CHAPTER 11 NUMERICAL CONTROLLING SYSTEM

11.1. Components of a CNC machine tool

11.2. Classification of Numerical Control system

11.3. Components of Numerical Control system

1
11.1. Components of a CNC machine tool
11.1.1. Classification
From the hardware and software points of view, the conceptual
architecture of CNC machine tools include:
1. CNC Machine tools
2. Part program and Machine control unit (MCU)

11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)

1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

11.1.3. CNC Driving System Components

1. Driving motor
2. Linear Movement Guide

2
11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
The MCU is the heart of the CNC system. There are two sub-units in
the machine control unit: the Data Processing Unit (DPU) and the
Control Loop Unit (CLU).
1. Data Processing Unit (DPU)
On receiving a part program, the DPU firstly interprets and encodes
the part program into internal machine codes. The interpolator of the
DPU then calculates the intermediate positions of the motion in terms of
BLU which is the smallest unit length that can be handled by the
controller. The calculated data are passed to CLU for further action.

2. Control Loop Unit (CLU)

The data from the DPU are converted into electrical signals in CLU to
control the driving system to perform the required motions. Other
funtions such as machine spindle ON/OFF, coolant ON/OFF, tool clamp
ON/OFF … are also controlled by this unit according to the internal
machine codes. 3
11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
From a functional point of view, the CNC system consists of the MMI unit,
the NCK unit, and the PLC unit.
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)

2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)

3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

The construction of CNC system

4
11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
The MMI unit offers the interface between NC and the user, executes
the machine operation command, displays machine status, and offers
functions for editing the part program and communication.

The components of a CNC system

5
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
The MMI unit offers the user interface that is needed when a user operates
machine tools. Functions of the user interface are generally classified into five
groups:

 Operation functions (Fig. a)

 Parameter-setting functions (Fig. b)
 Program-editing functions
(Fig. c and d)
 Monitoring and alarm functions
 Service/utility functions

MMI (HiTrol-M100)
(a) Operation functions
(b) Parameter setting Functions
(c) Drilling editing functions
(d) Geometric shape calculator
6
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
Functions of the user interface are generally classified into five groups:
 Operation functions
These functions are used very
frequently and support operation of the
machine and the display that shows the
machine status. Figure a depicts the
status of the machine while it is running.

In Fig. a, the position, distance-to-go,

and feed of each axis, spindle speed,
the block that is being executed, and
override status are shown. In addition,
functions to help machine operation
such as jog, MDI, program search,
program editor, and tool management
are provided

7
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
Functions of the user interface are generally classified into five groups:
 Parameter-setting functions
In the CNC system, there are various parameters for internal use and these
are categorized into three kinds:
+ Machine parameters that are used
for setting machine regulation,
servo/spindle driving system, tool offset,
work coordinate, and safety boundary.
+ Program parameters that should be
set during editing of the part program.
+ Customization parameters that are
used to adapt the machine to user
requirements.

These functions provide the interface for setting, storing, and searching
parameters. Figure b shows the display for searching for internal parameters
and modifying them.
8
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
Functions of the user interface are generally classified into five groups:
 Program-editing functions
These functions are able to edit and modify the part program, which is G-
code based on the EIA/ISO standard.
Practically, it is necessary for the user
to know G/M-codes and carry out
mathematical calculations in order to
generate the G-code part program.
Because mathematical calculation
makes it difficult to edit part programs,
CNC has recently begun to employ
conversational programming systems

Figure c shows the display that the conversational programming system

provides in order to edit a part program for drilling. By interaction with the GUI a
user can quickly generate a part programfor drilling without memorizing the
input attributes for G-code cycles 9
1. Man Machine Interface (MMI)
Functions of the user interface are generally classified into five groups:
 Monitoring and alarm functions
The CNC system always informs a user of the machine status by monitoring
and, if need be, these functions execute the necessary tasks and inform the
user of the result.
These functions are essential when machine tools are executing at high
speed.
These functions play the role of providing monitoring information such as the
alarm status, emergency recovery method, PLC status, and ladder diagram
under execution.

 Service/utility functions
Besides the other four essential functions, many useful functions are
provided to assist users. The DNC function for transmitting the part
program,which is edited externally, to the CNC, the file service for copying
internal parameters to the outside, and the communication function for
communicating with computers belong to these functions.
10
11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
The NCK (Numerical Control Kernel) unit, being the core of the CNC
system, interprets the part program and executes interpolation, position
control, and error compensation based on the interpreted part program.

NCK functional blocks 11

 2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
In general, the NC system interprets the input data, keeps them in
memory, sends commands to the driving system, and detects feedback
signals from the drive system.
The NC system also performs logical decision making such as when
coolant is provided and when the spindle starts rotating and
mathematical calculations for acceleration control and interpolation of
lines, circles and parabolae.
Therefore, the NCK unit has the task of being in charge of the servo
and driving control and the PLC unit has the task of being in charge of
logic control, so the burden that occurs during control is adequately
balanced.
The main functions of the NCK unit are interpreter, interpolator,
acceleration/deceleration controller, and position controller.

12
 2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
The main functions of the NCK:.
 Interpreter
 Interpolator
 Acceleration/deceleration controller
 Position controller

 Interpreter
An interpreter plays the role of reading a part program, interpreting
the ASCII blocks in the part program, and storing interpreted data in
internal memory for the interpolator.

In general, NC issues the orders related to the interpreted data and

the interpreter reads and interprets the next block while the command is
being performed.
13
 2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
The main functions of the NCK:.
 Interpreter
 Interpolator
 Acceleration/deceleration controller
 Position controller
 Interpolator
An interpolator plays the role of sequentially reading the data from
the internal data buffer, calculating the position and velocity per unit time
of each axis, and storing the result in a FIFO (First In, First Out) buffer
for the acceleration/deceleration controller.
The interpolator generates a pulse corresponding to the path data
according to the type of path (e.g. line, circle, parabola, and spline) and
sends the pulse to the FIFO buffer. The number of pulses is decided
based on the length of path and the frequency of the pulses is based on
the velocity. 14
 2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
The main functions of the NCK:.
 Interpreter
 Interpolator
 Acceleration/deceleration controller
 Position controller

 Acceleration/deceleration controller

In order to smooth the movement of a machine, the acceleration and

deceleration for the movement of the machine axes should be controlled
by a digital filter.
In order to prevent mechanical vibration and shock (occured
whenever part movement starts and stops), the filtering for
acceleration/deceleration control is executed before interpolated data is
sent to the position controller. 15
 Acceleration/deceleration controller
Based on the order in which the Acc/Dec control is executed, two
kinds of Acceleration and Deceleration control methods have been
developed: Acc/Dec Control Before Interpolation (ADCBI) and Acc/Dec
Control After Interpolation (ADCAI).
ADCAI is applied in an identical manner for all interpolation methods.
.Therefore, the implementation is simple but machining errors occur
because each axis movement is determined separately.
In the case of ADCAI, firstly the NCK interprets a part program using
the interpreter module and calculates the displacement distance for
each axis, ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ for every interpolation time interval based on the
interpreted result using the rough interpolation module.
Next, independent Acc/Dec control of each axis is performed with
respect to ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ and the fine interpolation then follows.
Finally, the total remaining displacement of each axis for every
position control time interval is calculated by the position control module.
16
 2. Numerical Control Kernel (NCK)
The main functions of the NCK:.
 Interpreter
 Interpolator
 Acceleration/deceleration controller
 Position controller

 Position controller
A position controller will carry out the transmitted data (from an
acceleration/deceleration controller) in a constant time interval.
A position control typically means a PID (Proportional Integral
Derivative) controller and issues velocity commands to the motor driving
system in order to minimize the position difference between the
commanded position and the actual position found from the encoder.
17
11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
The PLC sequentially controls tool change, spindle speed, workpiece
change, and in/out signal processing and plays the role of controlling the
machine‟s behavior with the exception of servo control.

Mitsubishi PLC

The architecture and function of the PLC system

18
11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
The logic controller is used to execute sequential control in a
machine and an industry.
In the past, logic control was executed by using hardware that
consisted of relays, counters, timers, and circuits. Therefore, it was
considered as a hardware-based logic controller.
However, recent PLC systems consist of a few electrical devices
including microprocessors and memory, able to carry out logical
operations, a counter function, a timer function and arithmetic
operations. Therefore, a PLC system can be defined as a software-
based logic controller.

Mitsubishi PLC
19
 3. Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
The advantages of PLC systems are as follows:
Flexibility: The control logic can be changed by changing only a
program.
Scaleability: The expansion of a system is possible by adding
module changing programs.
Economic efficiency: Reduction of cost is possible due to the
decrease in design time, high reliability, and easy maintenance.
Miniaturization: The installation dimension is smaller compared to a
relay control box.
Reliability: The probability of failure occurrence due to bad contact
decreases because of using a semiconductor.
Performance: Advanced functions such as arithmetic operations and
data editing are possible.

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11.1.2. Machine control unit (MCU)
4. Real-time Control System
In an NC system, the NCK unit, the PLC unit, and the MMI unit
should be executed in constant time intervals. Because of this property,
the NC system is a complex real-time system.

Task scheduling in an NC system 21

 4. Real-time Control System
In the below figure, the design intention is that the position controller, the
interpolator, the interpreter, and the MMI have, respectively, the highest, the
second, the third, and the lowest priorities.
Because MMI, NCK, and PLC comprise very complex and real-time
functions, usage of individual microprocessors for each module is typical.

Task scheduling in an NC system 22

11.1. Components of a CNC machine tool
11.1.3. CNC Driving System Components
1. Driving motor
1. Stepper motor
2. Servo motor
3. Encorder
4. Resolver

2. Linear Movement Guide

1. Ball screw
2. Linear Movement guide

23
11.1.3.1. Driving motor
1. Stepper motor
A stepper motor is a device that converts electrical pulses into discrete
mechanical rotational motions of a motor shaft. It is a brushless DC electric
motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal steps.
This is the simplest device that can be applied to CNC machine since it can
convert digital data into actual mechanical displacement. It is not necessary to
have any analog-to-didital converter nor feedback device for the control system.
They are ideally suited to open loop control system.
However, stepper motors are not commonly used in CNC machine tools due
to the following drawbacks:

 Low speed
 Low torque
 Low resolution
 Easy to slip in case of overload
24
 1. Stepper motor
A stepper motor is built with a fixed wire housing (the stator) arranged around
a series of „toothed‟ electromagnets spinning at the centre.
The stepper motor converts a pulsing electrical current, controlled by
a stepper motor driver, into precise one-step movements of this gear-like
toothed component around a central shaft.

Each rotation of a stepper motor is divided

into a set number of steps 12, 24, 72, 144,
180, and 200 steps

Each of these stepper motor pulses moves the rotor through one precise and
fixed increment of a full turn. 25
 1. Stepper motor
As the current switches between the wire coils arranged in sequence around
the outside of the motor, the rotary part can complete full or partial turns as
required. The main benefit of this stepper motor is less manufacturing cost.
Types of stepper motor are:
 Permanent magnet stepper motor
 Variable reluctance stepper motor
 Hybrid stepper motor

26
 a. Permanent stepper motor (PM)
Permanent magnet motors use a permanent magnet (PM) in the rotor and
operate on the attraction or repulsion between the rotor PM and the stator
electromagnets.
This is the most common type of stepper motor as compared with different
types of stepper motors available in the market. This motor includes permanent
magnets in the construction of the motor.

27
 a. Permanent stepper motor (PM)

Advantages
 Detent torque is defined as the maximum static torque that can be applied to
the shaft of an unexcited motor without causing continuous rotation.
 The motor has full torque at standstill (if the windings are energized).
 Excellent response to starting/stopping/reversing.

Disadvantages
 Low torque to Inertia ratio.
 Acceleration is slow.
 Very slow dynamic response.
28
 1. Stepper motor
The current supplied from the drive creates a magnetic field that is used to rotate the
shaft of the motor. Below is the a basic representation of how this process works.

1. The upper electromagnet is activated and the teeth of the central cog line up
accordingly.

2. The upper electromagnet is deactivated and the right one turned on. The closest cog
teeth then jump to line up with this. This causes a step (e.g. 1.8° turn)..
3. The right electromagnet is deactivated and the lower one is turned on. The cog teeth
then jump to line up with the bottom electromagnet. This causes another step.
4. The bottom electromagnet is deactivated and the left-most one turned on. The cog
teeth then jump to line up with this. This causes another step. On a motor which has
a step angle of 1.8°, 200 steps are required for a full rotation 29
 b. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor (VR)
Variable reluctance (VR) motors have a plain iron rotor and operate based on
the principle that minimum reluctance occurs with minimum gap, hence the
rotor points are attracted toward the stator magnet poles.
As the name suggests, the rotor‟s angular position mainly depends on the
magnetic circuit‟s reluctance that can be formed among the teeth of the stator
as well as a rotor.
The number rotor poles should not be equal
to the number of stator poles to have self
starting capability and bidirectional rotation.

The number of steps per revolution S is

NS x NR
S=
|NS – NR|
In which NS is stator poles (teeth)
NR is rotor poles (teeth)
The number of steps per revolution S of
the motor in the figure is S = 24 30
 b. Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor (VR)

Advantages
 Excellent response to starting/ stopping/reversing.
 Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor. Therefore the
life of the motor is simply dependent on the life of the bearing.
 An energized stepper motor maintains full torque at standstill position.
 A wide range of rotational speeds can be
utilized since the speed of a step motor is
proportional to the frequency of the input pulses
from your controller.
 It is possible to achieve very low speed
synchronous rotation with a load that is
directly coupled to the shaft.

Disadvantages
Not easy to operate at high speed.

31
 c. Hybrid Stepper motor
Most industrial stepper motors are hybrid stepper motors that consist of a
permanent magnet rotor and a wound electromagnetic stator.
Hybrid stepper motors allow for yet more precision, through techniques such
as half-stepping and microstepping.
. Hybrid stepper motors usually have poles or teeth that are offset on two
different cups around the outside of the magnet rotor.
This also means steps and rotations can be more precisely controlled, as
well as offering quieter operation, higher torque-to-size ratios and greater
output speeds than standard stepper motors.
Permanent Rotor
Rotor magnet (steel core)
(steel core)
Rear
endcap
Front
endcap
Stator
Shaft

Winding

Ball
bearing 32
 c. Hybrid Stepper motor
The stator of a hybrid stepper motor consists of poles with teeth, and each
pole has a winding. Phases are made up of poles connected by their windings.
When current is applied to a phase, each pole in that phase will be energized
and magnetized. Poles 180 degrees opposite each other are magnetized with
the same polarity.

The rotor of a hybrid stepper motor is made up of two “cups,” which typically
have 50 teeth each. The two cups are offset by 1/2 tooth pitch, and the teeth on
one cup are polarized north, while the teeth on the other cup are polarized
south, for a total of 100 poles, or 50 pole pairs. 33
 c. Hybrid Stepper motor
Hybrid stepper motors are often classified by the number of phases in the
stator, with the majority of hybrid steppers having either 2 phases or 5 phases.
A 2-phase stepper motor typically has eight poles, or four poles (two pole
pairs) per phase. When the stator phases are energized, the rotor moves one-
quarter of a tooth pitch to align with the energized stator poles.
The number of steps per revolution S is
S = 2 x NS x NR
In which NS is number of stator phases
NR is number of rotor pole pairs
If 2-phase stepper motor has eight poles
or four poles (two pole pairs) per phase
and rotor cup has 50 teeth, the number of
steps per revolution S of the motor is:
S = 2 x 2 x 50 = 200 steps/rev
3600 3600
Step angle β is: β = = = 1,80
S 200 34
 c. Hybrid Stepper motor
Advantages
 Excitation required to achieve given torque is less compared to other stepper
motors.
 Presents of detent torque.

 The shaft is held at a position even after the supply is disconnected.

 Precise position control.

Disadvantages
 Construction is complex compared to other stepper motors.
 Due to the presents of permanent magnet, rotor has greater inertia.
 Resonances can occur if not properly controlled. 35
 1. Stepper motor
Parameters of Stepper Motor
a. Step Angle β (degree): The step angle of the stepper motor can be defined
as the angle at which the motor‟s rotor turns once a single pulse is given to the
stator‟s input
Steps per Step Angle β
The number of steps per revolution S ranges revolution (S) (degree)
from 4 to 400. Commonly available step counts 400 0.90
are 24, 48 and 200. 360 200 1.80
β=
S 100 3.60
96 3.750
By using microstepping technology, we can
48 7.50
actually get more steps per rev. The maximum
24 150
number of steps/rev really depends on the drive.
Note that more steps per revolution for stepper motors will cause those
motors to rotate at a lower speed and provide lower torque than a similarly
sized motor with fewer steps per revolution.
Therefore, when looking for a high-precision stepper motor, the required
speed and torque output for your application are essential to consider. 36
 1. Stepper motor
Parameters of Stepper Motor

b, Resolution: Resolution is given by the number of steps needed to complete

one revolution of the rotor shaft. The resolution of the motor can be defined as
follows:
Number of Steps S
Resolution =
Number of Revolution of the Rotor

c. Revolution per minute n (rpm): The revolution number of the motor per
minute can be calculated by the formula:

f x 60 β x f x 60
n= =
S 360
in which f is stepping frequency (pulses per second, pps or Hz)
37
 1. Stepper motor
How to control stepper motors

Currently, there are 4 methods to control stepper motors that are commonly used:
Waveform stepper motor control: This is a control method that provides pulses
to the controller, operating in turn in a certain order for each phase winding.
In this drive method only a single phase is activated at a time. It has the
same number of steps as the full-step drive, but the motor will have significantly
less torque than rated. It is rarely used.
Different drive modes showing coil current on a 4-phase unipolar stepper motor

Timing diagram of control signals in Wave Drive 38

 1. Stepper motor
How to control stepper motors

Full step motor control: This is a method of controlling pulse supply at the
same time, and both phase windings are arranged in succession.
This is the usual method for full-step driving the
motor. Two phases are always on so the motor will
provide its maximum rated torque. As soon as one
phase is turned off, another one is turned on.

Timing diagram of control signals in Full Step Drive

39
 1. Stepper motor
Half step motor control: It is a control method that combines both waveform
motor control and full stepper motor control.
When controlling the motor by this method, the
value of the step angle is less than 2 times and the
number of steps of the stepper motor will also
increase 2 times compared with the control method
with a sufficient stepper motor.
However, this control method has an extremely
complicated control pulse generator.

Timing diagram of control signals in Half Step Drive

40
 1. Stepper motor
Microstep motor control (Microstep): This is a new method, applied only
during stepper motor control.
Microstep control divides each full step into smaller steps to help smooth out
the motor‟s rotation, especially at slow speeds. Normal microstepping levels are
2, 4, 8, 10, 16, 32, 64, etc. up to 256.
The obvious advantage of this method is that the motor can operate
efficiently with small step angles and very high accuracy.
Because the motor's pulse has a waveform, the machine will operate more
smoothly and quietly, thereby greatly reducing resonance in any parts the motor
may be connected to, as well as the motor itself.

Timing diagram of control signals in Microstep Drive 41

11.1.3.1. Driving motor
2. Servo motor
A servo motor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of angular
position. It consists of a motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also
requires a servo drive to complete the system. The drive uses the feedback
sensor to precisely control the rotary position of the motor.
A servo motor is a closed-loop servomechanism that uses position feedback
to control its motion and final position. The input to its control is a signal (either
analogue or digital) representing the position commanded for the output shaft.

Stepper motor Control mechanism Servo motor 42

11.1.3.1. Driving motor
2. Servo motor
Unlike stepper motors, the servo motor needs characteristics such as high
torque, high acceleration, and fast response at low speed and can
simultaneously control velocity and position.

43
11.1.3.1. Driving motor
2. Servo motor
The fundamental characteristics required for servo motors of machine tools
are the following:
 To be able to get adequate output of power according to work load.
 To be able to respond quickly to an instruction.
 To have good acceleration and deceleration properties.
 To have a broad velocity range.
 To be able to control velocity safely in all velocity ranges.
 To be able to be continuously operated for a long time.
 To be able to provide frequent acceleration and deceleration.
 To have high resolution in order to generate adequate torque.
 To be easy to rotate and have high rotation accuracy.
 To have high reliability and long length of life.
 To be easy to maintain.
44
11.1.3.1. Driving motor
2. Servo motor
Servo motors are part of a closed-loop system and are comprised of several
parts namely a control circuit, servo motor, shaft, potentiometer, drive gears,
amplifier and either an encoder or resolver.

Types of servo motor are designed to satisfy the above-mentioned

characteristics

Types of servo motor 45

2. Servo motor
a. DC Servo motor
The stator consists of a cylindrical frame, which plays the role of the passage
for magnetic flux and mechanical supporter, and the magnet, which is attached
to the inside of the frame.
The rotor consists of a shaft and brush. A commutator and a rotor metal
supporting frame (rotor core) are attached to the outside of the shaf and an
armature is coiled in the rotor metal supporting frame. A brush that supplies
current through the commutator is built with the armature coil.

At the back of the shaft, a detector for

detecting rotation speed is built into the
rotor. In general, an optical encoder or
tacho-generator is used as a detector.

46
2. Servo motor
b. Synchronous-type AC Servo motor
The stator consists of a cylindrical frame and a stator core. The stator core is
located in the frame and an armature coil is wound around the stator core. The
end of the coil is connected with a lead wire and current is provided from the
lead wire.
The rotor consists of a shaft and a permanent magnet and the permanent
magnet is attached to the outside of the shaft. In a synchronous-type AC servo
motor, the magnet is attached to a rotor and an armature coil is wound around
the stator unlike the DC servo motor. Stator
Therefore, the supply of current is possible (armature coil) Detector
from the outside without a stator. A synchronous
AC servo motor is called a “brushless servo
motor” because of this structural characteristic.
Rotor
Like a DC servo motor, this type of AC servo (permanent
motor uses an optical encoder or a resolver as a magnet)

detector of rotation velocity. 47

2. Servo motor
c. Induction-type AC Servo motor
The structure of an induction-type AC servo motor is identical with that of a
general induction motor. If multi-phase alternating current flows through the coil
of a stator, a current is induced in the coil of rotor and the induction current
generates torque.

In this type of AC servo motor, the stator consists of a frame, a stator core,
an armature coil, and lead wire. The rotor consists of a shaft and the rotor core
that is built with a conductor.
Stator
An induction-type AC servo motor has a (armature coil)
simple structure and does not need the detector
of relative position between the rotor and stator.
However, because the field current should flow
Rotor (a
continuously during stopping, a loss of heating conductor)
occurs and dynamic braking is impossible. Short
circuit
48
2. Servo motor
The strengths, weaknesses and characteristics of the servo motors
mentioned above are summarized in the following table.
Synchronous -type AC Induction-type AC Servo
DC Servo Motor
Servo Motor Motor
Low price
Brushless Simple structure
Strengths Broad velocity range
Easy stop No detector needed
Easy control
Heat, Brush wear, Noise Complex structure
Dynamic braking impossible
Weaknesses Position-detection Torque ripple, Vibration
Loss of heating
needed Position-detection needed

Capacity Small Small or Medium Medium or large

Sensor Unnecessary Encoder, resolver Unnecessary

Life length Depends on brush life Depends on bearing life Depends on bearing life

High speed Inadequate Applicable Optimized

Resistance Poor Good Good

Permanent magnet Exists Exists None

49
2. Comparison between Stepper motor and Servo motor
Comparison Stepper Motor Servo Motor
Basic Stepper motor operates in steps It is continuous operating machine
System configuration Open loop Closed loop
Power requirement More Comparatively less
Design Simple Complex
Ability to response High Comparatively low
Cost Inexpensive Expensive
Reliability More Less
Noise and vibration High Comparatively less
Operating speed Slow Fast
Feedback mechanism Not exist Exist
Heat generation More Comparatively less
Number of poles Generally 50 to 150 Around 4 to 12
Life span More Less
Damage due to overload Less prone to get damaged. Comparatively more prone to get damaged
Torque produced High Low
Efficiency Less More
Tolerance towards
High Low
moment of inertia
In robotics, antenna positioning systems,
In gaming, textile, welding machineries,
Applications automatic doors, cameras, remote controlled
medical and 3D printing equipments, etc.
equipments, etc. 50
11.1.3.1. Driving motor
3. Encoder
The device that detects the current position for position control is called an
encoder and, generally, is built into the end of the power-transmission shaft.
In order to control velocity, the velocity is detected by a sensor or is
calculated by position control data detected from the encoder.
The method for detecting velocity uses the encoder, a way of counting pulses
generated in unit time and a means of detecting the interval between pulses
together.
There are two types of encoders:
 Rotary encoder: responds to rotational motion.
 Linear encoder: responds to motion along the path.
An encoder can be classified as an optical type or a magnetic type
depending on the sensing technology it uses. Two types of optical encoder are:
 Incremental-type optical encoder.
 Absolute-type optical encoder. 51
3. Encoder
a. Incremental-type optical Encoder
Figure below shows the structure of the incremental-type encoder with three
kinds of slit - A, B, and Z. Slits A and B generate an output waveform, the Z slit
generates the zero phase.
The light emitted from an LED is detected by a photo-detector after passing
one slit of the rotation disk and one of the slits A, B, or Z on a fixed slit panel.

Slits A and B are arranged for a phase difference of 90 degrees and the
electric signal of the output is generated as a square wave whose phase
difference is 90 degrees. The Z slit generates a square wave, indicating one
revolution of the encoder.

Incremental Encoder

52
3. Encoder
a. Incremental-type optical Encoder
If the power is off then this type of encoder cannot indicate a position.
Because this type of encoder only generates pulses, the number of output
pulses should be transformed into an analog signal that is proportional to the
pulse frequency in an F/V converter in order to detect rotation velocity.
An incremental-type encoder has a simple structure and is cheap. It is also
easy to transmit a signal because the number of wires needed for sending
output signals is small.

The number of output pulses from

the encoder does not indicate the
absolute rotation position of a shaft
but indicates the rotation angle of
the shaft.

53
3. Encoder
b. Absolute-type optical Encoder
The structure and the signal generation method of an absolute-type encoder
are identical with those of an incremental-type encoder. However, the disk slit of
an absolute-type encoder and the arrangement of photodetectors are different
from those of an incremental-type encoder as shown in the figure.
In this encoder, the slit on a disk slot provides a binary bit; so that, the
outermost part of a disk is set to the lowest bit and as many slits and photo-
detectors exist as the number of bits.
The slits are arranged along
concentric circles towards the interior of
the disk. Based on these components,
the rotation position data is output in
binary or decimal form. In this way, the
method where absolute position data is
used is a graycode method.
Absolute rotary encoder 54
3. Encoder
b. Absolute-type optical Encoder
Because an absolute-type encoder can detect the absolute position, the
noise generated during sending the signal is not accumulated and the current
position can be detected after the electric current has been cut off and then
supplied again.
However, because as many output signal wires are needed as the number of
bits, it is difficult to minimize size and decrease price.

Linear encoder
55
3. Encoder
The Difference between Absolute and Incremental Encoder depending
on the outputs

Incremental encoders measure in relation to a starting point. Every time a

system is turned on a new zero reference point is established, or a new one will
need to be reestablished by the user. Markings or steps are spaced equally
apart on the scale, or disc in the case of rotary encoders. The encoder
generates a pulse-like signal based on each marking, which is translated to a
signal.

On the other hand, absolute encoders recognize a distinct location at all

times. It‟s not relative to another and there‟s no need for reestablishing a zero
point. Instead of equally spaced marks, distinct tracks or markings transmit a
unique code at each location to a serial control.

56
4. Resolver
A resolver is a detector of rotation angle and position and is used as the
sensor of a motor. Unlike an encoder that generates an output signal in digital
format, a resolver generates an output in analog format.
A resolver consists of a stator, a rotor, and a rotation transformer. The coils of
the stator and rotor are arranged to make the distribution of magnetic flux a sine
wave with respect to the angle. A resolver has a similar structure to a motor and
is insensitive to vibration and mechanical shock.
In addition, because the output is an analog signal, the long-distance
transmission of signals and the miniaturization of the device are possible.
However, the signalprocessing circuit is complex and the device is more
expensive than a rotary encoder

Resolver structure 57
11.1.3.2. Linear Movement Guide
1. Ball screw
A ball screw is a mechanical linear actuator that translates rotational motion
to linear motion with little friction.
A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball bearings which act as a
precision screw. As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads,
they can do so with minimum internal friction.
They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable for use in
situations in which high precision is necessary.
Return tube
The ball assembly acts as the nut Screw
while the threaded shaft is the screw. shaft

In contrast to conventional leadscrews,

ballscrews tend to be rather bulky, due to
the need to have a mechanism to re- Ball nut
Ball steel
circulate the balls. 58
11.1.3.2. Linear Movement Guide
2. Linear Movement guide
A LM guide consists of an M-shaped guide rail and a transferring part.
The bearing exists between the guide rail and the transferring part and
lubricant is supplied to the surface of the LM guide rail to decrease friction while
the transferring part is moving.

59
11.1.3.2. Linear Movement Guide
2. Linear Movement guide

Structure of a Linear Guide

The linear guides consist of a mechanism in which steel balls are circulated
infinitely to enable an infinite stroke of ball slides theoretically.
A LM guide is used to increase the accuracy and smoothness of the linear
movement. 60
11.2. Classification of numerical controlling systems
11.2.1. Based on the control loops:
1. Open Loop Control Systems
2. Closed loop Control Systems
a. Semi-Closed loop Control Systems
b. Closed loop Control Systems
c. Hybrid loop Control Systems

11.2.2. Based on the motion-control type:

1. Finite positioning control systems
a. Point-to-point control systems
b. Straight-line control systems
2. Continuous or contouring control systems
61
11.2.1 Based on the control loops
1. Open Loop Control System
 The open loop control means that there is no feedback and
stepper motors are used for driving the leadscrew.
 Because open loop does not need a detector and a feedback
circuit, the structure is very simple.

Open loop Control Systems

62
11.2.1 Based on the control loops
1. Open Loop Control System
 The primary drawback of the open loop system is that there is
no feedback system to check whether the program position and
velocity has been achieved.
 The accuracy of the driving system is directly in-fluenced by
the accuracy of the stepper motor, ball screw, and transmission.
 Open loop can be applied in the case where the accuracy of
control is not high.

63
11.2.1 Based on the control loops
2. Closed loop Control System
 The closed loop control system has a feedback subsystem to
monitor the actual output and correct any discrepancy from the
programmed input.

Closed loop Control Systems

In the spindle system of machine tools, feedback control of

velocity is applied to maintain a regular rotation speed. The
detector (an optical encoder) can be attached to the shaft of a
servo motor or the moving part
64
 2. Closed loop Control System
According to position data detection method, there are 3 types:
a. Semi-closed loop Control System
b. Closed loop Control System
c. Hybrid loop Control System
a. Semi-closed loop Control System

In this type, a position detector is attached to the shaft of a servo

motor and detects the rotation angle.
The position accuracy of the table is dependent on the accuracy of
the ball screw. 65
 2. Closed loop Control System
b. Closed loop Control System

In the closed loop, the position detector is attached to the machine

table and the actual position error is fed back to the control system.
Closed loop and semi-closed loop are very similar except in the
location of the position detector, and the position accuracy of
closed loop is very high. 66
 2. Closed loop Control System
c. Hybrid loop Control System

In the hybrid loop, there are two kinds of control loop; semi-closed
loop, where the position is detected from the shaft of a motor, and
closed loop, which is based on a linear scale.
In the semi-closed loop, it is possible to control with high gain
because the machine is not included in the control system. The closed
loop increases accuracy by compensating the error that the semi-closed
loop cannot control. 67
11.2.2. Based on the motion-control type
1. Finite positioning control system
 Point-to-point control system
1. Feed rates need not to be programmed
2. In these machine tools, each axis is driven separately.
y

D E B( X2,Y2)

B
F

C
A( X1,Y1)

x
Point-to-point control systems 68
11.2.2. Based on the motion-control type
1. Finite positioning control system
 Point-to-point control systems
1. It is used in some CNC machines such as drilling, boring
and tapping machines…etc.
2. The control equipment for use with them are known as
point-to-point control equipment.
y

D E B( X2,Y2)

B
F

C
A( X1,Y1)

x 69
1. Finite positioning control system
 Straight-line control system
 Straight cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool
parallel to one of the major axes at a controlled rate suitable for
machining.
y

B( X1,Y2)
Y2

Y1 C( X2,Y1)
A( X1,Y1)
X1 X2 x
Straight-line control systems 70
 Straight-line control system

 It is therefore appropriate for performing milling operations to

fabricate workpieces of rectangular configurations.

 An NC machine tool capable of performing straight cut movements

is also capable of point to point movements.
y

B( X1,Y2)
Y2

Y1 C( X2,Y1)
A( X1,Y1)
X1 X2 x
Straight-line control systems 71
 Data of part Input data Machining data

Programming
Computer
Coding

Part program

Reading units

Code interpreter

Scheme of finite position Position signal

control systems
D/A and A/D converter

Comparison Comparison
Y
Position
Position Amplifier
Amplifier measuring
measuring

Servo motor Servo motor

X
72
2. Continuous or contouring control systems
Continuous-path controllers cause the tool to maintain continuous
contact with the part as the tool cuts a contour shape.

These operations include milling along any lines at any angle, milling
arcs and lathe turning.

2D contouring control systems

73
2. Continuous or contouring control systems
 Control 3D:
3 Axis if your cutting requires simultaneous controlled movement
of the X, Y, Z axes, which most free-form surfaces require.

3D contouring control systems

74
2. Continuous or contouring control systems
1
 Control 2 D :
2

 In this case, the cutter can move in the Z (vertical) plane to

change levels, but not simultaneously with the X, Y movements

 Besides the plane XY, the machine can interpolate in the other
XZ or YZ planes

75
2. Continuous or contouring control systems
 Control 4D and 5D:
 On the basis of 3D control, if we design additionally for the tool-
carrying axis or the table or the fixture bearing the detail, one or two
movements around a certain axis that can be combined with 3
movements of the 3 axes other in order to create a 4D control or a 5D
control.

76
 Data of part Input data Machining data

Programming
Computer
Coding

Part program

Reading units

Code interpreter

Scheme of contouring Position signal

control systems
D/A and A/D converter

Comparison Interpolation Comparison

Y
Position
Position Amplifier
Amplifier measuring
measuring

Servo motor Servo motor

X 77
Structure of a CNC
machine tool

78
11.3. Components of Numerical Control system
11.3.1. Part program
11.3.2. CNC input and storage media

11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program

79
11.3. Components of Numerical Control system
11.3.1. Part program
Programming Example (Cylindrical Part)
O0013
N0005 G53
N0010 T0303
N0020 G57 G00 X26.00 Z0.0 S500 M04
N0030 G01 X-0.20 F100
N0040 G00 Z2.0
N0050 X50.0 Z50.0
N0060 T0404
N0070 G57 G00 X22.50 Z2.0 S500
N0080 G01 Z-30.0 F100
N0090 G00 X23.0 Z2.0 S500
N0100 G84 X17.5 Z-20.0 D0=200 D2=200 D3=650
N0110 G00 Z2.0
N0120 X50.0 Z50.0
N0130 M30 80
11.3.1. Part Program
The transfer of an engineering blueprint of a product to a part program can
be performed manually using a calculator or with the assistance of a computer
language.

A part programmer must have an extensive knowledge of the machining

processes and the capabilities of the machine tools.

How the part programmers execute manually the part programs

+ First, the machining parameters are determined.

+ Second, the optimal sequence of operations is evaluated .

+ Third, the tool path is calculated.

+ Fourth, a program is written.

81
11.3.1. Part Program
Important things to know:
• Coordinate System
• Units, incremental or absolute positioning
• Coordinates: X, Y, Z
• Feed rate and spindle speed
• Coolant Control: On/Off, Flood, Mist
• Tool Control: Tool and tool parameters

Part programming contains geometric data about the part and motion
information to move the cutting tool with respect to the workpiece.

Basically, the machine receives instructions as a sequence of blocks

containing commands to set machine parameters; speed, feed and
other relevant information.
82
11.3.1. Part Program
A CNC program includes blocks, words and addresses
Block: a command given to the control unit is called a block.
Word: a block is composed of one or more words. A word is
composed of an identification letter and a series of numerals,e.g. the
command for a feed rate of 200 mm/m is F200.
Address: is the identification letter at the beginning of each word.

A block is equivalent to a line of codes in a part program:

N135 G01 X10 Y15 Z5 T01 F200

Block number Coordinates Special function
G-code Tool number

Part programming contains geometric data about the part and motion
information to move the cutting tool with respect to the work piece.
Each line of the program, referred to as a block, contains the required
data for transfer from one point to the next. 83
11.3.1. Part Program

Programming consists of a series of instructions in form of letter

codes. Preparatory Codes:
 G codes: Initial machining setup and establishing operating
conditions
 N codes: specify program line number to executed by the MCU
 Axis Codes: X, Y, Z – Used to specify motion of the slide along
X, Y, Z direction
 Feed and Speed Codes: F and S – Specify feed and spindle
speed
 Tool codes: T – specify tool number
 Miscellaneous codes – M codes: relate to the movement of
the machine in terms of spindle on/off, coolant on/off etc.
84
 G codes: Initial machining setup and establishing operating conditions
G00 Point-to-point positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
The interpolation group
G02 Clockwise circular interpolation
G03 Counter-clockwise circular interpolation
G04 Dwell
The wait group
G05 Hold
G39 Corner offset circular interpolation
G40 Cancel tool nose radius compensation
G41 Tool nose radius compensation - left The compensation functions
G42 Tool nose radius compensation - right group
G43 Cutter length compensation
G44 Cancel cutter length compensation
G70 Dimensions in inches
The units group
G71 Metric dimensions
G90 Absolute dimensions
The programming mode group
G91 Incremental dimensions
G92 Datum offset
85
 M codes: relate to the movement of the machine in terms of spindle on/off,
coolant on/off etc.
M00 Program stop
M01 Optional stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start clockwise
M04 Spindle start counter-clockwise
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M07 Mist coolant on
M08 Flood coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Clamp
M11 Unclamp
M13 Spindle clockwise, coolant on
M14 Spindle counter-clockwise, coolant on
M30 End of tape, rewind
86
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Components of traditional NC systems

The information necessary to perform NC operations could be entered manually

into the control unit, but this is a long and inefficient process.
The machine is also prevented from making parts while this is being done.

Past input media included 1 in. wide punched tape made of paper, paper-Mylar,
or aluminum-Mylar laminates. The program was punched into the tape in a hole
pattern.
87
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Components of modern CNC systems

Modern CNC technology uses an array of new devices for storing

and loading programs written with the aid of a microcomputer or larger
mainframe computer.
88
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Punched tape: is a standardized tape (made of paper or plastic) of a fixed
width and infinite on which NC machining instructions can be coded in the form
of holes and spaces following the binary code.
The NC tape coding system is used to code not only numbers but also
alphabetical letters and other symbols (+) plus and minus (-) signs etc.
The tape has become standardized so that tape punchers are manufactured
to prepare the NC tapes, while tape readers are manufactured to read the
tapes, thus enabling compatibility of both units.

In the 21st century, use of punched tape is

very rare. It may still be used in older military
systems and by some hobbyists 89
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Magnetic tape: is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin,
magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film.
Magnetic tape is subject to degradation and therefore is not an ideal
medium for long-term archival storage.

Magnetic tape construction

90
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Magnetic disk : is flat circular plate of metal or plastic, coated on both sides
with iron oxide.
Input signals, which may be audio, video, or data, are recorded on the surface
of a disk as magnetic patterns or spots in spiral tracks by a recording head
while the disk is rotated by a drive unit.

Magnetic disk construction

91
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Optical disc: is a storage media that holds content in digital format and is read
using a laser assembly.

Most of today's optical disks are available in three formats: compact disks
(CDs), digital versatile disks (DVDs), also referred to as digital video disks,
and Blu-ray disks, which provide the highest capacities and data transfer rates
of the three

92
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Optical disc: is a storage media that holds content in digital format and is read
using a laser assembly.

93
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
USB flash drive: is a small portable flash memory card that plugs into a
computer‟s USB port and functions as a portable hard drive.

Memory card: is a storage media that holds content

in digital format and is read using a laser assembly.
Memory card is usually read by connecting the
device containing the card to the computer.
94
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
The advantages of using flash devices instead of CDs or external hard drives
are listed as follows:
 No fragile moving parts that can break if dropped.
 Far smaller in size.
 Do not require time-consuming configuration to connect to the computer.
 USB ports are more common than CD or DVD burners.
 Flash devices are automatically re-writable and do not require a special
drive.

95
11.3.2. NC input and storage media
Hard disk: is an electro-mechanical data storage device that stores and
retrieves digital data using magnetic storage and one or more rigid rapidly
rotating platters coated with magnetic material.
The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a
moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces. Data is
accessed in a random-access manner, meaning that individual blocks of data
can be stored and retrieved in any order.

96
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
1. Punching mechanism for punched tape

97
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
2. Reading punched tape
Here are eight basic techniques now in use to read the digital
information from punched paper or plastic tapes.

Three different mediums are used to sense a hole in the tape: air,
mechanical fingers, and light

98
a. Reading punched tape mechanically
This is a conventional method of reading stepped tape. The tape is supported by a
block with a hole for each channel. While the tape is in motion, bail holds contact levels
up. When tape stops, fingers rest on tape. Where there is a hole, finger enters it, making
electrical contact.
 This design has many variations, such as offset fingers for more contact room, double-
contact blades for isolated channels, etc. Contact blade spring period can be critical.
 Tape about 1 inch wide, 8 channels plus spocket on 1/10th inch centers; other sizes
can be used.

 Speed about 5 pitches per second.

 Cost moderate.

99
a. Reading punched tape mechanically
 Tape can travel one direction only. Reversal will damage contacts. A wide
variety of contacts readily are available from stock.
 Maximum speeds with stepped tape motion are about 40 steps per second;
with continuous tape motion, as high as 60 inches per second. Contact life is
several million cycles.
 As many as 50 channels can be placed on a 3-inch wide tape, each channel
controlling one circuit. Sprocket pitch is about 1/10 inch.

 Contacts can operate small current

relays.

 Mechanical cost moderate,

electronic cost can vary.

100
b. Reading punched tape pneumatically
An old method of reading punched tape pneumatically is used widely. Tapes are
wide, of coarse pitch. The technique is simple, rugged, not very fast.
When a hole in the tape opens the port in the metal bar, atmospheric pressure
allows the spring to expand the bellows to give a direct mechanical push.

101
b. Reading punched tape pneumatically
The hot wire anemometer technique is the newest way being used to read
punched tape. A small wire, about 0.0005 inch diameter by about 1/16th inch
long, is supported in a duct and heated by current.
When hole in tape opens, air flow changes wire temperature, hence resistance,
providing a low-level electrical signal. Capable of very high reading rates.

102
c. Reading punched tape by light sensing
 The basic technique for reading punched tape photoelectrically. Fast, reliable,
quiet, with no moving parts.
 May be used with stepped or continuously moving tape. Uses one
photoelectric cell or photomultiplier tube for each channel. Prisms, mirrors, light
pipes, lenses, etc., used to spread light beams from channels to obtain room for
photocells.

 Cost intermediate

103
c. Reading punched tape by light sensing

 Photoelectric system using one photocell and a mechanically driven scanning

disc to give a serial output from the tape.
 The scanning disc replaces electronic equipment otherwise required to obtain
serial output for single line transmission of the tape information

104
c. Reading punched tape by light sensing
An optional method for high-speed reading of 6, 7 or 8 channels (plus
sprocket) using small phototransistors (about 0.080 inch diameter by 9/16 inch
long) mounted in phenolic block directly over the center of the 1/10th inch
spaced information channels.

Reading speeds from about 7 to 1,000

characters per second, depending on tape
drive mechanism.

Present phototransistors have a

maximum limit of about 10 kc.

Cost relatively expensive

105
c. Reading punched tape by light sensing

A silvered prism behind the punched tape reflects light from the exciter lamp
back out through the same hole, to fall normally on the phototransistors.

This same arrangement will also read opaque tape with printed dots by
reflected light (the prism being inoperative).

106
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
Inductive read/write head mechanism for magnetic tape

107
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
Inductive write head mechanism for magnetic disk

108
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
Inductive write head mechanism for magnetic disk

109
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
Read head mechanism for optical disc

110
11.3.3. How to record and read a CNC part program
Read head mechanism for optical disc

111
11.3.4. Code interpreter.
The decoder does the opposite of the encoder, that is, it converts the encoder
signals into corresponding control signals in the control system.
The structure of the decoder depends on the encoding and the type of code
used to encode the signal.

112
11.3.4. Code interpreter.
The structure of the relay decoder mechanism includes photoresistors (1) to
sense the signals from the punched tape to switch on/off the relays (2).
In this figure, use 4 relays A, B, C, D with their respective normally open and
closed contacts to decode the decimal numbers 0 to 9.

113
11.3.5. Digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
A digital-to-analog converter is a system that converts a digital signal into
an analog signal.

.An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse function.

A DAC converts an abstract finite-precision number (usually a fixed-point binary

number) into a physical quantity (e.g., a voltage or a pressure).

In particular, DACs are often used to convert finite-precision time series data to
a continually varying physical signal.

D0
D1

n-bit Digital DAC V0

Analog signal
input output (voltage)
Dn-1

VREF
DAC block diagram
114
11.3.5. Digital-to-analog converter
The simplest DAC structure using the thermometer DAC. For an n-bit DAC,
there exists 2n equal resistors in series and 2n CMOS switches (shown as
simple switches).

This type of DAC is linear.

The biggest drawback of the thermometer

DAC is that it requires a large number of
resistors and switches for high resolution

115
11.3.5. Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
An analog-to-digital converter is a system that converts an analog signal,
such as a sound picked up by a microphone or light entering a digital camera,
into a digital signal.
An ADC may also provide an isolated measurement such as an electronic
device that converts an analog input voltage or current to a digital number
representing the magnitude of the voltage or current

VREF

D0
D1

V0
ADC Digital output
Analog input
VREF: Reference Voltage
Dn-1

ADC block diagram 116

11.3.5. Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)

It is formed of a series of
comparators, each one
comparing the input signal to a
unique reference voltage.

The comparator outputs connect

to the inputs of a
priority encoder circuit, which
then produces a binary output.

117