Finite Fields

By Fikreselam Gared(PhD)

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Finite Fields
Group

Let G be a set of elements. A binary operation ∗ on G is defined

with the following conditions.
1 For each pair of elements a and b a uniquely defined third element c

c=a∗b∈G

2 A binary operation ∗ on G is said to be associative if, for any a,b, and

c in G

a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c

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Group

3 G contains an element e, an identity element of G, such that, for

any a ∈ G,
a∗e=e∗a=a

4 For any element a ∈ G, there exists another element a′ ∈ G such

that
a ∗ a′ = a′ ∗ a = e

Where a and a′ are inverse to each other.

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Group
Properties of Group

The identity element in a group G is unique. Suppose there are two

identity elements e and e′ . Then

e′ = e′ ∗ e = e

The inverse of a group element is unique. Let we have two inverse

elements a′ and a′′ for a

a′ = a′ ∗ e

= a′ ∗ (a ∗ a′′ ) = (a′ ∗ a) ∗ a′′ = e ∗ a′′ = a′′

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Groups

Finite groups are applicable in coding theory.

A group of finite number of elements is called Finite group.

Let m is a positive integer, G = {0, 1, ..., m − 1} is set of integer and

define the binary operation ⊞. Then for any integer i and j in G,
we have  
i+j
i ⊞ j = Rem. =r
m

Where r ∈ G is non negative integer between 0 and m − 1.

G is closed under addition (⊞).

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Groups

zero is identity element for ⊞ operation.

m − i is the inverse of i

 
i + (m − i)
i ⊞ (m − i) = Rem. =0=e
m

Binary operation ⊞ for positive integer m is called modulo−m ad-

dition.

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Groups

Example: Prepare modulo-7 addition table for m = 7. Where G =

{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

⊞ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5
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Groups

Let p is a prime number greater than 1, G = {1, ..., p−1} and define
the binary operation ⊡. Then for any integer i and j in G, we have
 
i.j
i ⊡ j = Rem. =r
p

Where r ∈ G is non negative integer between 0 and p − 1.

G is closed under multiplication (⊡) and we call it modulo−p multi-

plication.

Identity element for multiplication is 1.

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Groups

Example: Prepare modulo-7 multiplication table for m = p = 7.

Where G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

⊡ 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Groups

A multiplicative group G is said to be cyclic if there exists an ele-

ment a in G such that, for any b in G, there is some integer i with
b = ai .

Such an element a is called a generator of cyclic group.

For multiplicative group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under modulo-7 multi-

plication, element a = 3 gives all the six elements of G.

Hence G is a cyclic group and a = 3 is a generator of G.

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Finite Fields (Galois Field)

Filed is an algebraic system with two binary operations.

Fields with finite number of elements is called Finite Field.

Finite filed plays significant role in error correction codes

BCH

RS

LDPC and etc

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Finite Fields (Galois Field)

Condition/requirement of fields
1 Zero is the additive identity of field.
2 The multiplication identity of filed is one.
3 Field should be commutative group under addition and set of non
zero elements in field is commutative under multiplication
4 Multiplication is distributive over addition

Note that
a − b = a + (−b), where −b is additive inverse of b.
a ÷ b = a.b−1 , where b−1 is multiplicative inverse of b.

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Properties of finite Fields

1 Let 1 be the unit element in GF (q), there must exist two positive
integer m and n such that m < n and

m
X n
X
1= 1=1
i=1 i=1
Pm−n
Hence i=1 1=0
2 There must exist a smallest positive integer λ, characteristics of the
field, in GF (q) such that
λ
X
1=0
i=1

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Properties of finite Fields

λ is prime Proof: Let λ = km is not prime

λ=km k m
! !
X X X
1= 1 1 =0
i=1 i=1 i=1

k
P m
P
either 1 = 0 or 1=0
i=1 i=1

λ is not the smallest number. It is Contradiction.

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Let a non zero in GF (q) then we have

a1 = a

a2 = a.a

a3 = a2 .a

an = 1

If n is the smallest positive integer that gives an = 1, then n is order

of the field .
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Primitive element

In GF (q), a non zero element a is said to be primitive if order of a

is q − 1.
aq−1 = 1

Power of primitive element generate all the non zero elements of

GF (q).

Every finite element has a primitive element.

Example: 3 is a primitive element of GF (7).

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Polynomial over GF (2)

Let
f (x) = f0 + f1 x + f2 x2 + ... + fn xn

where fi ∈ GF (2).

There are 2n different polynomials of degree n.

For n = 2, x2 , 1 + x2 , x + x2 and 1 + x + x2 are polynomials of

degree 2.

we can perform all arithmetical operations over GF (2).

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Irreducible and Primitive Polynomials

A polynomial f (x) is irreducible if f (x) cannot be factorized into a

product of lower-degree polynomials.
i.e. f (x) of degree m is not dividable by any polynomial of degree
less than m .

For any m ≥ 1 there exist an irreducible polynomial of degree m.

Any irreducible polynomial over GF (q) of degree m divides the

m −1)
polynomial x(q + 1.

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Irreducible and Primitive Polynomials

Degree (m) Irreducible Polynomial

1 x, x + 1
2 x2 + x + 1
3 x3 + x + 1, x3 + x2 + 1
4 x4 + x + 1, x4 + x3 + 1, x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1

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Irreducible and Primitive Polynomials

m −1)
A polynomial p(x) is Primitive polynomial if x(q + 1 = xn + 1 is
dividable by p(x) but xk + 1 is not dividable by p(x) for k < n.

A primitive polynomial is always irreducible but irreducible polyno-

mials are not always primitive.

Note that all irreducible polynomials over GF (2) of degree 2, 3, 5

are primitive polynomial.

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Irreducible and Primitive Polynomials

Degree (m) Primitive Polynomial

2 x2 + x + 1
3 x3 + x + 1, x3 + x2 + 1
4 x4 + x + 1, x4 + x3 + 1
5 x5 + x2 + 1
6 x6 + x + 1
7 x7 + x3 + 1

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Property
l l
Proof that [f (x)]2 = f (x2 ) for l ≥ 0

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Construction of Galois Field 2m (GF (2m ))

GF (2m ) of 2m elements can be constructed from the two GF (2)

elements and new symbol α. Where

0.α = 0

1.α = α

α2 = α.α

α3 = α2 .α

αi+j = αi .αj

α0 = 1

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Construction of Galois Field 2m (GF (2m ))

For primitive polynomial p(x) of degree m over GF (2) and by as-

suming the condition p(α) = 0, we have

m −1)
x(2 +1
= q(x) + 0
p(x)
m −1)
x(2 + 1 = q(x)p(x)
m −1)
α(2 + 1 = q(α)p(α)
m −1)
α(2 + 1 = q(α).0
m −1)
α(2 +1 = 0
m −1)
α(2 = 1

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Construction of Galois Field 2m (GF (2m ))

Thus, under the condition that p(α) = 0, the field is finite and con-
tains the following 2m elements.

m −2
F = {0, 1, α, α2 , α3 , ..., α2 }

m −2 m −1 m −2 m −2
Since α2 .α = α2 = 1, α2 .α2 = α, α2 .α3 = α2 and so
on, F is closed under multiplication under the condition p(α) = 0.
m −1−i m −1−i
α2 is multiplication inverse of αi . Because α2 .αi =
m −1
α2 = 1.

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Construction of Galois Field 2m (GF (2m ))

Example: Let p(x) = x3 + x + 1. Generate elements of GF (23 ) and

represent by polynomial.

Power Repr. Polynomial Repr. 3-tuple Repr. (0 α α2 )

0 0 000
1 1 100
α α 010
2 2
α α 001
3
α 1+α 110
α4 α + α2 011
5 2
α 1+α+α 111
6 2
α 1+α 101

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Minimal Polynomial over GF (2m )

Let ϕ(x) be the minimal polynomial of an element β in GF (2m ) and

l
l be the smallest integer such that β 2 = β. Then

l−1
i
Y
ϕ(x) = (x + β 2 )
i=0

l
where β 2 is conjugate of β.

Example
Check that the minimal polynomial for β = α3 and p(x) = x3 + x + 1 is
ϕ(x) = 1 + x2 + x3 .

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