approximation techniques similar to those described
in Chapter 28. However, before you can understand how such series are applied,
you must first understand the basic concepts surrounding infinite series.

A “sequence” is a list of y umbe :

Peer aL Ce vs (usually based on some Aetining vule), while
or nUMbevS AAAeA together. You'll spend some time with
pee heroes mnente sevies, but halfwa
y Hough this chaptey, you'll alveady
Focusing primavily on infinite series. Yow
’
: I] fina yourself
;elt AnSWevingi 3 one Question
.
ANA over AJA:. “Does the in uty oe
over
tinite sevies converge?” In othe
words, if you weve
£0 AAA up all of oe numbers in the sevi
es (you have to speak hypothetically—
vemember, theve’s an infinite number
of thew, so you wowt actually be abl
count them e to
alll by hand) woula you get a veal num
ber? It’s weiva to think that
YOu ee
can AAA aw infinite list of ny mbes together and get a total sum of 2, but
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

Sequences and Convergence

Do lists of numbers know where they've going?

26.1 List the first five terms of the sequence {n? + 1}.

Substitute n= 1 into the expression to generate the first term of the sequence,
n= 2 to generate the second term, and so forth, up to n= 5 to generate the fifth
term.

n> +1
Fiat
The first five terms of the sequence are: 2, 5, 10, 17, and 26.

Z : n=l
26.2 List the first six terms of the sequence { i }

Substitute the integers between (and including) n= 1 and n= 6into the

expression to generate the first six terms of the sequence.

The excla-
mation point in
here is actually a
factorial sign. The
factorial of ay in-
1 iL il st
The first six terms of the sequence are: 9° ah Sy Se
teger is the number 4’6’
Sy ite!) SS
8°10 2
times one less thay
the number times
one less than that
all the way downy 4 26.3 Identify a,, the fourth term of the sequence {a,} = {or
to |. For example:
4 = (4)(3)(2)(1) = 24. Note that a, is the fourth term in the sequence; generate it by substituting n= 4
into the expression.

3(4)]! 12!
Ignove a= | (4))
4 ae 64 rear Ane
the negative
signs for a second.
Each tevw is one less 26.4 Determine the general term of the sequence:
0, -1, -2, —3, wee.
thaw its w-value: a, =
0,a,= |,a,=2, etc.
Basically, a, =“- |. Each term in the sequence is the opposite of exactly one less than its correspond-
Then multiply each ing n value: a, =—(n— 1). Therefore, the general term of the sequence is {1 — 7}.
term by -|, be-
cause they've
all negative.

A496 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

26.5 Determine the general term of the sequence: {a,}= {h5,07 |}

4’ 16’ 16’ 64
Some denominators in the sequence are explicit powers of 2: 2? = 4, 2‘ = 16, and
2° = 64. In fact, all of the denominators are powers of 2; this is disguised by the
fact that the terms a,, a,, and a, have been reduced to lowest terms. Reinstate
the original, unsimplified denominator of a, by multiplying its numerator and
‘ a\ "2
denominator by 2: a, = i(5)= x Similarly, reinstate the original denominators of
z 3

a, and a, so that each denominator is a consecutive power of 2: a4, = 1} —> |= <= and
GZ = — |S,
7 2) 14 oa
16\27 *$2

{a,}={5 58 14 ae}
. 9° 4° 8°16’
32” 64°
In other
The numerator of the nth term is exactly one less than three times n: 3(1) — 1 =
wovds, take the
2, 3(2) -1=5, 3(3) — 1 =8, etc. Therefore, the general term of the sequence is limit, ASN approaches
= - *} infinity, of the se-
eres fe Bwuence expression,
IE & limit exists, the
Sequence converges
n2 to that limit.
26.6 Does the sequence {=| converge?
en

A sequence {a,} converges to the real number L if and only if lim a, = L. Apply
When a
L’Hopital’s rule to evaluate the limit.
2
limit is
een an Mdeterminate (in
this case oe/oo),
n>2o @ n>o e” n>o @

According to Problem 10.28, the limit at infinity of a constant divided by an

take the Aevivative
of the top and bottom
infinitely large value (¢' increases without bound as n approaches infinity) is 0:
9 a
of the fraction to get
lim— = 0. Therefore, the sequence {=|converges to 0. a simpler fraction
n>o @
en with an equal limit
value.

26.7 Does the sequence {= converge?

{Inn

The sequence ase converges if and only if im” exists. Apply L Hopital’s rule
nn n>o
n
to evaluate the indeterminate limit.
1
: 1/2 ; ae
9n)/?
lim = lim

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

497
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

Multiply the numerator and denominator by 7 to eliminate the complex fraction.

1_(n
taps) ye
er cite)
ee 1 pea EE aye
a
TONAL
Divergent =
Aoes not converge 1
As n approaches infinity, Vn increases without bound: =limVn = oo. Therefore, the
9 noo

n
sequence j—— + is divergent.
q Inn 8

26.8 Det eth Fth 4n? =3n+7

: etermine the convergence of the sequence: 4 r.
8 4 —2+n—5n?

The sequence converges if and only if a limit exists as n approaches infinity. Com-
pare the degrees of the numerator and denominator to evaluate the limit, as ex-
plained in Problem 9.25.
_ 4n?-3n+7 4
in =
nro —I2+n—5n 5
4
The sequence converges to oe

Series and Basic Convergence Tests

Sigua notation and the uth term Aivergence test

14

269 "valuate ihe Anite series: S-.

n=]

4
1
The series Die is the sum of the first four terms of the sequence {>t
n=1 n
Soe er ad
Sa sta t+st+-
n= fg A228. oA
12°76)
=—4+—4+—4—
12 ee Deo Oo
2
12

PE PELE ERETUrT rears

49g The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series
ee ee

iv

26.10 Evaluate the finite series: S.cos = The lowev

n=0
boundary is 0,
SO even though the
: be, Uppe
The series 5)cos— is the sum of the first eight terms of the sequence {cos} He i boundary j's_7,
oe 2 9 eve ave ¥ terms jin
9 the Sevies:
la 27 370 4 5
6085 = cos +cos + cos = COS =" aoe Cos ree a. At a, + Ayete
ze 2 2 2 2 2 & 2 At+atart a,
=1+0+(-1)+0+14+0+(-1)+0
=0

; 4
1
26.11 Evaluate the finite series:
vo Set
La on

4
w= 1)! =1)!
The series Ss( : is the sum of the first four terms of the sequence {2 2)
n=1 n n
“(n—-1)!
eee (1-1)! (2-1)!
eds (38-1)! (4-0!
ae

In an
arithmetic
Note: Problems 26.12-26.14 refer to the arithmetic series 3+ 6+9+ 12+ 15+... + 267+ 270.
Sevies, each term
26.12 Express the series in sigma notation. is a fixea amount A
(callea the “common
aifference”) lavger
Factor the common difference out of each term. than the previous
3(1+2+3+4+5+... + 89
+ 90) term. In this sevies
each term is3 move
The first term of the series is 3(1), the second term is 3(2), etc.; therefore, the nth
than the term
term is 3n. There are 90 terms, so that is the upper bound for the summation:
befove it So
90

»,
3n. A=%,
n=1

Note: Problems 26.12-26.14 refer to the arithmetic series 3 + 6+ 9+ 12+ 15+... + 267+ 270.

26.13 Calculate the sum of the series.

The sum of an arithmetic series consisting of n terms is equal/to 5(4 a. i,where

a, is the first term of the series and aq, is the last term. In this series of n = 90 terms,
=3 and a= a,,= 270.

5(4+a,)= (8+270)=45(273) =12,285

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

499
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

0) iy Note: Problems 26.12-26.14 refer to the arithmetic series 3+ 6+ 9+ 12+ 15+ we + 67. 270.

<a 26.14 Justify the sum formula 9(% +a, ) from Problem 26.13, using the arithmetic
// YZ —
series S3n as an example.
n=)

The sum of the first and last terms of the series is 273: 3 + 270 = 273. Similarly,
the sum of the second and second-to-last terms is 273 (6 + 267 = 273) and the
sum of the third and third-to-last terms is 273 (9 + 266 = 273). In fact, the series
consists of 45 pairs of numbers whose sum is 273. Therefore, the sum of the series
is (45) (273), which is equivalent to the arithmetic series sum formula for this

series: = +270).

26.15 Calculate the sum of the series: 2+'7+12+17+... + 87 + 92.

The common difference of this arithmetic series is d= 5. To determine the

number of terms in the series, apply the formula = a +1, where a, is the last
term of the series and aq, is the first.
= 92 — 90
The se- n= oO 4 = =41=241=18+1=19
Wence of partial
SUMS is made up of Now apply the arithmetic series sum formula with n= 19, a, = 2, and a, = 92.
the first number in he
Sevies, the sum of the 5(4+4,)= (2+92)= 893
Fivsttwo numbers in the
Sevies, the sum of the
26.16 Identify the first five terms of the sequence of partial sums for the infinite series
Fivst three numbey ¥ eo

the sum of the en Sin(n-2).

Ou MumMbers and n=l

SO on,
The partial sum S, is the sum of the first n terms of the series. A sequence of
partial sums, {S,}, is the sequence_S,, S,, S,, S,, +++.

>
S,= ) n(n—-2)=10-2)=-1
n 1

So S, is equal te
S, plus the thiva term
S, = M»
) n(n—2)=1
+2(2—2)
(1—2
=-14+ 2(0)=-1
)
n Hl =

in the sevies, and Sais co

equal to S, plus the Given the infinite series Sa, , notice that S,= S,_, + a,.
fourth term in the n=1

Sevies,
S, =S, +3(3-2)=-143(1) =2
S, =S, +4(4—-2)=24+4(2)=10
S, =S,+5(5—2)=10+5(3) =25
The first five terms of the sequence of partial sums are: —1, -1, 2, 10, and 25.

|
500 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

26.17 Identify thefirst five terms of the sequence of partial sums for the infinite series

>(5):
n=0

Note that the first term in this series corresponds to n= 0, so the sequence of the

sa2(!)i azaes
first five partial sums is S,, S,, S,, S,, S,.

s=5+2(2) a2ea(2a!
505 +2(!) =82(2) =
sn5.te(!) = ra(!f
5.a5.+2(2)' = 4e{!)22
Problem
26.18 Describe the relationship between the sequence of partial sums and the 26.30 explains
what geometyic
convergence of an infinite series. _
Sevies ave and Prob-
lew 26.33 explains

An infinite series converges if and only if the sequence of its partial sums how to calculate
. : ; Natty their sums,
converges to a finite, real number. Consider the geometric series >-(;] from
=0

Problem 26.17, which has a sum of 3. Notice that S, = = = 2.987654, so the fifth

term of the sequence of partial sums already approximates the actual sum
relatively well. Each consecutive term of the sequence of partial sums (of which
there are infinitely many) will more and more closely approach 3. For example,
Si. = 2.99998306 and S,, ~ 2.999999930.
The uth
term convey-
26.19 Explain why the series >, sso diverges, according to the nth term divergence gence test can
_ test. n=l NEVER be usea to
Prove that a sevi es
According to the nth term divergence test, if lim a, #0, then the infinite series ConVevges, ANA in
Many cases, it w. owe
ya is divergent.
be able to help at

Apply LHopital’s rule to evaluate the limit as n approaches infinity. all, However, it is a
efficient and simple
3n 3
lim
nro y—
=lim —=3
n>o 1
test that picks out
obviously Aivey-
The terms of the series approach 3; essentially, this series adds the number 3 in- gent sevies.
finitely many times, resulting in an infinitely large sum. Unless the nth term ofa
series approaches 0, a series cannot converge, because only 0 has a finite sum when
added to itself infinitely many times.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

501
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

a(n $2)! : a
26.20 Why does the series » to diverge, according to the nth term divergence
n=)
test?
This is
like writing SI as
(5)(4)(3!), which still Rewrite the numerator of the expression and reduce the fraction.
equals |20,
(n+2)! ! = EDT TG ee +3n+2
n! wl

Because lim (n? + 3n+ 2) # 0, the series diverges according to the nth term
divergence test.

1. 10 ; ;
26.21 Why does the series 2+ - + = a tras = 3 - a +--+ diverge, according
to the nth term divergence test?

The nWMevator Identify the nth term of the series (as demonstrated in Problems 26.4 and 26.5):
Stays fixea and
Aenominatoy ge
the
ts »: ie 2 Apply the nth term divergence test and calculate the limit at infinity
infinitely lavge, n=l

| Aividea by a gi using L’Hopital’s rule.

gantic
number is basica _ vnt+3 . (1/2)(n+3)7 | 1
lly 9, hm ————
= iim = lin = 0
n—>0o n noo 1 eee W/n+3

The nth term divergence test can conclude only that the series {a,} diverges
if lim a, #0. However, that limit does equal 0 for this series, so the nth term
divergence test does not allow you to draw any conclusion whatsoever. In order
to determine the convergence of this series, you will have to apply one of the
convergence tests presented in Chapter 27.

Telescoping Series and p-Series

How to handle these easy-to-spot sevies

26.22 Describe the behavior of a telescoping series and explain how to calculate its
sum.

A telescoping series contains infinitely many pairs of opposite values, which have a
sum of 0. Although the series contains an infinite number of terms, all but a finite
number of those terms are eliminated by their corresponding opposites. The sum
of the series, therefore, is the sum of the remaining terms.

ee
Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
502 * he
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

26.23 Calculate the sum of the telescoping series: > = |

n=]
mon

S(2-E--telt
sla)
Expand the first five terms of the infinite series.

n=)

ee that the series contains pairs of opposite real numbers such as “9 and 9
1 1
1
——and =, etc. More specifically, every rational number in the series (except

ReRoa
Ee
for 1) has a corresponding opposite.

n=]

=1+0+0+0+04-"
“(1 1
Therefore, >)(*— n )e=i,
n=1
n on

o 1 1
26.24 Calculate : the sum
u coping series
of the telescopi ies: x ee +;|i:

Expand the first seven terms of the series. Note that = 3 represents the first term

H MGslt
Sa ctlebraGDSeb-a
in the series, not n= 1.

n= eo

tk 1
Except for —, —, and z all of the rational numbers in the series have a

corresponding opposite.

Saal artis} leds)

=i
n=3
t 1
eres

=
ea

tee ek
ele
oes

Ries) viaPurp
tas |
ere a7
ee Tan
8 8
Most
2280 of the cou-
+ ae vevgeuce tests in
Ie Chapters 26-29 ap-
ply only to positive
Sevies—sevies that
26.25 Define p-series and describe the conditions under which a p-series converges. Contain only posi-
tive terms,
1
Positiveinfinite series of the form > where p is a positive real number, are
n
called p-series; they converge when p> 1 but diverge when 0 ~ Posh:

rennet
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
503
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

oO:

26.26 Determine the convergence of the series: +=

n=l

oo 1 1 i

Because Poke has form ee it is a p-series with p= 2. According to Problem

=] oe
1
26.25, a p-series converges when p> 1, so ae is convergent.
n=1

x o oo
:

You can pull 26.27 Determine the convergence oftheseries: S37 zi

Constants out n=}
of
Summation ho
tation
Just like you can Rewrite the series, eliminating the negative exponent.
pull
thew out of
integvals—
every term tw
this Sevies
will be multipli n=l
er by 3. A
Constant atle
cts the
Note that
s ne 6 the seriesbi is convergent because 56 >1
675 18a p-series with p= 5
Sum of a Sevies n
, but n=1 a
Acesy'- at lect (as explained in Problem 26.25).
its
CONVEVIeUCe,

w3) eo
26.28 Determine the convergence of the series: » eee

Rewrite the series using rational exponents.

© 2/3 © © oo
Lye
5 a/4
_1Y e-0/9 1S ane 1 1
n ~ 5 n = 1/12
n=1 n n=1 n=1 n=] n

ipl s 1
Note that > “7g: 1S a p-series with p= 19° the series is divergent because
n=1 n

0< 3 <] (as explained in Problem 26.25).

26.29 For what valuesof a does the series » sang, CONVerge?

: Ce : n=l

nk
Because ia Is a p-series with p= 3a + 2, it converges when p> 1.
n=]

p>l
3a+2>1
3a>-1
1
2
3
wil 1
The series » years converges when a> ay:
n=]

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

504
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

Geometric Series
Do they converge, and if so, what's the sum?

26.30 Determine the common ratio of the geometric series: 3+ ;+ = + ate

+

A geometric series has the form >)ar", where aand rare real numbers; ris as the
A geometvic
ratio of the geometric series, and ais the scale factor of the series. The first term of
. . . n=0 . .

sevies stavts with

the geometric series Sar" isa X r°=aX 1=a,so in this series a = 3. Factor 3 a ana every term
n=0 is v Himes the term be-
out of each term.
Rove it. For exawmele, if
a=Soavav=2, the
s(l+t+ : +o]
4 16 64
geometric sevies > 2
n=0

Each term in the resulting series is (3), Le. the n= 1 term contains 2 the n=2 is 5+ 10+ 20440
2
: i
term contains (Z), etc. Therefore, the common ratio is r= rt

eee
26.3! Write the geometric series using summation notation:—
ae
9 5 7: 9 - o7 -8
so 2 4

1 1
o

The first term of the geometric series 2a" is a; therefore, a= 9° Factor 9 out of Factoving y
each term. eT out of a number

s(ig Sige | is Tike Aividing it by

Be 3 9 927 #2, which is the same
as multiplying it
. a
Notice that the nth term of the series within the parentheses is (2)SoT=.. by 2.

Substitute a and rinto the geometric series formula ye (3|;

to get Ds
n=0

4 n

Note: Problems 26.32-26.33 are based on the infinite geometric series S 63|.
n=0

26.32 Determine the convergence of the series.

Geometvic
Sevies Aiverge

- . : tf Iv] > |,
Notice that dofZ has the form Sa", soitisa geometric series with a= 6 and
n=0 n=0
a ; : :
r =—, Geometric series converge if 0 < |r| < 1; because 0 < 5 <1, the geometric

series Ssof)converges.
n=0

.
ee
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
505
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

26.33 Calculate the sum of the series.

fe
A convergent geometric series y ar’
ai as ee has sum ——..
a Substitute
, _4
a=6 and r=—
n=0 co n

into the formula to calculate the sum of the series dol) :

n=0

Yo() - ag ei ae i OS Ret Oar eee

n=0 7) =r 1-(477) (/7)=G/7). 3/7 3 3

Ne
26.34 Determine the convergence of the series >(2\(3) ; if the series converges,
calculate its sum. nao \O/\2

oo 8 2 n 3

The geometric series >(2)6} is divergent because |r|>1: Aa1,

n=0

5 cy r ‘ on :
= (the absolute
26.35 Determine the convergence of the series >2(-2] ; if the series converges,
value of v) is be-
calculate itssum. a \
tween 0 and |.
co 3 n

Notice that 2-2] is a geometric series with a= 2 and r= -= Because

n=0
0 < |r| <1, the series converges to sum offs ;
=—7

2-2
725)
) L=r=
ee?
32 5-*
LS(=875) ©(5/5) 4/5)
--
875
9.25 =>5
8 4

26.36 Determine the convergence of the series >(-3](-3

CORA God
; if the series converges,
calculate its sum. : n=6

Although the lower bound of the sum is n= 6 and not n= 0, subtracting a

finite
=
number of terms will not affect the convergence of the series. Because 0 < -= <i] >

the geometric series converges. However, when the lower bound does not

equal 0, an alternative formula must be used to calculate the sum of the series:
oo k
ar
ar” =
n=k

506 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

The Integral Test

Infinite sevies and impvoper integrals ave velateA

26.37 Assume that Ma is a positive, decreasing series. Describe how to determine the
n=l

convergence of tS using the integral test.

n=]

If you Aow+
Consider the function f() = a,. Assuming /(n) is continuous, evaluate the know how to
improper integral ‘i f(n)dn., If the integral converges (i.e., equals a finite, real
Aeal with impvopey
tutegvalls, look at
number), then the series converges. Similarly, a divergent integral indicates a
Problems 2|:30-
divergent series. LV37

1
26.38 According to Problem 26.26, ie is a convergent p-series. Use the integral test
n=l
to verify the convergence of the series.

The integral
According to the integral test, the series converges if and only if the improper
co
converges to |, but
integral f, ~r dm converges. that Acesw+
n
— |
fo San=tim f° F
n? azn
mean Se 5 = lathe
n=| "
S
= lim f n
a <9)
“dn
Aefinite integral
anew 1
Value Aces not
) equal the sum of
= lim |-
—
azo n
1
the sevies,
Ll.
= lim(-2+7)
anew a 1

= in|
-*|
+ lim 1
a>o a a>o

=0+1
il
» | 1
oo

Because the improper integral 1. et converges, the series ae also converges.

n=l

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 507

 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

7 =. (Inn)
26.39 Determine thec 0 vergence of the series > ag. .
n=]

Use vaviable Apply the integral test by determining the convergence of the corresponding
Substitution to improper integral.

jp aamtg eal
integrate: u= In y
«(Inn) Inn
ANA Au = (I/n)An, lim

a Ina 2
= lim i udu
a0 0
3 Ina
U
= lim} —
a>0| 3
0

=lim net
are] 3
= 0

(Inn)
Because the improper integral a dn diverges, the infinite series-
n
yyluue
S ue diverges as well.
Use the n=1

wverse tvig
autidervivative a il
Povaula 26.40 Determine the convergence of the series: >> :

— aa
AW

Apply the integral test by evaluating f=

0 Ban?
a n=0 8. n

| W n*
— arctan —+C
aA a f o adn : a adn
setting
Si ee de aaa
a=V8=22
NA U= x, =
=| V8
eee—| |beer
arctan —=
(Yel,
1 a
oe xl
= lim — | arctan
conearctan0O }
——= —

Because

tangent gets
infinitely big as x
= in| 5arcta n oe
are |9/9 ovo
APPrOAChes™ 7 ‘ a au
AVC- Note that lim arctan) = 9°
tangent APPrOAChes
Zi noo
2/2
T- ls Wo
r
7 when x gets = n]a
ll
i oo|e
infinitely big.
; ,
Because the improper integral 2 dn eke Neel
ii0 Ban? converges, the infinite series ~
8+n?
converges as well.

PEE
508 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-Six — Basic Sequences and Series

; me Pes 00 8
26.41 According to the nth term divergence test, the series >,Lhe
3
diverges. Verify that
n=)
conclusion using the integral test.

3
Apply the integral test by evaluating is - -: dn.
n
on +1 an? +1
f —_ dn = lim a dn
et stem ot

because the Aegvee

of the numerator is
greater than the
Aegvee in the
Aenominator,

= lim
azn

= 0

. mes on +1 ; — wean'+l
Because the improper definite integral if1 ~as an diverges, the series >. Bs
‘ n n=l=
diverges as well.

er
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
509
 —_
te
a 7

: Wise see Pty : 0

ul not Tr
= Oe Ye joa ,
a e "
af a a we Ss - oad

es dee 3 4 LS Pe

=k
Ot pe:
 Chapter 27
ADDITIONAL INFINITE SERIES CONVERGENCE TESTS

Foy use with uglier ihnite sevies

Chapter 26 presented examples of simple infinite series that exhibited definitive

characteristics; however, the majority of series cannot be classified so easily.
This chapter presents an assortment of tests to supplement and enhance those
discussed in Chapter 26, significantly increasing the number and variety of
series for which you can determine convergence. Note that the majority of the
tests apply only to series consisting of positive terms, although the treatment of
negative terms is discussed in the last section of the chapter.

lw Chapter 26, you leavnea

how to handle specific kinds of Sevies:
geometvic
sevies, which lock like So:
2 p-sevies, which lock like Su
0 ; telescoping Sevies,
wheeere just about all of the terms cancel n=| w!
one another our, and the integral tes
t,
which is useful only if you can integr
ate the generic uth term of the Sev
a : ies
:
his chapter will broaden your hovizo ns and intvoauce new convergence tests
to
USE OM Sevles you Come acvoss that Aow
t ft cleanly into any of the categovie
s
covevea so fav.
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

Comparison Test
Proving sevies ave biggev than big and smaller than small

If every a 27.1 Describe how the comparison test determines the convergence or divergence of
term is smaller an infinite series.
than (or equal to) the
Covvesponding b term
(A <d,a,< b,, etc.) Given the positive, infinite series }\a, and ¥, such that a, < b,, the convergence
of }'b, guarantees the convergence of Da,. Similarly, the divergence of Da
and the b's ada up to
guarantees the divergence of ),.
a finite number, the
a's
will have a smaller (or
equal) finite sum,
(27.2 Determine the one genre of the series using the comparison test: n+ .
d nai

Consider the comparison series

eae ;
oar Because the denominators of the two

series are equal, comparing their corresponding values is a simple matter. Because
n
the numerator of et is greater than (or equal to) the numerator of ntl each
The first terms n
of both Sevies ave term o f ye
ey is greater than or equal to the corresponding term of ara
the same: 4. Aftey
that (Pov all y > 1), —ye it
as Because limf°a
yas ye epee as re is divergent according to
n=1

the terms of SS
n+| the integral test. By comparison, S— must diverge as well, as it is greater than
ave lavgev.
oa
a divergent series. Note that the nth term divergence test gives the same result

27.3
osDetermine the convergence
| of the series: Se=
1 ;
: a L n=O VN + ve - oF

, 1
oo

Consider the comparison series yp =->—

ee The denominator of ————=
In? 5
n=0 n=o n tr 7

A bigger is greater than the denominator of —=

1

= » so each term of the series 2;

oo

ieee is
Aenominatov means
a smaller fraction,
. =1 Le
but a bigger numeva-
tov means a bigger
less than the corresponding term of the series Sn aca pines
n= 0 n= n +7
<a n=0 2

fraction. 1 5
Notice that Sa is a convergent p-series (since 9 >1), so according to the
n=0

1
comparison test, AR
re
aa also converges because its sum is less than or equal

to the sum of a convergent series.

E—E—EE— eee
pe
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
512
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

27.4 Determine the convergence of the series: oe The numevaitor

Vn on the left is
bigger than the
1 wumevator on the
co oo

Consider the comparison series Le ee v2 : Because In n 2 1 forall n 2 3,

n=
n vight (and the Ae-
Inn hominators ave
> an
ue Note that
ea72 is a divergent p-series, so >ar must also the same), so the
=2 70 left sum is bigger
ReMears according to the comparison test.
than the vight
sum,

27.5 Determine the convergence of the series: Lae

>: ir

co 1 n ON
Consider the geometric comparison series Sa, = >I5I: Although the first few
= 1 n=1 5

terms of >(3) are smaller than the corresponding terms of So, = See
ae the iNo)
n=1 n= 1 2

opposite is true for all n 2 5, as illustrated by the table of values below.

Terms at

ADs= 0.03125 ut = 0.01563 the beginning of

oe 64
b, ave allowea
1
al = 0.02736 = 0.01241 to be smaller than the
Covvesponding terms of
A, , as long as the
Note that >(5)
7
ao

is a convergent geometric series (because 0 <

1
5<1). Because terms of
n=1 eventually get big-
eo o 1 n eo 1 . _

-= (5). = also converges, according to the comparison test. Jev ANA STAY bigger.
n=1 n n=1 n= 1 1 A few bad apples
Aon't spoil the
whole bushel.
ee kon)
27.6 Determine the convergence of the series: 33 oe
n=l

Apply the integral test to determine the convergence of the comparison series
7 Nn Use vaviable
Dae substitution to
n=1
i. nan = im f*—ndn integrate: u= wt 4
Ln +4 ae ln? +4 ANA Au/2 =nadn.
su.
ees *|
= lim
ann

imo
=] a (In|u|)}, |

= tim 5[in(a? +4 )-in5]}

ano

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

513
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

— 3x +1 ; : x
Therefore, 3 Le is greater than or equal to the divergent series Dn so
Because n=] n=1
the wumevator —3xt+1 ; :
3x + | is greater yere diverges according to the comparison test.
n=1
than the numerator x
in the other sevies.
ae
27.7
eo : n=0

(oe) co) 7] n ; :

Consider the geometric comparison series > ca SS

(2), which diverges because
n=0

" eo ay m+2
; >1. Because 7” n
’
4

= DG) am 2 6

diverges according to the comparison test.

Limit Comparison Test

Sevies that converge ov Aivevge by association
The 27.8 Describe how to determine the convergence of a positive infinite series using the
compavison limit comparison test.
series is
usually made Given the series >'a,, create a comparison series SO, for which you can determine
up of the “biggest
the convergence and compute lim a . If the limit is equal to a positive, real
7 a . . . .

parts” of a,, the n>o

things that woula number, then both series either converge or diverge. If the limit either equals 0 or
matter most if n does not exist, the limit comparison test is inconclusive
were veally big. This
includes the highest
bn? +9
powers of wanda 27.9 Determine the convergence of the series : :
oo a —2n+8
things vaisea to
the w powev.
As n approaches infinity, the highest exponents of nin the numerator and
denominator (2 and 3 respectively) are more influential than the surrounding
terms. The comparison series }b, need not include the leading coefficients of the
numerator and denominator (5 and 7 respectively).

o-S5-Se-52
. : z — 1
oo

Because
n=l n=1 3 n=l
they get much
bigger than the Now apply the limit comparison test by evaluating the limit, as n > ©, of the
h terms and the series’ quotient.
coustants when y 5n* +9
gets huge.
lim<*
n>o
a
= jim—2n+8
2 Dies
i)
n —

Pa
Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
514 7 he
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

Multiply the numerator and denominator by the reciprocal of the denominator to

eliminate the complex fraction.
When the
ia 5n? +9 ites - 5n® +9n me)
highest powers
nao 77° oor 4a A.Cig ie 7n>—-2n+8 7 of the numerator
The limit exists, so both series either converge or diverge according to the limit ana Aenominator
@ 27 “ 5n? +9 ave equal, divide
comparison test. Because i) —is a divergent p-series, ae
ee theiv coefficients to
P » S De Bent Deacon
n=1 n=l
diverges as well. get the limit as n
approaches ov,

. n+2
27.10 Determine the convergence of aoe
n=l te ~On-- 5

Construct the comparison series S'), using the degrees of the numerator and the
denominator.

»>, => 2/3) » ne = Sn” ‘=i

n=1 n=1 n n=l n=1

Apply the limit comparison test.

n+2
im 2 an t5 ne Berea: ieee

1
The degrees of the numerator and denominator are equal (Yn* =n = 1),so
the limit equals the quotient of the leading coefficients of the numerator and the
denominator.
nore shag
1
m2 ee ara +5n
Xin? —3n? 1

The limit exists, so both series either converge or diverge according to the limit

comparison test; because Sin diverges according to the nth term divergence
n=1
n+2
test, ee must diverge as well.
a in? —3n4+5

27.11 Determine the convergence of the series:

This time,
youve not using
Apply the limit comparison test using the geometric comparison series the highest powers
>Ds Sale of un to make the
= Compavison sevies
3" 46 (like in Problems 27.9
Here sate ats (3-5)" +6(5") | ie 15" + 6(5") and 27.10),
butthe
es noe B+] 8" nem (3-5)"+3" mee 15" +3" things vaisea to
5" the w power.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

515
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

As n approaches infinity, lim Ene

nity lim 5es
eeTherefore,
4
according

a8
to the limit comparison test, L541
y 3" +6 converges because
y
ae
ue
(2) is a convergent
geometric series.

8. a ‘
27. 12 Determine the convergence of the.series:
es: Vati+Jnt2
§$
- A Jnee
=
7 eS

bel
Apply the limit comparison test using the divergent p-series ye
ain = aaa
n= n=1
1
_— vn+1+Vn+2
lim
Ls n+2 = lim
eee
ee2 Ss Cae
vneal ere
nos at Vn+1+Vn+2
+Jn+2 nem In+tl+jn+2
ce
Multiply the numerator and denominator by da
- As w approaches n
infinity, In and 2/n ‘n
approach 0, because 1
=ion ——— Fait Cae ae —
Aividing any veal No
faa a7
ea neo
hee
ae ~ a
M40 2

number by an infinitely
big number gives you a co
microscopically small
The limit exists, so area
a iteryAS must diverge according to the limit
vesult that’s n n
basically 0.
comparison test because ys
Ae diverges.
n=1

Antn?
27.13 Determine the convergence of the series
iS
ot ni+n°+1

4 Construct a comparison series using the highest powers of the numerator and
— s denominator.

Son Daten San

n=1
n®/3
n=1
So ni/®

You have to Apply the limit comparison test.

vewvite nu” as a
SQUave voot if you Vnt+n°
want to multiply it by imme
ee Ne
= in :
n> n>o In® +n?® il 1
another SQuave voot,

Note that n” °=(n vaya = n>,

Nn+n° ni’ ni/3 + 4,'°/5

= hn > : —_— = lin
n>o In® +n° oa 1 n>0 3/8 + 7° +]

516 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests
nS

The degrees of the numerator and denominator are equal (Vn!®/? = (n'**)!2 = n**
and Vn* = n**), so the limit equals the quotient of the leading coefficients.
5/8
n
= lim
no 3/78
=]

Because the limit exists and the comparison series is a divergent p-series,
Vntn°
>—— diverges according to the limit comparison test.
Vn' +n° +1

Ratio Test
Compave neighboving tevms of a sevies
00

27. 14 Explain how to determine the convergence of the positive series > & using the
ratio test. n=l
The
rs. Aenominator
a ws
If lim @* = L, and L<1, then a converges. If L > 1 or L= ®, then the series a, ‘Ss just the
n>o a
n n=1 expression 3/n‘, To
diverges. The ratio test cannot determine the convergence of aseries if L = 1. get the numerator
A, + eplace the
inside 3/u* with
27.15 Demonstrate ee the ratio test cannot be used to determine the convergence of
n+ |.
fee series: 3
eas
nal’

; a,,
Evaluate lim —.
n> Q 3

Ogg 1, (n $1) You have te

lim — = lim —>—— A :
nee gq nee 3 © this almost
n' every time, so save
yourself a step by
Multiply the numerator and denominator by the reciprocal of the denominator to
eliminate the complex fraction. writing a, +L
e aA
Se (n 1) ustead of

B(n‘ +4n® + 6n? +4n+1) The numerator

* lim 3 And Aenominator
x have the same
: Aegvee, so AiviAe
ae eo theiv coefficients
nro ni +4n>+6n? +4n4+1 to get the Kid:
at ieee

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

517
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

According to Problem 27.14, the ratio test cannot be used to determine the
oo

y a, when lim awl =],

Dn+1
convergence of the series
n>o a
n=1 n

the vatio
test is 900A Pov n+3
Ssevies containing 27.16 Determine the convergence of the series: y =
n=l
n
terms that will get
humongous as 4
approaches infinity. Apply the ratio test.
Sevies containing (n+1)+3
factovials (like in
this problew), ws an
lim Gade,
= lim a ae ae
n>o n>o

VAISeA to powers, AMA a,

n!
things vaisea ton ; n+4 n!
powers ave good = lim ———_
n>@ (n+1)! n+3
candidates fov
the vatio test. = lim HAN AIS
ane (n+1) (xt) (n+ 3)
3 n+4
=hn
no + 4n +3
=0
: n+l ‘ < n+ 3
Because lim —~=0 and 0 <1, the series Py converges according to the
The Aenomina- nm @Q n n=1
n!
tov’s Aegvee is lavgev, ratio test.
so the limit as n > 00 is
automatically 0. ee n

27.17 Determine the convergence of the series: a

n=l

Apply the ratio test.

Or

nee y +1)!
lim —* = lim (n+!
- )
This is the n> a, n> a

Pvopevty n!
(<)(x*) = at
grr n!
in action, Instead =elit ee
ee
of AAAding the expo- n= (n+1)! 3"
hents of a ProAuct to Note that 3"*1 = 3” -3! = 3-3”,
make one expression
youve taking that me
EXPVESSION ANA wvit-
ng tt as a product:
Cena) Sea .
n
;
Because lim “1 =0 and 0<1, en converges according to the ratio test.
n=1 n!
n->00
a,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

5! 8
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

oe

27.18 Determine the convergence of the series: Sine,

n=1

eee
Rewrite the series by eliminating the negative exponent: v=. Apply the ratio
ST 6"
test. nel
n
n+]
é

lim —1 = lim(n+l) The numerator

nS ea e ana Aenominator have

n° Aegvee 2, so take the

nt Tae coefficients of the ws te
me (ntl) yet Finthe limit: = =e.

Set
me (n+)
: ée-n
Be aoa
nen? +9nt1
ie,
e © 2.718281 8284¢
5 aes ee aes :
Because lim “=e ande > ‘it y n *e" diverges according to the ratio test.
n7o a

n n=l

(n+1)
27.19 Determine the convergence of the series: >
n=1 M2

Apply
Pply the ratio test. If eure Nae
[(n+1)+ 1} suve wheve (2")(2)
comes from, look at
lim Sut! = Jim es)a se
ne gq n (n+1) wy note on Problem
wee 2t.\h

= lim _(n+2y ; m:2h

ne (n+1):2""" (n +1)

= gy OY) Ca)
= (n+1)° (2”) (2)
' n(n° +4n+4)
as 2(n* + 3n* +3n+1)
oe, n> +4n*>+4n
nae In* +6n> +6n+2

00 2
a 1 1 nt+1
Because lim
no
“=a,
9 and 3 =A ) (n* : converges according to the ratio test.
acl

I
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 519
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

a a / /J oo 40on!
27.20 Determine the convergence of the series: » as
(n+4
a)!
n=5 !

Apply the ratio test.

4"*"(n+1)!
Gy... (n+1)[(n+1) +4]!
Le
oe a Oe eee 4"-n!
n:(n+4)!
_ 4 (n+l)! n-(n+4)!
=n
n>> (n+1)(n+5)! 4 “nt

Notice that 4"*! = 4(4"), (n+ 1)! = (n+ 1)(n!), and (n+ 5)! = (n+ 5)(n+4)I.

ihe 4(4”)(nT) (xt) (n) (n4-41

"= (n+T) (+5)(n+l
(47)(xt)
4n
= lim
awe m+ 5
=4

a Ne eno :
Because lim ““ =4 and 4>1, ) ——, diverges according to the ratio test.
=o Gd) 44 n:(n+4)!

Root Test
Helpful for tevms inside vadical signs
These
ave the same
thvee possible 27.21 Explain how to determine the convergence of the positive infinite series Sa, :
conclusions about n=l
using the root test.
L that the vatio
test uses.
If lim va, =[,and L< 1, then Sic. converges. If L > 1 or L =, then the series
ar: n=1
diverges. The root test cannot be used to determine the convergence of a series if
L=1.

27.22 Applying theroot test occasionally results in the expression lim Un.Evaluate the
4 YNO limit so that you may reference it in the problems thatfollow.

Begin by setting y= *%/n and rewriting the radical using a rational exponent:
y= n'". Take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation.
The log Property
aA

log x* = a log x allows Iny=Inn’/”

you to pull exponents al
out of logs and write ae
them out front like
Inn
coefficients, = ear:

520 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

fst LTLMindy
Evaluate lim oar Using L’H6pital’s rule.
'
1
nro n
rh n~o 1
ee tis SO neo n

1
Recall that In y= a Therefore, lim In y = lim me = 0. Now that you have
n>o n
Because
established that lim In y = 0, evaluate the limit specified by the original problem. e* and \n x ave
nro

inverse functions,
lim ¥n =lim n'/"
ge oss you know that
Substitute y =n”, Ine" =e"”" =x, Once
=lim y you vewvite y as
n>o
Iny
e 7, you can use alll
Note that y= e'™. of the wovk you Aida
a few steps back
Recall that lim In y = 0. with In y.
= lim e°

Therefore, lim an =].

. we oO 1 n

27.23 Determine the convergence of the series: >(-} :

n=1

The
Note that the general term of the series is raised to the power, an indication that
uth voot and
the root test is likely the best candidate to determine convergence.
the uth power cancel
1 n
each other out:
lim ya, = lim (=|
n>o n>o n VV = (ar */" =
l
x= kK,
= lim —
no n

=0

: wy 1) ;
Because lim 7/a, =0 and0<1, y (+)converges according to the root test.
nro n

n=1

: Pa 6n+5n°
27.24 Determine the convergence of the series: > Sete s
n=l

The numevator
Apply the root test. Anda Aenominator
both have Aegvee 3 so
6n+5n° é the limit is the 2
li n| = li n| |)——$—$$___$_
> __———_-
ee
n>o Nh gee [| coefficient of the
numevator over the vu?
6n+5n°
oo coefficient of the Ae-
n>0 In”? +3n° —n+1
nominator,

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

521
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

6n+5n?
Because lim va, = —>and5 1, » |diverges according to the
n>o on? +3n? —n+1
root test.

27.25 Determine the convergence of the series: Ss

n=1 (Inn)"

Salle)
No matter
Constants can be factored out of a series without affecting the series’ convergence.
what wis, |" = |,
SO you can also vaise
the numerator to 2“(Inn)” Xs Inn
the u.
Apply the root test to determine the convergence (as ).
nn

LAr 1
lim 2/a. =lim2 = lim —— =0
n> n>o
Inn no Inn

4 0 1 n

Because lim ¥/a, =0 and0< 1, > Fre converges according to the root test.
nme n=]
nn
= 2
Therefore, a ~ yy
(any converges as well.
n=1 nn

means SF(\wF
oO

n
w=\ 27.26 Determine the convergence of the series: =. n

n=l
e

Although only the denominator is raised to the n power, the root test is still
applicable.
lim va, = lim Al
l/n
: n
= lim (=|
noo é

= lim oe
Neo @

l/n

= lim
n> é

l/n
According to Problem Phen, lim n’" =1, so lim = 1 1
n>o é
=—. Because lim ¥/a, =—
1 é nao é

ane <b. >2 converges according to the root test.

n== Ne.

|
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
522
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

27.27 Determine the convergence of the series De +34/n )

n=1

Apply the root test.

lim va, =lim § (2+ 3Vn)

=lim (2+ 3¥/n)

= lim 2+3lim
%/n no

According to Problem 27.22, lim an

= 2+ 3(1)
, =>
Because lim va, = 5 and 5>1, S((2o 3vn)" diverges according to the root test.
n=1

4n)"
27.28 Determine the convergence of the series > “gant”
n=1

Apply the root test To vaise 32" * ! Lo

in c=f the |/n powey, multiply

the powers together
3 aut VAY)
sige Shan
oe afgentt

=~ [(4n)"]
rs lim (327) yf

=lim n> 3 3 ie )
n/n n

i 4n
Oe 927m)
=0

Because lim va, == 00, >gintlCees according to the root test

a
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 523
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

Alternating Series Test and Absolute Convergence

What if sevies have negative terms?

27.29 What is the defining characteristic of an alternating series, and how is the
alternating series test used to determine convergence?
The two
Conditions, ignoving
the negative signs, An alternating series contains both positive and negative terms; consecutive
ave: (|) the Jeneval terms have opposite signs. An alternating series usually contains —1
Ferm of the sevies
fo APYOA
has raised to a power of n to generate the positive and negative terms, for
CH O when »
iS veally huge, ana (2) example: > (-1)" n? =-1+4-9+16-—25+-:-. However, other functions,
each term in the se- n=1

vies has to be smail)- such as sine and cosine, can generate terms of alternating sign as well:
— cos (ns LeeLee lee ee , ;
ev than the term Spee =—--~+>—-—+_-—— t+": According to the alternating series test, the
eet | 2 3=4
befove it
alternating series Sa, converges if two conditions are satisfied: lim la,|=0
n=l

and ny
< a,\.
n

Note: Problems 27.30-27.31 refer to the alternating series 1—

27.30 Write the series using summation notation. _ .
Theve
ave other ways : ‘
Ou cam write this Let a,=1, a, = Oy one Notice that the numerator
af of each
ay" 9" term is a
Sevies lik
a power of 3, and each denominator is a perfect square: > ) ,
—~ (—|)"*2,
2%
Mpe)
n
a

2
quo (eek

Cos (um) -3" Note: Problems 27.30-27.31 refer tothe alternating series 1—
M:
n=0
a

(n+)? 1 ana
27.31 Determine the convergence ofthe series.
See ge
Si
“3
n=! Y 3 In order to satisfy the alternating series test, two conditions must be satisfied.
n

First, lim |a, must equal 0. Use L-H6pital’s rule to evaluate limGan” from
n>o
n>o n

Problem 27.30.
These
absolute values
3” n 2 n

lim = im¢13)3" _ |. (in3)'3" _

tell you to leave pee nt On| 8° 2 Laas
off the part of the The nth term does not approach 0 as n approaches infinity, so this series fails the
alternating sevies that first condition of the alternating series test and diverges according to the nth term
changes the sign, in
this case (-|)"! when divergence test.
youve testing for
convergence,

524 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

27.32 Determine the|convergence of the series: ait

n=3 pert
Leave
Yn

i =() using LHépital’s CRE Sat

again, just like
you AiA when
lim In(m = 2) _ ‘ine 1/(n-2) _ pute tooets checking the ivst
no — aon ens condition of the
alternating sevies
Now expand the series to verify visually that |a,,,| < |a,| (i-e., each term is less than nae
the term that precedes it).

ya — Inl
Se aIn2 1In3.1In4
ee fee ipIn5 In6 In7 1n8 In9
4
n=.
FOS eT Ea ee ae
=O0O+ oe + 0.3662 + 0.3466 + 0.3219 + 0.2986 + 0.2780 + 0.2599 + 0.2441
So not
EVERY term has

Although a, > a, (0.3466 > 0) and a, > a, (0.3662 > 0.3466), once n 2 5, each term to be less than
the term before it,
is less than or equal to the term that precedes it. To more rigorously prove that the but theve has to be
In(x — 2)
terms of the series decrease, differentiate f(x) = Some cut-off point
x—-2Q
(like n = S) where
ee 2( ae ne that’s true and
Stays true for
(x-2)° (x-2)° the vest of the
sevies,
Note that f’(x) < 0 for all x > 3, so the function (and the terms of the series it
generates) is decreasing on that interval.
(-1)" In(n—-2)
Because both conditions of the alternating series test are met, yee
converges. ict

27.33 The remainder R, of an alternating series describes how accurately the partial \ a
sum S, reflects the actual sum of the series S: IR,,|= |S= S,| = la,4 |.Use R, to Se
identify an interval of values within which the sum of the series fH SN
ee.
(- uwman 2).
is contained. Report the boundaries of the interval accurate

to tie ee places.

According to the given information, IR,|< la,aah

mates the actual sum of the series with an error of a,. Begin by calculating S,, the
sum of the terms up to and including the n = 6 term. (Note that the series begins
with n= 3.) Use a calculator to approximate the sum.

(-1)* In(3-2) _(—1)*In(4—2) , (-1)’ n(5—2) / (-1)’

ee
In(6-2)
3-2 4-2 5-2 6-2
__ inl, In2_In3
,In4
SSS De Se
= 0.32694308433724

OO OO aes
a The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
525
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

Now calculate a,.

7

a cen?) =~ = ~0,32188758248682
“ (—1)" In(n-2
Therefore, the actual sum of yee) is no more than
Ae
n=3
a, ~ 0.32188758248682 units greater or less than S, ~ 0.32694308433724 . Add a,
to and subtract a, from S, to generate an interval that contains the actual sum

n—2

(S, — la, Sent la,!)= (0.32694308433724 — 0.32188758248682, 0.32694308433724 + 0.32188758248682)

= (0.005, 0.649)

Absolute con- 27.34 What conclusions can be drawn if Ssa, exhibits absolute convergence?
VEevgence is used
only if some of
the gee Fg al
pes in the
sevies ave If ») a,,| converges, then Dias converges absolutely; there is no need to actually
negative, becaus
e it n=1 n=1

changes everythi
ng inte test the convergence of a in such cases—it is guaranteed. However, if
Positive terms. Th
at n=1
emis YOU can
dle
co co

use the diverges, » a, may still converge; if it does, a exhibits conditional

VA TO, oot and
n=] n=1 n=1
tntegval tests
(which
apply only to Po convergence.
sitive
Sevies),

— (—1)" 1 =o
27.35 Determine whether yo the series defined in Problem 27.32,
=
n=3

converges absolutely or conditionally.

Discard the factor (—1)” that causes the terms to alternate signs and apply the
:
integral ; ; : « | =
test by evaluating the improper integral ii) min
nic

the whole je, ane tn fIn(n=2) |

point of testing for ee cmlsehe tee
absolute convergence Integrate using variable substitution: w= In (n-2) and du =
is to see if the sevies n-a
converges when you take z In(a—2)
the abselute value of = limik
0
udu
every term. That’s 9 |In(a-2)
why you Avop the = lim} —
, U

negatives. 2 0

= [In (a- 2h
2
eee
= 0
Ee
pe)
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
526
 Chapter Twenty-Seven — Additional Infinite Series Convergence Tests

The series Diecs

Siin(n=2) .
diverges according to the integral test because So it converges
n=3
« | when you leave the
the corresponding improper integral, ile nine?) 7 diverges. Therefore, negatives in (and use
(—1)" fete 2) the alternating sevies
he does not converge absolutely. However, it does converge test), but without the
n=3
negative terms, the
Ree according to Problem 27.32.
Sevies Aivevges,

1 n-1] 4”

27.36 Determine whether the series ycare converges absolutely or conditionally.

n=3

Discard the factor that causes the terms of the series to alternate sign, (-1)""', and
test the resulting series for conver gence using the ratio test.
Aen

peeled
ae
stumeeee
n>00 ah
ee,
(n+4)!
act (n +4)!
= lim
me (n+5)! 4"
tm LIM ora
areJeet) oe

= i
nao n+5
=0

n
:
Because lim ‘
Qavi ee
=
‘
(Jango < 1: Jere converges according to the ratio test.
n

1 n—l 4”

Therefore, eae converges absolutely.

ee
; The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 527
 - Chapter 28
ADVANCED INFINITE SERIES

Sevies that contain x's

The final chapter of the book concerns infinite series that represent functions;
hence, the series that follow will contain a variable (usually x) in addition
to n. The exercises begin with power series; although a brief discussion
about the representation of known functions via power series will ensue, the
majority of the focus is paid to the determination of a radius and an interval of
convergence. Following that, Taylor and Maclaurin series are used to estimate
function values, methods more elaborate than linear approximations and
capable of providing more accurate approximations further from the x-values
about which they are centered.

This chapter Aeals with three spec

ific types of sevies. Actually, it’s +
types of sevies, because Maclauvin
sevies ave a specttic kind Nee me
but move on that later. You'll stavt : {
with Powev sevies, anA your job ef
as out Sot fe
Sevies Converge. That means youlll hav
e to figuve ee
NMIMES WAKE Fhe Sevies converge when you plug them i i
oc Aiverge. After a hefty dose of
eee oie, A i
specitic kinds of power sevies: T,aylov ana
Maclauvin sevies Cne theve ia zh
infin
ae ite number of terms) ) ANA andpol i
polynomials (when there ave a finit
i e number of
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Power Series
Finding intervals of convergence
28.1 Write the power series using summation notation and identify the x-value about
1 3 ees
which it is centered: 0+ 3% +3)+ “(x43)" +e (x+ By
A power Sevies
Always Converges
where itis Centevea, Let the first term be a,, the second term be a,, etc. Notice that the numerator of
each coefficient is n, and each denominator is n + 2. Furthermore, each term
So SS
mo ct
; n
contains the quantity (x + 3) raised to the n power: » : (x +3)". When com-
n
converges atx = ae) n=0

It’s provenjih Pro pared to the general form of a power series centered about x = ¢, Ma, (x—c)’,
I
28.3, = n
n=0

n nae and c= -3; therefore, the power series is centered about x = —3.

28.2 Write the power series in summation notation and identify the x-value about
x x x

which it is centered: — +—+—+::

4.28 7416

So the ivst tev Each term in this series contains x, so it is beneficial to begin the series with
will be Cie cl=xce
n= 1 instead of n= oe
0: Note that the power series is centered at c= 0, as
tustead of (x - f= i)
(x— 0)" = (x-O0)"= x.

oO

28.3 Prove that the power series Sa, (x—c)” converges at x= c.

n=l

the sevies stavts

Expand the power series.
at w= | because it oo

would contain 0° if it be- a, (x—c)” =a,(x—c) +a, (x—-c)’ +a, (x—c) +a,(x—c)' +:
gan at = 0, which is
indeterminate. To determine the convergence of a power series at a specific x-value, substitute it
into the series.

Sa, (c-0)" =a,(c—c) +a,(c—c) +a, (c—c) +a, (¢—c) +

n=l

=a, (0)' +a, (0)* +a, (0)? +4, (0) +++

=0+0+0+04-
=0
The series has finite sum 0, so it converges when x= c.

e
po A e
530 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

oo

28.4 According to Problem 28.3, the power series Sa, (x-c)" converges at x= ¢c. On Fov example,
n=0 A Power sevies
what other intervals might the power series converge? cenutevea at c=2
with a vadius of
A power series converges on exactly one of the following sets of x-values: (1) x= c convergence v= 5
only; (2) all real numbers: (—%,%); or (3) on the interval (c— 7, c+ r), where ris convevges for all
the radius of convergence (i.e., |x—c| <7). x-vailues up to 5 units
Away from x=?2:

28.5 What is the difference between the radius of convergence and the interval of (2-S,2+S)
=(37),
convergence of a power series?

If the power series >4, (x —c)" has radius of convergence 7, then the series
n=0
converges for x between c— r and c+ r. However, you must test the endpoints A sevies
x=c-—rand x= c+ r individually to determine whether or not the series converges might converge
at each.
at both of its
endpoints, neither
endpoint, ov only
Note: Problems 28.6-28.9 refer to the power series >(-‘)‘ one of them.
n=0

28.6 Determine the radius of convergence for the series.

Apply the ratio test to determine where the series converges absolutely.

Gav

es
lim = lim armaar apa
n>o
an nro _Xx

=iin() (2)
x n+l 4 n

nao \\4 ie
nt+1 Al

At
n> ~ #1
4” n

Because
x

4 Aoesw't have
any ws in it,
The value of the expression is unaffected as n approaches infinity, so

x
lim = FiAccording to the ratio test, the series converges only if the limit is
nro
4

<1. Multiply both sides of the inequality to solve for x: |x|< 4. Note

that this expression has form |x—c|<r ifc=0and r=4. Therefore, the series

>(-3] has radius of convergence 4.

n=0
nr
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems
531
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Note: Problems 28.6-28.Ire

9 to theponer series >(-*|me
nad

28.7 Does the seriess converge at the left endpoint of its interval of poavereene

According to Problem 28.6, the left endpoint of the interval of convergence is

x =—4, Substitute that value into the power series.

SP) la) Be
The series diverges according to the nth term divergence test.

Note: Problems 28.6-28.9 te to the power series >(-| :

l hoving n=0
Cl), hich 28.8 Does the series converge at the right endpoint ofits interval of convergence?
is normal) Auving
the alternating
Sevies test), all Substitute the right endpoint, x = 4, into the series.
that’s left in the
Sevies is |, because
technically Cl)" =
12) othaP means
Za)
n=0

The alternating series diverges according to the nth term divergence test.
the uth term is
|, not 0, so the
Sevies Aivevges. Note: Problems 28.6-28.9 refer to the power series 2 a
ned oy
.
28.9 Identify the interval of convergence of the:series and verify the answer using the
root test.

According to Problems 28.7 and 28.8, the series diverges at both of its endpoints,
so the interval of convergence does not include either: (—4,4). Apply the root test
You can to determine whether the series converges absolutely.
plug positive ana
hegative x's into
this Power Sevies, but
the vatio ANA voot
tests work only with
Positive terms, so xy
you need absolute 4
values. |x| <4
Therefore, the radius of convergence is r= 4, which matches the radius of
convergence determined by Problem 28.6. You already know that the series
diverges at x= —4 and x= 4 (according to Problems 28.7 and 28.8), so the interval
of convergence is (—4,4).

532 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Note: Problems 28.10-28.12 refer to the power series s (ue

n=O

28.10 Determine the radius of convergence of the series

Apply the ratio test to determine where the series converges absolutely

2(n+1)x"™
7 ears
= lim
noe] (2n)x"
Se

2(n+1)x"" Mies
= lim Sond (Qn) x”
n>o

Peefee The numerator

ANA Aenominator
=|(3°9(3)(zn)
(x have the same
n+1 Aegvee (|) so Aivide
= lim
n>o
“x
the coefficients of
the n terms to get
Note that lim
n
173.
nzo n

According to the ratio test, the series converges only if the limit is less than 1
x
<]
a
Multiply each side by 3 to solve for x.
|x| <3

A power series has radius of convergence r about x= c given |x—c |<7 In this
problem, c= 0 and r= 3, so the radius of convergence is 3, and the series converges
on the interval (c—7, c+ r) = (0-3, 0+ 3) = (-3,3)

Note: Problems 28.10-28.12 refer to the power series Soe

a 5
n=0

28.11 Does the series converge at the left endpoint of its interval of convergence?

According to Problem 28.10, the left endpoint of the interval of convergence is

x =—3. Substitute x = —3 into the power series to determine whether or not the
series converges.
yi e )
“1 (2n)(-—3)"

I
The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 533
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Note that (—3)" =(-1)” -3”.

= <a
(2n)(-1)"
a Fe 3 =)>
oS, (1)" (20
)" (2n)

This alternating series diverges according to the nth term divergence test:
(2n
lim 2n # 0. Therefore, > ue diverges at x=—3.
n=0

_ Note: Problems 28.10-28.12 refer to the power series >Cue

n=0

28.12 Does the series converge at the right endpoint of its interval of convergence?
Indicate the interval of convergence for the series.

Problem Substitute x = 3 into the power series.

28.10 says
that the tnte
vval
Snes = Son
of Convergence
is n=0 a n=0

AT LEAst 3, (2n)x”
3) The The series diverges by the nth term divergence test. Because the series yy 3
actual interval
) coula diverges at x =—3 and x = 3, its interval of convergence is (—3,3). n=0
have been Eo
s).Gs 3]
ov [-3°3] if ei
ther a
both enApoint oO oe 1 n n
s
haa worked, Note: Problems 28.13-28.14 refer to the power series >. ae
n=0 n

28.13 Identify the radius of convergence for the series.

Use the ratio test to determine where the series converges absolutely.

(x+ ahs

Gil
lim
nro
a, noe | (x+2)°
n(2")
(x+9)"" ) n(2")
n>oo
(n+1)(2"") (x%+2)”
Bas (o429" (x +2)(n)(2°F
"= 1(m+1)(2”) (2)(x42
n(x+2)
no
2(n+1)

= lim (x+ 2]
no
2n+2

= [+3]

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

534
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

According to the ratio test, the series converges if a(r+2) <1. Multiply both sides
Take
of the inequality by 2 to reach the form |x-c| Sr: the opposite
|x+2|<2 of the number in
paveutheses to get
The power series is centered at c= -2 and has radius of convergence r= 2. c, since the formula
|x—c|<v contains
1 oy =<.
Note: Problems 28.13—28.14 refer to the power series s bedSdChaat
= n(2")
28.14 Identify the interval of convergence for the series.

The series converges on the open interval (c— 17, c+ 7) = (—4, 0) and may converge
at either (or both) ef the endpoints as well. Substitute x =—4 and x= 0 into the
SETIES. (-1)"C |)" = ren"?

aease
se ee
2_ a:Aye Dy (2 S ve ~! oe No matter what uis,
n= eee (4) nao 0Ca) nao youll end up Squaving
-I,s0 Cl)"Cl)* = I.
= (— Z a2 (-1)' 2 SCa
Dae ra ae a SSae
Delis hae
Substituting x = —4 into the power series results in vs a divergent p-series;
n=0 n
substituting x = 0 results in a convergent alternating series (according to the
alternating series test). Therefore, the interval of convergence for
ye 1)" (x+2)".is (—4,0].
n(2")

28.15 Identify the interval of

. entify the interval ot enc
convergence for th
for ies: >)
the power series: a
44 (n+1)(n+5)
a ROE Te
ERR

Apply the ratio test to determine the radius of convergence.

(nt D+ + +5] i (x+4)"" (nt 1)(n+5)| _ aos ora oe

ne (x+4)" neo l(nt+2)(n+6) —(%+4)" noe |n® + 8n +12
(n+1)(n+5)
x+4)"
According to the ratio test, pt ( ( converges when |x + 4|<1. The series
“4 (n+1)(n+5)
is centered at c=—4, has radius of convergence r= 1, so it converges on the interval
(-5,-3). Substituting the endpoints of the interval into the series produces two
convergent series, as demonstrated on the next page.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

535
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

(—5+4)" o — (-1)"
Seana"
n=0 Deer
(=344) - 1
Lame
n=0 Dea ers

Substituting x =—5 results in a convergent alternating series, and substituting

x = —-3 produces another convergent series. Therefore, both endpoints should be
included in the interval of convergence: [—5,-3]

28.16 identity the interval of convergence for the power series: 2

3" (x— a /
n=0 4
Apply the ratio test to determine the radius of convergence

grt (x ~ yaa

fien| et! _|_ SD a 3: (eT (x—1): mar ppeeD» =

me] 3"(x—1)" | m=] (nti)! 3°(x-1)"| a
n}

According to the ratio test, the series converges when this limit is less than 1
o er n

Because the limit equals 0 for any real number x, an

Me converges for
all real numbers: (—%, 0),

[7 28.7 entity the radius of convergencea thepowers n!(x —3)”

seriesany
: (n4+5)
: y nag (Nn

Apply the ratio test to determine where the series converges absolutely.

(n+1)'(x —3)""
The Aegree a [(n+1) +5] = tim et DI@- 3)" (+5) |_ (m+ )(n +5)" (anee
of the numeratoriis nee a! (x — 3)” hea (n +6) ae —3)"| at (n+6)
3 and the Aegvee of (n+5)
the denominator is
2. Since 3 >2, the The ratio test stipulates that the limit must be less than 1 in order for the series to
limit is oo,
a ni(x—3)"
converge. Clearly, > 1, so »itagsye diverges for all values of x except for the
n=2 n
center x = 3. The radius of convergence is r= 0

Power sevies
ALWAYS converge
wheve they've centeved,
no matter what.

The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems

536
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

3 4
28. 18 The power series +s =1+ + —31 ooa ++*+ generates the exact values of In other
nao 1 wovas, you'll get
the function f(x) = é. Verify that the power series, like ¢, is its own derivative. the same thing if
you plug some
number x into e*
Differentiate each term of the convergent power series with respect to x.
d 2 3 4

BPN pete ak aft Beer|g pyre BaAls

dx 21° 3! 4! Bios) at
Bx A?
=1+x+ + +
Cates)
oer
Ao8i Problem
Se dates eo Laie? proves
23) that this power
sevies is convergent
Notice that the derivative is equivalent to the original power series.
Lov all veal
numbers.
(- 1)" Pees

28.19 The power series > generates the exact values of g(x) = sin x. What
n=0
(2n +1)!
power series generates the values for the function h(x) = cos x?
|)"
Wwe : (2u+|)! isa
Because a sin x) =cosx, you can differentiate the convergent power series
x
representing sin x to create the convergent power series representing Cos x. Coustant, so ignove it
sor
are
1)"x 2nt] - ie 1 (Qn+ 1) enti
while you take the
Aevivative of
(2n +1)! (2n +1)! x ai ee
wa

Power vule.
Write (2n +1)! as (2n+ 1)[(2n+ 1) -1]! = (2n+ 1)(2n)!.

ie(—1)" (Qn +1)x””

(2n +1)(2n)!
_ (1s
(2n)!
(-1 y" mn

Therefore, cos
x = eS
(2n)!

a __
The Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems 537
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Sevies that approximate function values

28.20 Define the pth Maclaurin polynomial of a function /(x), assuming /(x) is
differentiable at least p times.

£” wens The Maclaurin polynomial is defined as the first p. terms of an infinite series.
the uth lO), = (+t
yo: 0) EPO)
Es 0) erat |
areas iain ain
Aevivative of P(x), n=0
You can use primes
Pov the first through
thiva Aevivatives (2 28.21 What is the difference between the pth Maclaurin polynomial of a function f(x)
Pi and 2”) but use and the pth Taylor polynomial?
Paventheses Loy
fourth Aevivatives
and higher (2% A Taylor polynomial is also defined as the first p terms of an infinite series.
2) and £%), Pen) (, "c Ce 9 ve
> ao" = 3 WG
Qe LOG.) L960 Bae Ok
n=0

Both the Maclaurin and Taylor series are power series of form Ma, (x-c)",

where a, =
e®) . However, Maclaurin series are always centered about c= 0,
a=
n!
whereas Taylor series can be centered about any real number c.

on Be A
Note: Problems 28.22-28.23 refer to the ower series > — pisees
5
me he introduced
ee in Problem 28.18. P
originally oe a ag 4
28.22 Demonstrate that the power series is actually the Maclaurin series for LO =
This is
hot usually true—
only a Few Punctions © (n) (0
AVE equal to their The terms of a Maclaurin series have the form Ssf x"; the nth term contains
Aevivatives, and e* n! n=0
is the nth derivative of f(x). Note that the nth derivative of ¢ (with respect to x) is
one of them, é&.
e* = f(x) = f'(x) =f" (x) =f!" (x) = f (x) =+-

Expand the first few terms of the Maclaurin series to verify that its terms
:
correspond with ° 2 3
x4
the terms of the series 1+x + O + 31 + Fates
2 is the
“zevotW’ Aeviva- 00
PO)
(n) 0
6 LO (0) 0.
LO, LO, £0) 0,
(0 ”" 0 mr (4)
L204.
tives of £(x), which a7! 0! 1! TT 3! 4
is Just F(x). 0 0 0 0
ee
SO oteee cee
Ol "Jie
ol ane es
21 += +24 hen
x x? x? x?

1 Oe ena

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

538
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

2 3 4
x
Note: Problems 28.22-—28:23 refer to the power series yy< =1l+x+ — + = + ad a
originally introduced in Problem 28.18. nwo 1 BIS iH

28.23 Prove that the series converges for all real numbers.

Apply the ratio test to determine the absolute convergence of the power series.
x” red

lim
Gaal
=lim (n+)! = lim
! x
n+l
nr!
!
“tim |SOO |_
n>o
an no ine noo
(n+1)! x" == (n+) Oth ("| ve
n!

According to the ratio test, the series converges when this limit is less tiam l No matter
Because 0 < 1 for all x, the series converges for all real numbers. what x eee plug in,
1Ox|=
1 n 2n+1

Note: Problems 28.24-28.25 refer to the power series S on originally introduced in

Problem 28.19. n=0

28.24 Demonstrate that the power series is actually the Maclaurin series for g(x) = sin x.

Expand the first five terms of the series (n= 0 through n= 4) in order to discern a
pattern.

Saas Bea Ba oh a
i ci 1 3 5 a 9

(2n+1)! Momole a0liy Fir 2!

Calculate derivatives of g(x) = sin x and evaluate each at x= 0.

g(x)=sinx ! g' (x) =cosx ! g(x) =—sinx ! g(x) ==cosx | i g (x)=sinx = cosx
1|g © (¢)
g(0)=sin0 | g' (0) =cos0 i| g’"(0) =—sin0 | g'"(0)=—cos0 |1g (0)=sin0 |"0 (0) =cos0
=) | =1 | =) a=]: | =) | =

Note that the derivative values repeat: 0, 1, 0, -1, 0, 1, 0, -1, .... Substitute the
values of g(x) and its derivatives into the Maclaurin series formula.
ee _ £00) 0, gO) 1, gO)
(0) are) See en ene
0! 1! 9! 3! 4!
=< 0
pA ee ee
x +$— +x +— xi +
1 1! 2! 3! 4!
3
het ae
Lhe!

When nis even, the corresponding term of ye

0),x" equals 0. Expand the
n=0
series through the n= 9 term to verify that the terms match the power series
expanded at the outset of the problem.
« g” (0) tS x? es x?

ia eeaas. TS
Ie
n=0

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 539

 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

— Qn+l a : 6 |
Note: Problems 28.24-28.25
25 refer
tothepower
series
SD)
——
1)"
5 originnallyntr din
2u + | Problem 28.19. 0 (2n+1)! a
x ana
x’ have the Same 28.25 Prove that the series converges for all real numbers
bases, so multiplying
them together means
adding the exponents: Apply the ratio test to determine the absolute convergence of the power series
on +1+2 ee +3
= tsa tint)

de \Aea to write eT
a7
tim (2224)=Harn [oO Dt!
3 this way because no | q. ae xo
e lets you cancel (2n+1)!
the factor out with ee (nt 4
the x™"* | iw the = lim~e |*~—_
nro
(2n+3)! een
Aenominator,
Note that x"** = (x*"*!) (x?) because (2n + 1) + 2=2n+ 3.

= kim |—A
(2° (x?) erty
iY) |}
"* |(2n + 3)(2n +2)(Qu-T)l (32>)
Wviting (2u+3)! as
(2u+3)(2u+2)(2nt1)! is ike ee ok
the same as
n>o
4n? +10n+6
writing 12! as
x?
(12)c\ i10!). Swotract Note that lim = 0, so lim =0-x? =0. According to
n>o
4n? +10n+6 4n? eine ae
| Prom each factor
nro

the ratio test, the series converges when this limit is less than 1. Because 0 < 1 for
AS YOU go,

all x,Sy ca
aa
(-] MG ane
Ste converges for all real numbers.
n=0

28.26 Write Hie sixth-degree Maclaurin bolynondal)forhae= cos xand yoysasits

terms areLe by.the series identified by Problem 28.19: - :

Differentiate h(x) = cos x six times and evaluate each derivative at x= 0

h(x) =cosx 1
| h(0) =cos0=1
|
When » is h'(x) =—sinx h'(0) =-sin0 =0
oaa, h” = 0, s0 the h(x) =—cosx | h" (0) =—cos0
=—1
sevies will contain only h'" (x) =sinx !
, h' (0) =sin0 =0
K vaiseda to even
powers. h® (x) = cosx |p (0) =cos0 =1
|
© (x) =—sinx h® (0)=—sin0=0
h® (x)=—cosx | ph (0)=—cos0 =-1

540 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Substitute h(0), h'(0), h"(0), ++- , A (0) into the Maclaurin polynomial formula.

6
RO)
(n)
Paella AO) 6 WO) HO) 2DeeHO)
ESE Be
'
5 peeHOO)
NE, oO 4 RNAOC),
cedONS Bea CCRE NYYJae Ot|
”
aeKOO)
CEN EZ
wr
6
Dae Penn co se a et at
0 =
rath ah Sad eer 2 ge Ra 4 Bee 5 aa 6
Tbe aoe ai ates x +e leith x

oye soreialiab
2! 4! 6!

Expand the series seats

(Qn 1
(—1)"x"" ; ;
to verify that its terms match those of the
n=0

Maclaurin series.

eee ed) etary ae (li (m1)

a
(2n)! —erT (2:1)! (2-2)! (2-3)!
x' x°®
Soi ie)Bh
28.27 Given cos 0.2 ~ 0.98006657784124, estimate cos 0.2 using the second, fourth,
and sixth degree Maclaurin polynomials for h(x)= cos x to demonstrate that
the larger the degree of the approximating ee ileeay the more accurate the Dont get
approximation. hung up on the
Aegvee of
1 n an
the Maclauvin
= polynomial versus the
According to Problem 28.26, the Maclaurin series for yy= cos x is >or
number of terms it
The first two terms of the series constitute the second degree ie has versus the upper
polynomial. Add an additional term to create the fourth degree Maclaurin limit of the summation
notation. Just remew-
polynomial and then another to create the sixth degree polynomial.
ber this: a secona
Aegree Maclauvin
fd It) 2! polynomial ends
ss(- 1)" x2" x? xt with ,
ee ge | Oe eae
a (2n!) 2! 4!
3/1)" »2n Gay diede 8
Sathish Es Bye es
4s (2n!) 1) 41 6
Substitute n = 0.2 into each polynomial to approximate cos (0.2).
2
Fis Mae = 0.98
2!
2 4

ee:mar Oe
Ss = 0.98006666666667
2 4 6 /

pS a + Cer <Oe = ().98006657777778

Although the second degree Maclaurin polynomial produces a fairly accurate

approximation of cos (0.2), the sixth degree polynomial generates an
approximation accurate to nine decimal places.
U Ret i eee
al =. The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems 54I
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

28.28 Aomori! In@ 95)using a fourth degree Kaeauns polynomial given oC

\\ v dae ae |
: In3 +1.
Ge

Maclaurin polynomials only provide accurate function approximations for

x-values very close to 0. Begin by constructing the function f(x) = In (3 — x).
Calculate the first four derivatives of In (3 — x) and evaluate each at x= 0.
Usea
function that
almost equals In
f(x) =In(3—«) NO aia
2.95 when x = 0. The G)snGoxy se |
cr. (ij 1
. 3-x 3-
simplest one is ; 3
;
£(«) = In 3 - x) because f'(@)=2@6—2) = ee =
% is an integer ana (3) | (3 Ds 9
£00)= In 3, which is Dy res 38h 2 age Jae
=—2(3— =— | 0)=- =
close to In 2.95. pe) ee) (3 oe) et ae) (3-0) 27

POG)
(4) = —6(3—
AROS a)a 4)
arg
6
MeO) 4(0)=—
rg ras
6 Zz ee

Apply the Maclaurin series formula.

4 (n) 0

n=0

0) eeoe at Oe nO a
0! 2! 3! 4!
Zs In3 ae yg es —1/9 ay ey ae Me erat x!
age } 2! 3! 4!
ay ———

S015 8 lee324
Approximate In (2.95) by substituting x = 0.05 and the given estimate of In 3 into
The actual the Maclaurin polynomial.
value of In 2.95 is
sift Se ee
x"
ee
x? x*
!.0818051703517.... ee 162 324
OO va ha 0.05 (0.05)* (0.05)?
ee ee (0.05)
TAC ae 18 81 394
= 1.08180517061

542 “The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

Note: Problems 28.29-28.30 refer to the function f(x) = sin x.

28.29 Identify the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for /(x) centered at c = >
When
youve building
ee : : , 30
Differentiate f(x) = sin x four times and evaluate each derivative at c= 7? : Maclauvin polynomi-
als, you plug 0 inte the
eres 5 3 Mtge 5A
f(x) =sinx | (=) Sssin =-] Aerivatives, but when
youve working with
f'(x)=cosx |! f (=)= cos a 0 Taylor Polynomials

b eet =) . 30
' f" (x)
x)=—sinx | i 9 |Sat me SUT)
ees nS—— ee
al sett 37
f'" (x) =—cosx ! js (52)= -cosS =0

:| 300
ee eee 30
f(x) =sinx : iy (52)=sinese
9 =-]

Apply the Taylor series formula.

4 ¢(n)
sinx ~ YE e-0"

(ceee
e 3) (OS a) C8
3!

| s | sa) >
\-3) sa) a ‘a
x=—1+—|x—-—]+—|x-—] +—]|x-—]| +—|x-—
9 4! 2

Note: Problems 28.29-28.30 refer to the function f(x) = sin x.

570
28.30 Estimate a using the Taylor polynomial generated in Problem 28.29.
Compare the approximation to the actual value and identify two ways you could
better approximate pee using a Taylor polynomial.

57
Substitute x = at into the polynomial generated in Problem 28.29.

_ ba (2 sa) (2 sa)
De a ala al| a ae
Se aa 94\ 3) 92
| (Hoz=Se) 1 (2—27)
= —]+—| ———_] - —| ———_
2 6 24 6

2\6) i) -za)
~—1+-|—| -—|—
24\6
= —().86605388341574
ae«| TheHumchgons
he Humongous Boo
Book et
of Calculus
Calculus Prolene
Problems
543
 Chapter Twenty-Eight — Advanced Infinite Series

3
Recall, from the unit circle, thatsin = vf = —(.86602540378443, so the
approximation is accurate to four decimal places. Increase the accuracy of the
approximation by increasing the degree of the Taylor polynomial or centering
; 57 30
the polynomial about a c-value closer to 3° than 9

28.31 Approximate In 2.95 using the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for f(x) =1n x
_ centered about ¢= 3. Compare the results to the approximation generated by the
IF you Aow't Maclaurin polynomial of equal degree calculated by Problem 28.28.
feel like rewriting
a function to use a wae J(x) =1n x four times and evaluate each derivative at c= 3.
Maclauvin polynomial
(like you had to Aen f (x) =Inx f(3)=In3
Problem 28.29) use a ere 1
Taylor polynomial in- LO) Sais x | eS 3
Stead, since you cay
center it at any x- = — :
TS) ai peas me a6
value, not just
2 @=was 2 |
|p @=s2
e 6 | 6
Tin) ae ace a2
Apply the Taylor series formula.

4
f" 8) (x —38
(n)
Inx =) > =——— '
P a (4)
~ re 14(LO)¢ ~ [FO —3)° (LO) =); {Ec — 3)"
2!
Be See ees ee _3)3 3 — 2
1 1 2 2 4
eg ie ge 3) + o7-a > o7-4i* 3)
=Ind = (4-3)
1
(eS) tee es)
1 2 2 3 2 4

DOs Geeoe Chae one

Approximate In (2.95) by substituting x = 2.95 into the polynomial.

In2.95 = In3+ 1(9.95 —3)- 4 (9.95 —3)° + 2 (9.95 —3)- we (2.95 —3)*
3 18 162 648
1 1 eed en
= In3——(0.05) -—(0.05)’ - —(0.05)° - ——(0.05)*
3 ) Th ) ai ) 394 (0-05)

This approximation is exactly equal to the approximation in Problem 28.28, so

the Taylor and Maclaurin polynomial estimates of In 2.95 are identical.

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

544
 Appendix A
Important graphs to memorize ana gvarph
transformations
 AppendvcA we

S46 T he Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 A ppendix A

—3rxX -17 /X

1D 2
S47
 Appendix A

Yano CSC XK

S4R The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Appendix A

How cousta uts tvanst ovm a Punctio n graph

x) hovizontally
> 7 |: sauishes R( izontallly
< l : st ve tc hes R(x) W ov v etches it
ovizontally
O<v is a n d st
R(x) over ar
-| <> < 0: Flies is aM A sq uishes it Wovi
ze urally
over y-ax
» <-\: Flies R(x)

A? |: sty etches £(x) vertical we

O<a<| > Squish es -
: Y aen ot R(x)
al a of B(x) AoW
<a <0: Hips £(x) e
-|
ava

is
evases gr arh |elt of y-ax
ol ut e va lu e ot (ox + o) R( x) a cross the y-
axis
Arps ec ti on of
it with ve Pl
ana replaces

The Humo Y gous Bock of Calculus Problem s

S44
 Appendix B
The unit cwwcle

/$x0
S >

ae 5 ie
a

2a

0°
= 360° = 0= 29 = (1,0)
\g0° = 7 = (-1,0)

/}o
oA <e
a 7
eX 2 Ss)

ex Ps
qos (o

fe ~
S X (SS
yo 7 SNe
wv ¥/m Ss =a
 Conom
Appendix Trig etvic tAentities
Reciprocal lAentities Sum ana Difference lAentities
cos x = ae oS x |
secx Nie =
SMX = tanx cos (A+B) = cosAcosB F sinAsinB
| |
sin x = secx = : : :
csc x . ' Cos x sin (A+B) = sinAcosB + cosAsinB
Sn Xx | |
tan x = = cscK = — tan (A+B) = tan A x tanB

aon ae " | F tanAtanB

Cofunction lAentities

cos a = |= sinx sity = a = Cos x ProAuct-to-Sum lAentties

cos (A—B) +cos (A + B)

ton (Fx = cot x cot (5—» oe S08 A SOREa Gohl
es
1 csc
1ia = sec x
Ween
sin A swmB =
cos (A — B)-7 cos (A+B)
sec ae = csc x

Eee
ee eeee.
e
sin (A+ B) + sin (A — B)
wets sinA cosB = 7
Pythagorean lAeutities

cos’ x + sin’ x = | |+ tan’ x = sec’ x 2 = re

Lee zi :
|+ cot’ x = csc’ x Power-Re Auction Formulas
chew bene

Augie lAenutities : Vi okie Gee |— cos 2x

Double
cos Ses
x = 7

sin 2x = Z2sinxcosx

cos 2x = cos’ x — sin’ x =2c0s’x—|=|-2sin’x

mie! Ztanx
|—tawn?x
Appendix DP
Devivative Formulas

Trig Devivatives

A ; ye
— (cos x) ==sinx
Ax
Bae
— (sin x) = cos x Exponential/Log
ERPONEHTIA/ Devivatives
EOSIN
A
— (tan x) = sec’ x A
x é aaa
x
— (cot x) = -— csc’ x
Ax A |
—(\Inx) es
A Ax x
—(sec x)= secx tanx
x Ae. “
—(a")=(Ina)a
A Ax
— (csc x) = —cse xcotx
fe Ss (log, x) =
Aa x (Ina)

Inverse Trig Devivatives

- | A |
as: (avcsin
rn x) — =e ae
=. (avccot t x) ccs Bes

|
A | ate iS oe
bee
ax segc cs eo x: (ae Ax ly x’— |
A |
MF (AVOCSS xe)
cas (avctan x) = : Ax Ixlvx*— |
ax |\+x
 Appendix E v i v a t i v e F o r m u l as
Autid e

Trt A utida evivative S$

JScos x Ax=sinx+C
Jsin x Ax = -cos x +
JStxa Ax
m = -In loos xl+ C
J cox Ax
t=Wu Isin xl +C
J se
x Ax
c=In lsxec
+ tam xl
+C
JSes
x Ax
e = -Inlesc x + cot xl +C

eS Inverse Trig Autidervivatives

AW _ WU
Seax=e+C : = = avcsMuM— + C
ya — WU aA
Six aAx=xwx-x+C
Au | e
2,2 ~ ~avctan—+C
A +truU a A
\ lul
(eae = —avcesec— +C
ie ie “A A
Uyu — aA
 ah ley
alt ae ee
te si . (aon
“i7 = 7
’
‘aire - *

ee
te-Tty ane
 Index
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONCEPTS WITH
PROBLEM NUMBERS

This comprehensive index organizes the concepts and skills discussed within the book alphabetically. Each
entry is accompanied by one or more problem numbers in which the topics are most prominently featured.

&.2 is
All of these numbers veer to problems, not pages, ih the book. Fov example,
the second problem in Chapter &.

average rate of change: 15.1, 15.7

A-B average value (of a function): 19.11-19.12, 19.14,
19.16-19.19, 19.22-19.24
absolute convergence: 27.34-27.36 axis of symmetry: 6.2, 6.4
absolute extrema (maximum/minimum)
points: 14.11-14.15
acceleration function: see motion
accumulation functions: 19.25-19.30, 19.35—
19.30 center

alternating series test: 27.29-27.36, 28.14—28.15 (ofa) circle: 6.10—6.12, 6.14-6.15

amplitude of a trigonometric function: 8.2, (of an) ellipse: 6.18
8.6-8.7 centroids: 23.11—23.22
analytic geometry: 1.8—-1.10 chain rule: 12.30-12.44
antidifferentiation: see integration change of base formula: 5.16—5.19
area between curves circle
defined in terms of x: 19.1-19.4, 19.7 equations in parametric and polar form: 24.8,
defined in terms ofy: 19.5-19.6, 19.8 24,16, 24.18
arc length: 23.1-23.5, 24.36—-24.38 graph of: 6.10, 6.16
asymptotes standard form of: 6.12-—6.15, 16.11
horizontal: 4.31—4.33, 9.17—9.20, 9.22, 9.24- comparison test: 27.1—27.7, 28.15
9.26 completing the square: 2.31-2.32, 20.22, 20.25—
(of a) hyperbola: 6.33 20.26, 21,29
slant: 4.34—4.35 complimentary angles: 7.8-7.9
vertical: 4.29—4.30, 4.33, 4.35, 9.15-9.16, concavity: 13.20-13.22, 13.25-13.26
9.21-9.23, 9.27 conditional convergence: 27.34—27.36
 Index — Alphabetical List of Concepts with Problem Numbers

conic sections: see parabola, circle, ellipse, or (of) exponential functions: 12.5-12.6
hyperbola (of) functions defined by tables: 12.27-12.29
conjugate axis of a hyperbola: 6.28 geometric interpretation of: 11.37
continuity graphs of: 13.32-13.35
definition of: 11.1—11.3 (of) inverse functions: 16.32-16.37
graphical determination of: 11.4—11.16 (of) inverse trigonometric functions: 16.24—
one-sided: 11.9, 11.16 16.28
precewise-defined functions: 11.17-11.22 logarithmic differentiation: 16.14-16.23
convergence tests for infinite series (of) logarithmic functions: 12.7-12.8
alternating series test: 27.36-27.39, 28.14— one-sided: 11.39-11.42
28.15 (of) parametrically—defined curves: 24.24-24.35
comparison test: 27.1-27.7, 28.15 (of) polar curves: 24.33—24:35
geometric series: 26.32-26.36, 27.5, 27.7, 27.11 related to continuity: 11.38-11.42
integral test: 26.37-26.41, 27.2, 27.6, 27.35 (of) trigonometric functions: 12.1—-12.4, 12.26
limit comparison test: 27.8-27.13 difference quotient
nth term divergence test: 26.19-26.21, 27.10, definition of: 11.29
— 27.31, 28.7-28.8, 28.11-28.12 differentiation using: 11.30, 11.34
p-sertes: 26.25-26.29, 26.38, 27.3-27.4, 27.9, evaluating derivatives using: 11.31-11.33,
27.12-27.13, 28.14 11.35-11.36
ratio test: 27.14—27.20, 27.36, 28.6, 28.10, differential equations
28.13, 28.15-28.17, 28.23, 28.25 Euler’s method: 25.35-25.41
root test: 27.21—27.28, 28.9 slope field representations of: 25.27-25.34
critical numbers solving by separation of variables: 25.1—25.11,
(of a) function: 13.1-13.7 22ice
(of a) polynomial inequality: 3.24—3.27 differentiation: see derivatives
(of a) rational inequality: 3.28—3.30 direction of a function: see sign graph
cross multiplication: 3.17-3.18 directrix of a parabola: 6.7-6.9
coterminal angles: 7.12—7.14, 7.17 disc method: 22.9-22.18
cylindrical shells: see shell method discontinuity
infinite: 11.12
jump: 11.11
point: 11.10
removability: 11.13, 11.15, 11.17-11.18
definite integrals displacement: 19.32-19.34
(involving) absolute value: 18.25-18.26 distance formula: 1.9
calculated formally: 17.32-17.41 distance traveled: 19.33, 19.35
derivatives of: 18.34-18.39 double root: 2.30
functions defined by: 19.25-19.30
properties of: 18.22-18.24
degrees
converting angle measurements into: 7.4—7.5
definition of: 7.1 eccentricity of an ellipse: 6.25-6.27
derivatives ellipse:
determining direction and concavity: see sign equations in parametric and polar form: 24.6—
graph 24.7, 24.31, 24.38
estimating: 14.6—14.7 graph of: 6.17, 6.19-6.20, 6.22
evaluating graphically: 11.39-11.42 standard form of: 6.18-—6.23, 16.8
(a
560 “Ee Humongous Bock of Calculus Problems
 Index — Alphabetical List of Concepts with Problem Numbers
ee

epsilon-delta definition of limits: 9.28-9.34 graphical transformations of functions:

Euler’s method: 25,35-25.41 (involving) absolute values: 4.17-4.18, 4.20-
exponential expressions aed
properties of: 2.1-2.2, 2.5 reflection, horizontal and vertical: 4.13—4.14,
sumplifying: 2.1-2.4, 5.28—5.31 4.20)
exponential functions shift, horizontal and vertical: 4.11—4.12, 4.19-
domain and range of: 5.2 4.20
graphing: 5.1, 5.3 stretch, horizontal and vertical: 4.15—4.16, 4.21
natural exponential function: 5.13: greatest integer function: 11.4
solving equations containing: 5.32—5, 33
exponential growth and decay: 25.12-25.22
exponentiation: 5.34—5.36
extreme value theorem: 14.11-14.15 H
half-life: 25.16-25.18
hyperbola
graph of: 6.28—6.32
standard form of: 6.29—6.33
factoring
decomposition: 2.27, 10.15
difference ofperfect squares: 2.24
greatest common factor: 2.20—2.21
grouping: 2.26-2.27, 10.17 implicit differentiation: 16.1-16.7, 16.9-16.13
quadratic trinomials: 2.22—2.23 improper integrals: 21.30—21.37, 26.37-26.41
sum ofperfect cubes: 2.25, 10.18 inequalities
fixed point theorem: 11.28 linear: 1.14-1.20, 1.24-1.27
focus polynomial: 3.24—3.27
of an ellipse: 6.24 rational: 3.28—3.30
of a hyperbola: 6.34 inflection points: 13.20-13.22
of a parabola: 6.7-6.9 instantaneous rate of change: 15.1, 15.7
functions integral test: 26.37-26.41, 27.2, 27.6, 27.35
arithmetic operations involving: 4.4—4.6 integration
composition of: 4.6—4.10 (by) completing the square: 20.23, 20.25-20.26
defining: 4.1—4.3 (of) exponential functions: 18.47
determining direction of using first derivative: (involving) inverse trigonometric functions:
13.8-13.10 20.14220.21, 20:24, 20:35,-2345 25,10,
graphing via transformations: 4.11—4.21 25.26, 26.40
one-to-one: 4.3 improper integrals: 21.30-21.37, 26.37-26.41
fundamental theorem of calculus: 18.16-18.21, (of) logarithmic functions: 21.3
18.27-18.39, 19.2 (by) long division: 20.8-—20.13
(by) partial fraction decomposition: 20.27—20.35
power rule for: 18.1-18.3, 18.5-18.9
(by) parts: 21.1-21.7, 22.32, 22.34, 23.21
(by) parts, tabular method: 21.5—21.6
geometric series: 26.18, 26.30-26.36, 27.5, 27.7, (by) separation: 20.2-20.7
7A (of) trigonometric functions: 18.10-18.15,
18.20, 18.40-18.46
(using) trigonometric identities 21.8-21.20, 23.2

The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

561
 Index — Alphabetical List of Concepts with Problem Numbers
fae a

(by) trigonometric substitution: 21.21—21.29 graphing: 1.6

(by) variable substitution: 18.40-18.47, 19.22, intercepts of: 1.6
20.14, 20.24, 21:12—2113, 21.15-21.:20, solving: 1.1
DF 136 2B ADA 26:39, \2795227,36 standard form of: 1.3-1.4
(using) zero sums: 20.6, 20.24 local linearity: 25.23
intermediate value theorem: 11.23-11.28 logarithmic differentiation: 16.14—16.23
interval of convergence (of a power series): 28.5, logarithmic functions:
28.7-28.9, 28.11-28.12, 28.14—-28.16, 28.23, change of base formula applied to: 5.16.19
28.25 common logarithms: 5.13-5.14
interval notation: 1.11-1.13 domain and range of: 5.4
inverse functions equations involving: 5.5—5.10
creating: 4.25—4.26 graphing: 5.11—5.12
definition of: 4.22, 4.24 natural logarithms: 5.13, 5.15
derivatives of: 16.32—16.37 properties of: 5.20-5.27, 22.27-22.28, 23.2
evaluating: 16.29, 16.31 simplifying: 5.28—5.31
graphing: 4.23 solving equations containing: 5.34—5.36
restricted ranges of trigonometric inverse long division of polynomials: see polynomials,
functions: 7.28 long division of
(of) trigonometric functions: 7.28—7.33
verifying: 4.27—4.28, 16.30
M
Maclaurin series and polynomials: 28.20-28.28,
28.31
least common denominator: 3.1—3.6, 3.22—3.23 major axis of an ellipse: 6.17, 6.23
L’HO6pital’s rule: 14.27-14.35, 21.33, 26.7, 26.21- maximizing functions: see optimization of
2D 2 3t 2 1.32 functions
limit comparison test: 27.8-27.13 mean value theorem
limits of differentiation: 15.2-1).8
common known limit values: 10.28-10.31 for integration: 19.9-19.19
evaluating using conjugates: 10.23—10.27 midpoint formula: 1.8
evaluating by factoring: 10.11, 10.13-10.21 minimizing functions: see optimization of
evaluating graphically: 9.10-9.16, 9.18-9.19, functions
10.12 minor axis of an ellipse: 6.17, 6.23
evaluating with L’Hopital’s rule: 14.27-14.35, motion
21.33, 26.7, 26.21-27.22, 27.31-27.32 rectilinear: 15.11-15,22
evaluating by substitution: 10.1-10.10 position, velocity, and acceleration functions:
formal definition of: 9.28—9.34 19.20-19.22, 19.31-19.35
(of) functions defined by tables: 10.4-10.6
involving infinity: 9.15—9.27
general: 9.3-9.4, 9.6, 9.9
one-sided: 9.1—9.2, 9.5, 9.7-9.8, 10.9-10.10
(of) precewise-defined functions: 10.7—10.10 Newton’s law of cooling: 25.19-25.22
linear approximation: 25.23-25.26 Newton’s method: 14.16-14.26
linear equations nth term divergence test: 26.19-26.21, 27.10,
(involving) absolute values: 1.21-1.23 2 16.31¢28.7 228 8261 oad
constructing: 1.5, 1.7

562 the Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Index — Alphabetical List of Concepts with Problem Numbers

proportions, solving: 3.17—3.18

p-series: 26.25-26.29, 26.38, 27.3-27.4, 27.9,
27.12-27.13, 28.14
optimization of functions: 15.29-15.33

parabola
graphing: 6.5-6.6
standard form of: 6.1—6.4, 6.9 quadratic equations, solving
parametric equations completing the square: 2.31-2.32
arc length of curves defined by: 24.36-24.38 factoring method: 2.28
converting to rectangular equations: 24.2, 24.4, quadratic formula: 2.29
24.6 quotient rule: 12.23-12.26, 12.29, 12.38, 12.40-—
differentiating: 24.24—24.35 12.41, 12.44, 27.32
expressing in rectangular form: 24.7-24.8,
24.26, 24,31
graphs of: 24.1, 24.3, 24.5
period of a trigonometric function: 8.3, 8.6—8.7
phase shift of a trigonometric function: 8.4 radians
polar coordinates: 24.9-24.15 converting angle measurements into: 7.2-7.3
polar curves definition of: 7.1
area of regions bounded by: 24.39, 24.41 radical expressions
differentiating equations of: 24.33—24.35 combining: 2.9
expressing in parametric form: 24.22—24.23, expressing with rational exponents: 2.10
24, 33—-24,35 semplifying: 2.6-2.8
graphs of: 24.16-24.21 radius of a circle: 6.10—6.12, 6.14-6.15
polynomials radius of convergence (of a power series) 28.5—
adding and subtracting: 2.11—2.12 28.6, 28.10, 28.13, 28.15-2817, 28:23 "285
factoring: see factoring ratio test: 27.14-27.20, 27.36, 28.6, 28.10, 28.13,
long division of: 2.16—2.17, 20.9-20.12 28.15-28.17, 28.23, 28.25
multiplying: 2.13—2.15, 10.22 rational equations, solving: 3.17—3.23
position function: see motion rational expressions
power rule for differentiation: 12.9-12.18 products of: 3.9-3.12
power rule for integration: 18.1-18.3, 18.5-18.9 quotients of: 3.13-3.16
power series reducing: 3.7-3.8
convergence of: 28.3-28.4, 28.23, 28.25 sums and differences of: 3.1-3.6, 20.1
interval of convergence of: 28.5, 28.7-28.9, rectilinear motion: see motion
28.11-28.12, 28.14-28.16, 28.23, 28.25 reference angles: 7.23—7.25
properties of: 28.1—28.2 related rates: 15.23-15.28
radius of convergence of: 28.5-28.6, 28.10, relative extrema of a function: 13.15-13.18,
L043, Lota Lod 7,28. 23%28.25 13.24, 13.28, 13.30-13.31
representation offunctions: 28.18—28.19, remainder of an alternating series: 27.33
28.22-28.31 revolutions, converting angle measurements
product rule: 12.19-12.22, 12.28, 12.38-12.39,
into: 7.6—7.7
12.41-12.42 Riemann sums
formal Riemann sums: 1732-1741
geometric interpretation of: 17.1, 17.13-17.15
informal Riemann sums: 17.1-17.16

The Humongous Book of Calculus

Problems
563
 Index — Alphabetical List of Concepts with Problem Numbers

left sum: 17.2, 17.8, 17.12-17.13, 17.23

lower sum: 17.6, 17.10 Taylor series and polynomials: 28.21, 28.29—
midpoint sum: 17.4, 17.9, 17.15-17.16 20.5)
monisim= 175.177, 17,14) f29 telescoping series: 26.22-26.24
upper sum: 17.5, 17.11 transverse axis of a hyperbola: 6.28
right triangle trigonometry: 7.19-7.20, 7.29 trapezoidal rule: 17.17-17.27, 19.23, 23.5
Rolle’s theorem: 15.8-15.10 trigonometric equations, solving: 8.22—8.34
root test: 27.21—27.28, 28.9 trigonometric functions and expressions
rotational volume: see volume evaluating: 7.15-7.18, 7.21-7.22, 7.26-7.27
graphing: 8.1, 8.4-8.7
simplifying: 8.8—8.14
S trigonometric identities .
cofunction identities: 8.9-8.10
second derivative test: 13.29-13.31 double angle identities: 8.12—8.14, 8.16, 8.21,
separation of variables: 25.1-25.2, 25.4, 25.6, LUAS Zieloeee el
25.9-25.10, 25.29 even/odd identities: 8.8—8.10
sequences power-reducing: 21.11, 21.13, 22.7, 23.22
convergence of: 26.6—26.8 product-to-sum: 21.14, 21.16, 22.7
(of) partial sums: 26.16-—26.18 Pythagorean identities: 8.11—8.12, 8.14-8.1],
terms of: 26.1—26.5, 8.19, 8.20-8.21, 21.8-21.10, 21.12, 21.15,
series 21.18-21.20, 23.2
evaluating finite: 26.9-26.15 reciprocal identities: 8.8, 8.10-8.11, 8.19
geometric: 26.18, 26.30-26.36 sum and difference identities: 8.16—8.17
p-series: 26.25-26.29 verifying: 8.16, 8.18-8.21
telescoping: 26.22—26.24
shell method: 22.29-22.34
sign graph
(of the) first derivative: 13.11-13.18, 13.23-
13.24, 13.27-13.28, 16.30 u-substitution: see variable substitution
(of the) second derivative: 13.19-13.22, 13.25- unit circle: 7.15-7.18, 8.15
13.26
Simpson’s rule: 17.27-17.31 variable substitution: 18.40-18.47, 19.22, 20.14,
slope: 1.2—1.3, 1.10, 25.35-25.36 20.24, 21.12-21.13, 21.15-21.20, 23.13, 23.15,
slope fields: 25.27-25.34 26.39, 27.35-27.36
slope-intercept form of a line: 1.5, 1.7 velocity function: see motion
supplementary angles: 7.10—7.11 vertex
surface area (of rotation): 23.6—23.10 (of an) ellipse: 6.17
synthetic division: 2.18-2.19, 10.19-10.20, 20.13 (of a) hyperbola: 6.28
systems of equations: 1.28-1.31 (of a) parabola: 6.1-6.4
systems of inequalities: 1.32-1.33 volume, calculating
(using) disc method: 22.9-22.18
7 (using) shell method: 22.29-22.34
(using) washer method: 22.19-22.28, 22.30
(of a) solid with known cross-sections: 22.1-22.9
tangent lines, equations of: 14.1-14.10, 16.10,
16.13, 24.28, 24.35

564 The Humongous Book of Calculus Problems

 Index — Alphabetical List of Concepts with Problem Numbers
ee

W_-X-Y-Z
washer method: 22.19-22.28, 22.30
wiggle graph: see sign graph

The Humongous Book of Calculus Prob

lems
565
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