Knowledge

TRADITIONS & PRACTICES

OF INDIA
Textbook for Class XI

Module 10
Theatre and Drama in India

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar,
Delhi-110 092 India
 Knowledge
TRADITIONS & PRACTICES
OF INDIA
Textbook for Class XI

Module 10
Theatre and Drama in India

CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India
No part of this publication may be reproduced or stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE).
 Preface
India has a rich tradition of intellectual inquiry and a textual heritage that goes back to several
hundreds of years. India was magnificently advanced in knowledge traditions and practices
during the ancient and medieval times. The intellectual achievements of Indian thought are found
across several fields of study in ancient Indian texts ranging from the Vedas and the Upanishads to
a whole range of scriptural, philosophical, scientific, technical and artistic sources.
As knowledge of India's traditions and practices has become restricted to a few erudite scholars
who have worked in isolation, CBSE seeks to introduce a course in which an effort is made to make
it common knowledge once again. Moreover, during its academic interactions and debates at key
meetings with scholars and experts, it was decided that CBSE may introduce a course titled
‘Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India’ as a new Elective for classes XI - XII from the year
2012-13. It has been felt that there are many advantages of introducing such a course in our
education system. As such in India, there is a wide variety and multiplicity of thoughts,
languages, lifestyles and scientific, artistic and philosophical perceptions. The rich classical and
regional languages of India, which are repositories of much of the ancient wisdom, emerge from
the large stock of the shared wealth of a collective folklore imagination. A few advantages given
below are self explanatory.
• India is a land of knowledge and traditions and through this course the students will become
aware of our ancient land and culture.
• Learning about any culture particularly one's own culture - whatever it may be - builds
immense pride and self-esteem. That builds a community and communities build harmony.
• The students will be learning from the rich knowledge and culture and will get an objective
insight into the traditions and practices of India. They will delve deeply to ascertain how these
teachings may inform and benefit them in future.
• The textbook has extracts and translations that will develop better appreciation and
understanding of not only the knowledge, traditions and practices of India but also
contemporary questions and issues that are a part of every discipline and field in some form or
another.
This course once adopted in schools across India can become central to student learning: each
student brings a unique culture, tradition and practice to the classroom. The content is devised in a
way that the educator becomes knowledgeable about his/her students' distinctive cultural
background. This can be translated into effective instruction and can enrich the curriculum
thereby benefitting one and all. This insight has close approximation with the pedagogy of CCE.
The course is designed in a way that it embodies various disciplines and fields of study ranging
from Language and Grammar, Literature, Fine Arts, Agriculture, Trade and Commerce,
Philosophy and Yoga to Mathematics, Astronomy, Chemistry, Metallurgy, Medicine and
Surgery, Life Sciences, Environment and Cosmology. This can serve as a good foundation for
excellence in any discipline pursued by the student in her/his academic, personal and
professional life.
This book aims at providing a broad overview of Indian thought in a multidisciplinary and
interdisciplinary mode. It does not seek to impart masses of data, but highlights concepts and
major achievements while engaging the student with a sense of exploration and discovery. There
is an introduction of topics so that students who take this are prepared for a related field in higher
studies in the universities.
The examination reforms brought in by CBSE have strengthened the Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation System. It has to be ascertained that the teaching and learning
methodology of CCE is adopted by the affiliated schools when they adopt this course. The
contents have to cultivate critical appreciation of the thought and provide insights relevant for
promoting cognitive ability, health and well-being, good governance, aesthetic appreciation,
value education and appropriate worldview.
This document has been prepared by a special committee of convenors and material developers
under the direction of Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Academic & Training) and co-ordinated by
Mrs. Neelima Sharma, Consultant, CBSE.
The Board owes a wealth of gratitude to Professor Jagbir Singh, Professor Kapil Kapoor,
Professor Michel Danino, and all those who contributed to the extensive work of conceptualizing
and developing the contents. I sincerely hope that our affiliated schools will adopt this new
initiative of the Board and assist us in our endeavour to nurture our intellectual heritage.

Vineet Joshi
Chairman
 Convenor’s Note by Professor Jagbir Singh
In 2012, CBSE decided to introduce an Elective Course 'Knowledge Traditions and Practices of
India' for classes XI and XII and an Advisory Committee was constituted to reflect on the themes
and possible content of the proposed course. Subsequently Module-Preparation Committees were
constituted to prepare ten modules for the first year of the programme to include the following
Astronomy, Ayurveda (Medicine and Surgery), Chemistry, Drama, Environment, Literature,
Mathematics, Metallurgy, Music and Philosophy.

Each module has;

I. A Survey article

ii. Extracts from primary texts

iii. Suitably interspersed activities to enable interactive study and class work

iv. Appropriate visuals to engender reading interest, and

v. Further e- and hard copy readings.

Each module in the course has kept in mind what would be a viable amount of reading and
workload, given all that the class IX students have to do in the given amount of time, and controlled
the word-length and also provided, where needed, choices in the reading materials.

Each Module consists of:

I. A Survey Essay (about 1500-2000 words) that introduces and shows the growth of ideas, texts
and thinkers and gives examples of actual practice and production.

ii. A survey-related selection of extracts (in all about 2000 words) from primary sources (in
English translation, though for first hand recognition, in some cases, where feasible, the
extracts are also reproduced in the original language and script).

iii. Three kinds of interactive work are incorporated, both in the survey article and the extracts -
comprehension questions, individual and collective activities and projects (that connect the
reading material and the student to the actual practice and the environment).

iv. Visuals of thinkers, texts, concepts (as in Mathematics), practices.

v. Internet audiovisual resources in the form of URLs.

vi. List of further questions, and readings.

The objective of each module, as of the whole course, is to re-connect the young minds with the
large body of intellectual activity that has always happened in India and, more importantly, to
enable them (i) to relate the knowledge available to the contemporary life, theories and practices,
(ii) to develop, wherever feasible, a comparative view on a level ground of the contemporary
Western ideas and the Indian theories and practices, and (iii) to extend their horizons beyond what
is presented or is available and contemplate on possible new meanings, extensions and uses of the
ideas - in other words to make them think.

We have taken care to be objective and factual and have carefully eschewed any needless claims or
comparisons with western thought. Such things are best left to the readers' judgement.

This pedagogical approach clearly approximates CBSE's now established activity-oriented

interactive work inviting the students' critical responses.

It is proposed to upload the first year's modular programme to be downloaded and used by
schools, teachers and students.

As a first exercise, we are aware that the content selection, a major difficult task, can be critically
reviewed from several standpoints. We do not claim perfection and invite suggestions and
concrete proposals to develop the content. We are eagerly looking forward to receiving the
feedback from both teachers and students. That would help us refining the content choice, the
length and the activities. We will also thankfully acknowledge any inadvertent errors that are
pointed out by readers.

The finalisation of this course is thus envisaged as a collective exercise and only over a period of
time, the Course will mature. We know that perfection belongs only to God.

If our students enjoy reading these materials, that would be our true reward.

Prof. Jagbir Singh

Convenor
 Acknowledgment
e
CBSE ADVISORS
• Shri Vineet Joshi, Chairman
• Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Academic & Training)

CONVENOR
Prof. Jagbir Singh
Convenor, Former Head Department of Punjabi Delhi University

MATERIAL PRODUCTION TEAM

Prof. Kapil Kapoor Prof. Shrawan Kumar Sharma Ms. Uma Sharma
Prof. of English & Former Pro Vice Head Dept. of English Director, Centre for Ex Craft Coordinator CCRT, Ex TGT,
Chancellor, Jawahar Lal Nehru University Canadian Studies Gurukul Kangri RPVV, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi.
University
Prof. Michel Danino Haridwar, Uttarakhand Ms. Archana Sharma
Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar, Freelancer: Content Developer, Resource
& Visiting Faculty, IIM Ranchi Ms. Kiran Bhatt Person - SCERT, DIET (RN) New Delhi.
(Retd.) Head of Dept. (English), Modern
Prof. Avadhesh Kumar Singh School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi Ms. Anjali Shukla
Professor & Director School of Translation DAV Public School, Sector - 7, Rohini,
IGNOU Ms. Heemal Handoo Bhat New Delhi - 110085
Shaheed Rajpal DAV Dayanand Vihar, New
Dr. P. Ram Manohar, Delhi Dr. Sandhya S. Tarafdar
MD (Ayurveda) PGT History, K.V. Vikaspuri, New Delhi
Director and CSO, AVP Research Mr. Pundrikakash
Foundation, 36/137, Trichy Road, Vice Principal, Physics, RPVV, DoE, Kishan Dr. B. S. Dashora
Ramanathapuram P.O., Coimbatore- Ganj, New Delhi ELT Group (Retd. Principal), Bhopal,
641045, Tamil Nadu, India Madhya Pradesh.
Ms. Rashmi Kathuria
Dr. J. Sreenivasa Murthy Maths, Kulachi Hansraj Model School, Ms. Shubhika Lal
(Sanskrit/Philosophy) Ashok Vihar, New Delhi Modern School, Vasant Vihar, New Delhi
Head, Department of Sanskrit, Ms. Kusum Singh
M.E.S College, Bangalore - 560 003 Dr. Sanjay Kumar
K.V., SPG Complex, Sector - 8, Dwarka, DAV Public School, Sector-14, Gurgaon
Prof. Bharat Gupt New Delhi
Ms. Gayatri Khanna
(Retd) Associate Professor, Delhi
University, Founder member and Trustee Ms. Bindia Rajpal ELT, Free Lancer, New Delhi
International Forum for India's Heritage. The Air Force School, Subroto Park, New
Delhi Grateful Thanks to:
PO Box 8518, Ashok Vihar, Delhi 110052.
Ms. Reeta Khera Dr. Rajnish Kumar Mishra, JNU
Dr. Vipul Singh
MLNC, University of Delhi, South Campus, VVDAV Public School, D- Block, Vikaspuri, Dr. Santosh Kumar Shukla, JNU
New Delhi New Delhi
Mr. Albert Abraham
Former Report Writer, CBSE

CO-ORDINATOR EDITORS
Ms. Neelima Sharma Prof. Kapil Kapoor, Prof. of English & Former Pro Vice- Chancellor
Consultant (ELT), CBSE New Delhi Jawahar Lal Nehru University

Prof. Michel Danino, Guest Professor, IIT Gandhinagar & Visiting Faculty, IIM Ranchi

SUPPORTING MEMBERS (CBSE)

Mr. Yogeshwar Mr. Abhimanyu Kumar Gupta Ms. Prabha Sharma
Asstt. Record Keeper Computer Assistant Computer Assistant
 Content of Module 10

Theatre and Drama in India 1

 Theatre
T and Dra
ama in India: A Surveey

Dram
ma

In evvery ancientt culture, drama,

d like similar oth
her forms off art, has been
b of religgious
origin
n. It develo
oped out off performan
nces related
d to some aspect
a of reeligion. As time
passeed, the perfformances gradually
g a
assumed thee regular dramatic
d speectacle, and
d the
rangee of aspects treated wass extended beyond
b the religious su
ubjects.

The Beginning
gs

The earliest beg

ginnings of Indian draamatic art can
c be traceed back to the hymnss and
dialo
ogues of the Vedas, whiich have a certain
c dram
matic charaacter. It is believed
b thaat the
four constituentts of Indian drama — text or plot,, music, pro
oduction or acting, and
d rasa
(senttiment) — were
w originallly taken fro
om the Ṛgveda, the Sāmaaveda, the Yajurveda
Y and the
Atharrvaveda respectivvely.
There are refereences to nāṭṭaka
(dram
ma) in the Rāmāyaṇa and
a
Mahāābhārata. The
T song and
a
music and dancees of the Kṛṛṣṇa
nds further enriched this
legen t
tradition of dram
ma. An anciient
playh
house ex
xcavated in
Khan
ndagiri caves n
near
Bhub
baneswar, Odisha,
O belo
ongs
A 2nd–3rd century BCE theatre Kh
handagiri caves near Bhubaneeswar
nd rd
to the 2 –3 cen
ntury BCE. (Source: wwww.16sanskar.com m/whatisnew.pphp?scatid=2099)

1
 Classica
al Period

Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstrra (2nd centu

ury BCE), alsso known ass Nāṭyaveda or the fifth
h Veda, is th
he
first doccumented cllassical man
nual which primarily aims at desscribing thee theory an
nd
practice of Indian drama
d and theatre.
t Thee topic is co
overed undeer the dynam
mics of nāṭyya
(dramatiic art or actiing).

Bhaarata says that

t one wh
ho perform
ms
nāṭya is naṭa (actorr), and acco
ordingly th
he
form is known
k as nāṭaka.
n Dealiing with th
he
origin off Nāṭyavedaa (science of dramatiic
performaance), B
Bharata gives a
compreheensive acccount of theatre.
t H
He
describes three k
kinds of t
theatres o
or
playhousees — vikṛṣṣṭa (oblongg), caturasrra
(square) tryasra (ttriangular),, all threee
preferablyy of mod
derate size,, and eacch
having three
t partts: nepathyya (dressin
ng
room), raṅgapīṭha (the s
stage) an
nd
ṇḍala (the au
raṅgamaṇ uditorium). According
A t
to
Bharata, a theatre of
o moderatte size coulld
accommo
odate 400 spectators. Some
S of th
he
stages haad two storeys, the upper
u storeey
being for the represeentation of action in th
he
celestial sphere and
d the groun
nd storey fo
or
that in th
he terrestriaal sphere.

The plan of one type of pllayhouses desccribed by Bharrata; the unit of

o length is th
he cubit, aboutt 45 cm.

2
 In order to display the subtlest interplay of emotions Bharata elaborated four kinds
of abhinaya (expression): āngikābhinaya
Four methods of abhinaya (acting)
(voluntary non-verbal expression) to depict the
¾ Gestures (āngika): acting by the
emotions or feelings of the character being movement of the different parts
of the body.
played; vācikābhinaya (verbal expression) to
¾ Oral (vācika): acting through
express emotions / feelings, tone, diction, pitch dialogues.
of a particular character; āhāryābhinaya ¾ Spiritual (sāttvika): expressions
through gestures.
(costume and stage expression) to enhance ¾ Properties (āhārya): The material
expression; sāttvikābhinaya (involuntary non- required for the play like colours,
dresses and decorations, etc.
verbal expression) expressed by the presence of
tears, mark of horripilation, change of facial colour, trembling of lips, enhancing of
nostrils) to express the deepest emotions of a character.

According to Bharata, dramatic presentation

In view of the wealth of details and primarily aimed at giving rise to rasa (aesthetic
categories in the Nāṭyaśāstra,
think how developed the tradition
sentiment) in the aesthete, with the ultimate
of Indian dramatic art must have purpose of moral improvement. He further said that
been long before Bharata! dramatic presentation imparted harṣa (pleasure) to
all who were unhappy, tired, bereaved and ascetic.
The disciples of Bharata after witnessing the drama, and analyzing the effect it has on
them, realized that it brought about identification with the focus of the dramatic
situation, to the effect that the audience realized through experience (because of
generalization) that the four recognized objects or four ends of life, dharma, artha, kāma,
mokṣa (righteousness, worldly possessions, desires, salvation) ought to be pursued.

Bharata in his treatise also described the ten major forms of drama (dasrūpakas) —
nāṭaka, prakaraṇa, samavakāra, ḍima, vyāyoga, īhāmṛga, ūtsṛṣṭikāṅka, prahasana, bhāṇa and

3
vīthī — their itivṛtta (structure of the dramatic plot) and the description of nāyakas
(heroes) and nāyikas (heroines). He conceived of plays in terms of two types of
production: lokadharmī (realistic), which involved the reproduction of human behaviour
on the stage and the natural presentation of objects, and nāṭyadharmī (conventional),
which is the presentation of a play through the use of stylized gestures and symbolism
and was considered more artistic than realistic.

Major Indian Dramatists

This phase of Sanskrit theatre includes the writing and practice of theatre up to about
10th century CE, based almost entirely on the rules, regulations and modifications laid
down in the Nātyaśāstra. The earliest available dramatist is Bhāsa (3rd century BCE),

followed by Kālidāsa and Bhavabhūti, two other doyens of Sanskrit drama.

Bhāsa’s plays are still very popular in kutiyaṭṭam, the only surviving form of
Sanskrit drama (see section on kutiyaṭṭam below). All the thirteen plays of Bhāsa are
generally short compared to those of later playwrights and most of them draw their
theme from the Indian epics, Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa. He is one whose plays are not
bound by the rigid rules of the Nāṭyaśāstra. Bhāsa allows scenes that contain signs of
physical violence to be shown on stage in plays like Urūbhaṅga. His plays Urūbhaṅga and
Karṇābharaṇa are the only known tragedies in ancient India.

Kālidāsa, one of the ‘nine jewels’ in the court of the legendary king Vikramāditya of
uncertain dates, is acknowledged to be the greatest dramatist of Sanskrit literature. He is
known to have written three plays, Mālavikāgnimitra, Vikramorvaśī and
Abhijñānaśākuntalam, the last more commonly known as Śakuntalā. Europe was immensely
fascinated by Śakuntalā; as a result it was translated into German, French, Danish and
Italian. Goethe was so powerfully impressed by the play that he is said to have drawn

4
from
m it the ideaa of the pro
ologue to his Faust. To a
greatt extent, Kāālidāsa follo
owed the principles
p o
of
dram
ma laid down
n by Bharatta in his Nāāṭyaśāstra. All
the three plays open
o with the
t benedicttory stanzass,
techn
nically know
wn as nandī. The matterr of the plotts
is weell divided into acts. The
T heroes are of royaal
patro
onage. The language of the playys is mixed
d:
educaated peop
ple speak Sanskrit and th
he
uned
ducated folk speak in Prrakrit.

Śakuntalā sttops to look baack at Duṣyanta,

a scenne from Abhijñ ñānaśākuntalam
m.
(Courttesy: Wikipediaa)

Bhavabhūtti falls into the categorry of writerrs

who emerged in the latter half
h of classiical period. His Uttararāāmacarita, written
w abou
ut 700
CE, is known as th
he best dram
matic play of
o its time.

The Sansk
krit plays were
w undou
ubtedly meeant to be enacted; elaborate
e sttage-
direcctions were given as well
w as ruless for seatingg the audience. The pllays commeenced
with an elaboraate ritual. Some twentyy pre-play ceremonies
c (pūrvaraṅgga) of musicc and
dance were perfformed, nin
ne of them behind
b the curtain.
c Thee sūtradhāraa — the direector,
chieff actor or staage manageer — clad in immaculatee white, entered with his
h two assisttants
and offered worrship (pūjā)) to the theatre’s pressiding deityy to ensuree success to
o the
ucer and go
produ ood luck to the actors. After this, the sūtradh
hāra summo
oned the leaading
actreess and open
ned the playy with a pro
ologue which announceed the time and place of
o the
play and introdu
uced the pllaywright. The
T plays had
h five to seven
s aṅkass (acts). An aṅka

5
involves a change in the hero’s basic situation as the itivṛtta (plot) develops. It is made up
of a series on incidents that are related to the major character.

The basic plot in most Sanskrit plays centred around the hero who struggled for
the object of his desire. There were five avasthas (stages): ārambha (beginning), yatna
(effort), praptyāśa (prospect of success), niyatāpti (certainty of success) and phalāgama
(attainment of the object). These five stages were intimately related to the hero’s mental
stages and were milestones in his march towards his attainment of object. These plays
dealt with the exploits of a hero, either a royal sage or king, who was always successful in
the end. The dominant sentiment was love and heroism. There was a strong lyric
element and poetry seems to be the integral part of life,
Do you know why there were full of meaning and significance. There were no
no conventions of tragedy in
Indian classical period? conventions of tragedy (although Bhāsa showed death on
the stage in one of his plays).

Medieval Period

The Sanskrit dramas, to some extent, were for an educated audience or royal courts and
likely to be performed in sophisticated theatres. In the course of time, there evolved a
folk theatre out of rural roots; it was simpler, more immediate and closer to the rural
milieu. This was the second phase of the evolution of theatre in India, which was based
on oral traditions. This form of theatre, which started in the medieval period, has
continued until today in almost every part of India.
Initially the themes of these forms were based on stories Every state of India has
some form of folk theatre.
from Indian mythology and epics; later they included
Can you prepare a list of
secular themes ranging from romance, love and valour to such forms across India?
social and cultural traditions to be performed in the
language of the people in each particular area.

6
 Indian folk
k theatre is essentiallly total theeatre, usingg songs, reccitation, speeech,
poetrry, music an
nd mime in
n varying co
ombinationss. Now the theatre
t is used
u to edu
ucate
peop
ple and for social refo
ormation. Since
S India consists of varied ethn
nic groups, each
develloped its ow
wn kind off traditionaal folk theaatres, using the region
nal languagee for
comm
munication. These theaatres are known by diffferent namees in different Indian sttates,
like kuṭiyaṭṭam
k in
n Kerala, yaakṣagāna in Andhra, bhavāī in Gujaarat, jātrā in
n Bengal, Od
disha
and Bihar,
B nautaaṅkī and sw
wāṅg in the states of no
orth India, tamāśā
t in Maharashtra
M a and
pāṇḍaavānī and nāāchā in Chhaattisgarh.

Kuṭiyyaṭṭam

Kuṭiyyaṭṭam (or kū
ūṭhiyaṭṭam) is derived from
f the Sanskrit word
d kūrd, mean
ning to ‘to play’.
p
Kuṭiyyaṭṭam, the only survivving specim
men of the ancient Saanskrit theatre, remaiins a
popu
ular theatre form in Kerala.
K In May
M 2001, ku
uṭiyaṭṭam eaarned a rarre honour when
w
UNESSCO declared it a masteerpiece of hu
uman heritaage to be prrotected and
d preserved
d. It is
believved that Ku
ulasekhara Varma
V Cherraman Perum
mal, an anciient King off Kerala, waas the
creattor of kuṭiyaaṭṭam in its present
p form
m. His book Āṭṭaprakaraṇ
Ā ṇa is considered as the most
autho
oritative wo
ork on the art form till date.
d

A Kuṭiyaṭṭam performance
p
(Source: http://kerala-
h
cultu
ure.blogspot.in//2012/04/kood diyttam.html)

7
 Kuṭṭiyaṭṭam wass traditionaally a part of temple rittuals, perforrmed as a kind
k of visuaal
sacrifice to the deity
y. It is norm
mally perform
med in temp
ple theatres that are deecorated witth
exquisitee carvings. Convention
nal in its make-up,
m c
costume as well as form, it is an
a
elaborate blend of symbolic gestures,
g styylized moveements and
d chanted dialogue
d an
nd
verse in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Malayālam.
M Sanskrit pllays of the 7th or 8th century CE lik
ke
Bhāsa’s Abhiṣekanāta
A akam, Maheendra Vikraaman Pallavvan’s Maṭhavvilāsam and Kulaśekharra
Varma’s Subhadrā Dhananjayan
D are among the most co
ommonly en
nacted Sansskrit plays in
i
kuṭiyaṭṭaam. Its storyllines also raange from th
he narrativees derived frrom Indian epics such as
a
the Rāmāāyaṇa and th
he Mahābhārrata to stories from Ind
dian mytholo
ogy.

Yakṣagāāna

na (13th centtury) is a veery popular dance dram

Yakṣagān ma form from Andhra Pradesh.
P It is
i
believed that a po
opular dancce drama known
k as Bahunātak
B c
composed b Pakkurik
by ki
Somaanath abou
ut 1250 C
CE

deveeloped into the form of

o
yakṣaagāna. Thee storylinees
are based
b on th
he Rāmāyaṇ
ṇa
and the M
Mahābhārata
a.
Obayyamantri’s Gurudācalam
m
(15th centu
ury) an
nd
Rudrrakavi’s Su
ugrīvavijayam
m
(16th century) are tw
wo
popu
ular dramas o
of
yakṣaagāna.

8
Bhavvāī

Bhavāāī (14th centtury) is the popular follk theatricaal form of

Rajassthan and Gujarat. The
T pioneerr of bhavāāī was a
Brahmin known as Asait Thakore or Ashram Mahaaraja, who
d in a villag
lived ge of Gujarrat called Unjha.
U Initiially, the
bhavāāī performaance was prresented as a religious ritual to
propiitiate Goddeess Ambā, and it took place
p only during the
religiious festivaals of Navarrātra. Very soon it evo
olved into
an im
mportant form of enterrtainment theatre.
t Sub
btle social
criticcism laced with
w pungeent humourr is the speeciality of
bhavāāī. Humour plays a vitaal part in any perform
mance and A bhavāāī performancee
comees into play
y even wh
hile dealingg with mytthological
perso que among the tradition
onages. Thiss predominaance makes bhavāī uniq nal arts of In
ndia.

Jātrāā

Jātrā (16th centurry) or yātrā, which mean

ns a processsion or a pillgrimage, is the popularr folk
dram
ma form of eastern Ind
dia, mainlyy Assam, West
W ha. This form of
Bengal and Odish
theattre traditionally crediited to the rise of th
he Bhakti movement,
m d the
dramatized
Puran
nic legends,, folktales an
nd episodess from the Rāmāyaṇa
R an
nd the Mahābbhārata. Now
w the
traditional conteent has been
n replaced by
b secular co
ontent. Mussic is the keyy element off this
m. It is ofteen very meelodramatic with high
form hly stylized delivery and
a exaggerrated
gestu
ures and oraations. Jātrāā today is on ost popular folk theatrees in India. West
ne of the mo
Benggal alone hass to its cred
dit 300 jātrā companies,
c and jātrā co
ompetitionss are held du
uring
the Durgā
D Pūjā festival.
fe

9
Nautaṅk
kī

Nautaṅkīī (18th centu

ury) is a popular form
m of theatrre from norrth India. Storylines
S o
of
tradition
nal of nautaaṅkīs rangee from mytthological themes and folktales to
t stories of
o
contemp
porary heroees. Tradition
nal nautaṅkīīs usually start late at night
n and go
o on all nigh
ht.
The pleeasure of this form lies in th
he
intense melodic exchanges
e b
between th
he
perform
mers usuallyy in a poetiic form. It is
i
remarkable how th
he verse wrritten in onlly
a few metres
m like caubolā, doh
hā, bahretabiil,
daur etcc. is sung in
n a number of rāgas an
nd
styles with
w differring emotio
onal impacct.
There is no in
ntermission
n in thesse
performaances. They
y are often punctuated
p with individ
dual songs, dances and
d skits, whicch
serve as breaks and
d provide comic relief to the audience. Kanp
pur nautaṅkkī is uniquelly
fascinatiing.

Swāṅg

Swāṅg is the major theatrical tradition

t off folk enterttainment in
n North Indiia, especiallly
Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
H It is a musicaal folk dram
ma which enaacts near similar storiees
in all its related reg
gional variattions. Thesee stories aree in verse an
nd are sungg in differen
nt
classical,, semi-classsical but mo
ostly in pop
pular folk musical
m mod
des. These performance
p es
have an interesting
g blending of
o narrativee and dram
matic verse and music. There is no
n
intermission in thesse performaances. A num
mber of mussical instrum
ments like naagāra, dholakk,
cimptā, khartāl,
k sāraṅ
ṅgī and harm
monium add flavour to
o the dialoggues. Swāṅgss of Hāthrassa
and Bun
ndūmīr of Uttar
U Pradesh have fasccinating stories. Alī Bak
khśa, Pandiit Dīpa Cand
d,
Swāmī Har
H Dev, Quttabī, Dhoom
m, Pandit Bhaartu and Pan
ndit Lakṣmīī Cand from Haryana arre

10
renow
wned for their enth
hralling
perfo
ormances. The
T U.P. Sangeet
S
Natak
k Academ
my has been
consttantly perfo
orming swāāṇgs to
preseerve this forrm.

A swāṅg perfo
ormance (Sourrce:
w
www.indianetz
zone.com/34/sswang_indian__form_theatre.h
htm)

Rāmaalīlā

Rāmaalīlā is an im
mportant forrm of folk theatre in In
ndia, based on the life of Rāma, en
nding
up in the
t ten-dayy battle betw
ween Rāmaa and
Rāvaṇaa as descriibed in thee Rāmāyaṇaa. Its
festive staging taakes place once a yeaar at
many places thro dia, and usually
oughout Ind
lasts fo
or ten to tw
welve days where opeen-air
producctions are staged byy local Rām
malīlā
commiittees.

Tamāāśā

Tamāāśā, which means

m ‘fun’ or ‘play’, is
i a traditio
onal Marath
hi folk art form,
f often with
singing and dan
ncing, widelyy performed
d by local or
o travellingg theatre grroups within
n the
state of Maharashtra. Nau
ughty episo
odes of Kṛṣṣṇalīlā (storries of Kṛṣṇ
ṇa’s deeds)) are
invarriably enactted in the op
pening part of a tamāśāā play. The lāāvaṇī songs,, which are sung
alongg with danccing, are dellightfully naaughty and erotic. Theere are two types of tam
māśā:

11
dholkībhāārī and the older form, saṅgītabārīī, which con
ntains moree dance and
d music thaan
drama. In
I Maharash
htra, the Ko
olhati and Mahar
M group
ps are tradiitionally asssociated witth
the perfo
ormance off tamāśā. Now
w in Maharashtra there are only 18
1 to 20 fulll-time tamāśśā
parties. Each tamāśśā mandal performs approximate
a ely for 2100 days a year all oveer
Maharasshtra and also some borrder villages of Karnataaka and Gujarat. Loknaatya Tamash
ha
Mandal is
i Maharash
htra’s most popular
p tam
māśā mandal.

Lefft: A tamāśā perrformance (Souurce:

ww
ww.sangeetnataak.org/deshparrva/natyadarsh han/tamasha.hhtm)
Right: A lāvaṇ
ṇī performancee
(Source: www
w.marathi-mu
usic.com/wp-co ontent/uploadss/2012/02/lavaani-dance.jpg)

Nāchā

Nāchā is one of the most promiinent folk dances

d equip
pped with Chhattisgarh
C hi folk songs.
This theatre form is not only entertainin
ng people bu
ut it is a po
otent mediu
um for sociaal
awareneess. The dan
ncers of nāāchā enact the
t scene of
o the violeent battle between
b kin
ng
Kaṁsa and
a the cow
wherds who
o belonged to
t the Yādaava commu
unity of the region. Th
he
Yādavas or the cow
wherds had the divine support off Kṛṣṇa. Nācchā glorifiess the age-olld
truth of the triump
ph of truth over evil. Habib
H Tanbir has estab
blished this form at th
he

12
natio
onal level. Nāchā
N is a common
form
m of performing art of
Chhaattisgarh that has addeed to the
gloryy and grandeeur of the sttate.

Raaut nāchā in Ch
hhattisgarh

Pāṇḍ
ḍavānī

Pāṇḍaavānī is a performance
p e or storyteellin g evolvved by the tribals
t of th
he Chhattisggarh.
This narrative form
f was deeveloped to
o tell the sttory of the five Pāṇḍavva brotherss and
consiidered to bee of two typees — Kapilak
k and Vedam
mati. A team
m of pāṇḍavāānī performeers is
comp
posed of on
ne main narrrator-singeer and one or two co-singers, wh
ho also plaay on
musical instrum
ments like tabblā and harm
monium. Haabib Tanvir was able to bring pāṇḍaavānī
and nāchā
n from the remotee tribal areeas of Chhattisgarh into
o the nation
nal focus. Today
T
pāṇḍaavānī, like nāchā, is know
wn and app
preciated intternationallly.

Teejan Bai in a performancee of pāṇḍavānīī

(Source: ww
ww.indianetzone.com/46/cu ulture_durg_d district.htm)

13
Modern Era

The growth and promotion of Indian theatre and drama have taken a leap with the
initiatives of Sangeet Natak Akademi, the National School of Drama. The theatre scene
was full of unusual energy and there were several initiatives, both private and
governmental, to encourage and promote theatre at different levels. There was also a
great deal of exchange of ideas, plays and performances between theatre practitioners
and scholars of theatre in the different regions that created a more unified vision of
theatre in the country.

A host of playwrights all over the country wrote plays expressing deeply in a
variety of forms. And there were thousands of groups busy interpreting these plays in
different spaces, experimenting with theatrical forms. They made new experiments to
evolve the concept of national drama by working on various styles and techniques from
Sanskrit, medieval folk and western theatre. An interesting example of this pioneer
attitude is the use of elements and conventions of traditional Indian theatre — such as
music and song, dance movements, miming, locale and sūtradhār — in many recent
productions.

Theatre has become a significant part of the life and culture of a region as the
playwrights are trying to give dramatic expression to the basic and specific problems
typical to that region in its own language. It uses Indian mythology, Indian tradition,
Indian dance, Indian social and political problems — yet speaks of themes which touch
any audience, the search for individual identity inside and outside, love, sexual
fulfilment, security, the loneliness and emptiness of superficially successful lives.

Although the emergence of cinema has adversely affected the popularity of theatre
as the main medium of popular entertainment, the new experiments in theatre and
drama are reviving the interest of the people. All India Radio has been instrumental in

14
popularizing drama for a long time through its national and regional broadcasts. Some
serious theatre groups like the Indian National Theatre, the Prithvi Theatre and others
are contributing greatly to popularize theatre. There is a growing interest of our
distinguished theatre people in exploring Sanskrit classical heritage.

***

Comprehension

1. Why was Nāṭyaśāstra called the fifth Veda?

2. What are the objectives of Nāṭyaveda?
3. Define nāṭyadharmī and lokadharmī. Cite examples from contemporary media. Do
we see elements of nāṭyadharmī and lokadharmī in film industry and theatre
practices in various parts of India?
4. What is the difference between Sanskrit and folk theatre?

Project ideas

¾ Create a presentation of different kinds of contemporary theatre, including even

some minute details, and present it to your class.
¾ Search and explore to draw the base drawing or prepare models of all the three
types of nāṭyagṛha (playhouse) as described above along with specifications. Clue:
Refer to chapter 2 in the Nāṭyaśāstra (you may download its first volume from:
http://ia700700.us.archive.org/6/items/NatyaShastraOfBharataMuniVolume1/Na
tyaShastraOfBharataMuniVolume1.pdf).
¾ Study other ancient theatre practices in the world. Collect relevant information
along with images and share them with your class.

15
¾ Explore various folk theatre styles of India. Select one and get to know the minute
details like language, theme, costume and style of presentation. Translate the
dialogues and, songs in your own language and prepare with your group to
present in front of your school.

Extended activity

¾ Collect and paste pictures for the rasas the following table.

Rasa Painting Sculpture Dance

śṛṅgāra (amorous)

hāsya (humorous)

karuṇa (pathetic)

raudra (furious)

vīra (valorous)

bhayānaka (horrific)

bībhatsa (disgust)

adbhuta (wondrous)

¾ Form a theatre troupe with some of your classmates and prepare a play:
a. Identify a theme and its rasas.
b. Create a script and characters.
c. Convert the script into dialogues.
d. Perform the play using the four methods of abhinaya.

16
Further Reading

1. Bharata, The Nātyaśāstra, A Treatise on Hindu Dramaturgy and Histrionics. Manmohan Ghosh, tr.
Calcutta: Manisha Granthalaya, 2nd ed., 2 vols, 1967.
2. Dalmia, Vasudha, Poetics, Plays of Performances: The Politics of Modern India Theatre. New Delhi:
Oxford University Press, 2006.
3. Dharwadkar, Aparna, Theatre of Independence. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006.
4. Gupta, Manjula, Some Essays on Sanskrit Criticism. New Delhi: Sanjay Prakashan, 2002.
5. Jain, Nemichand. From the Wings: Notes on Theatre. New Delhi: National School of Drama, 2007.
6. Nehru, Jawaharlal, ‘The Old Indian Theatre’, in The Discovery of India. Calcutta: Oxford
University Press, 1989 (8th ed.).
7. Theatre India, Journal of the National School of Drama, no. 1, January 2012.
8. Viśṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Khand III. Priyabala Shah, tr. Delhi: Parimal Publications, 2002.

Internet Resources (all URLs accessed in June 2012)

¾ Incredible India: 2000-year-old Sanskrit theatre — kuṭiyaṭṭam:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=yTPY1-RNoO0
¾ Guru Ammannoor Madhava Chakyar: Kootiyattam, the classical Sanskrit theatrical
form indigenous to Kerala (Padma Bhushan (Dr.) Guru Ammannur Madhava Chakyar
(1917–2008) was a master of kuṭiyaṭṭam:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=w47m1cyefS4
¾ The theme in this video is about adventure and fun-filled episodes of Kṛṣṇa’s
childhood days, portraying his divinity and valour, and the killing of Kaṁsa:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=q-Mv0Z6zFWY
¾ Rajan Roshan , Rajasthani bhavāī:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yp7uFAoGo0c
¾ SPICMACAY, IIM Lucknow Chapter, pāṇḍavānī by Teejan Bai on 28 January 2011:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QpW6R1wEcQ&feature=related
¾ Teejan Bai’s pāṇḍavānī:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=zMAN6XglPm8

17
¾ An introduction to nautaṅkī, a theatrical genre, as performed particularly in the
region of Hathras, Vrindavan and Mathura in India:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=OwDYtbVYDS4

Resource Centres for Performing Arts

¾ Centre for Cultural Resources and Training, New Delhi:

www.ccrtindia.gov.in/
¾ National School of Drama, New Delhi:
http://nsd.gov.in/
¾ Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kendra, Delhi:
www.thekendra.com/
¾ Kerala Kalamandalam, Cheruthuruthy (Kerala):
http://www.kalamandalam.org/keralakalamandalam.asp

YZ

18
 Primary Texts on Drama in India: A Selection

Nātyaśāstra (tr. Manomohan Ghosh)

The sages respectfully said to him [Bharata], ‘O Brahman, how did originate
the nāṭyaveda similar to the Vedas, which you have properly composed? And
for whom is it meant, how many limbs does it possess, what is its extent and
how is it to be applied? Please speak to us in detail about it all.’ (1:2-5)

He then thought: ‘I shall make a fifth Veda on the nāṭya with the semi-
historical tales (itihāsa), which will conduce to duty (dharma), wealth (artha) as
well as fame, will contain good counsel and collection [of other materials for
human well-being], will give guidance to people of the future as well in all
their actions, will be enriched by the teaching of all scriptures (śāstra) and
will give a review of all arts and crafts (śilpa).’

With this resolve the Holy One (bhagavat) from his memory of all the Vedas
shaped this nāṭyaveda compiled from the four of them. (1:14-16)

***

Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa, Khaṇḍa III (tr. Priyabala Shah)

Aum Vajra said: Therefore, O twice–born (Brahmin)! I ask you about the
characteristics of nāṭaka along with its varieties. You know everything with
distinction. So O Almighty! Kindly tell me about them.

Markandaya said: In a nāṭaka [drama], there is the review of the Purāṇas

according to itihāsa (history) or in a nāṭaka, there is the life-history of Gods.

19
 In the kāvya (i.e. nāṭaka) there may be one nāyaka [hero], or there can be
a nāyaka and a pratināyaka [a hero’s rival].

O King! All the vṛttis [styles of composition], all the sentiments (rasas)
and all the usages of tenses (kālas) should be demonstrated in the nāṭaka by
some contrivance.

It is said there can be five acts or auspicious ten acts in a nāṭaka, O king!
In one act the activities of one episode are to be represented. Thereafter the
activities of other characters should be contrived with some yukti [device]
and upanyāsa.

O King! The incidents such as death, dethronement, the siege of a city

and the fight should not be shown in the act.

The wise men should describe these indents in a praveśaka [interlude].

There should always be two characters in a praveśaka and the characters
should be of the servant class [parijane]. The hero (nāyaka) should not be
there. When the two characters are not from the servant-class, it is called a
viṣkambhaka.

The nāṭikā [short play] is like a nāṭaka, but it consists of four acts and its
rasa is predominantly śṛṅgāra [erotic]. Similarly in prakaraṇa [drama with a
fictitious plot], the plot is imaginary.

O the best of kings! There the hero is Brahmin or a merchant. A

prakaraṇa should be written on the same line, but there should be four acts.

The plot of utṣṛṣṭakāṅka [a drama in one act] is either derived from

itihāsa [history] or it is imaginary. Mostly the vṛtti [style] is bhāratī and the
rasa is karuṇa. A god should not be made the hero.

20
 In bhāṇa [a type of dramatic entertainment], the plot should be derived
from itihāsa. It should represent the activities of one day. It consists of one
day and is full of fights. The entire action is performed by one actor, by means
of talking through the device of ākāśa kathana [speeches in the air].

In the variety named samavakāra there are twelve heroes, they may be
gods or demons. There are three śṛṅgāras and three kaptās.

In īhāmṛga there are many acts and Gandharva is the hero. Its
predominant rasa is śṛṅgāra. The rasa should arise from dissatisfaction of
yonirasa (sex enjoyment)

In vyāyoga the activities of one day is represented. There is one hero and
the rasa is dṛpta [proud, arrogant]. In vīthī there are thirteen acts but there is
no hero.

In ḍima the same [dṛpta] rasa particularly raudra is there, god is the hero
and the theme is well known.

Prahasana [a short farce] should be composed thus. There should be one

act. There should be plenty of hāsya [comical] rasa. The heroes should be
courtesans and viṭas [sensualist]. (17: 6-28)

Notes: The above extracts describe the ten different kinds of play, with their main
characteristics.

***

Nāṭyaśāstra

In it [nāṭya] there is no exclusive representation of you or of the gods: for the

drama is a representation of the state of the three worlds.

21
 [In it] sometimes there is [reference to] duty, sometimes to games,
sometimes to money, sometimes to peace, and sometimes laughter is found in
it, sometimes fight, sometimes love-making and sometimes killing [of people].

This teaches duty to those bent on doing their duty, love to those who
are eager for its fulfilment, and it chastises those who are ill-bred or unruly,
promotes self-restraint in those who are disciplined, gives courage to
cowards, energy to heroic persons, enlightens men of poor intellect and gives
wisdom to the learned.

This gives diversion to kings, and firmness [of mind] to persons afflicted
with sorrow, and [hints of acquiring] money to those who are for earning it,
and it brings composure to persons agitated in mind.

The drama as I have devised, is a mimicry of actions and conducts of

people, which is rich in various emotions, and which depicts different
situations. This will relate to actions of men good, bad and indifferent, and
will give courage, amusement and happiness as well as counsel to them all.

The drama will thus be instructive to all, through actions and states
(bhāva) depicted in it, and through sentiments arising out of it.

It will [also] give relief to unlucky persons who are afflicted with sorrow
and grief or [over-]work, and will be conducive to observance of duty
(dharma) as well as to fame, long life, intellect and general good, and will
educate people.

There is no wise maxim, no learning, no art or craft, no device, no action

that is not found in the drama (nātya). (1:106-116)

Note: Here Bharata describes the characteristics of drama and the benefits it will bring
to the audience.

22
Nāṭyaśāstra

There are three types of playhouses devised by the wise Viśvakarman [the
heavenly architect] in the treatise on his art [śāstra]. They are oblong (vikṛṣṭa),
square (caturasra) and triangular (tryasra). (2:7-8)

In the auspicious playhouse constructed with all the characteristics

[mentioned above], cows, and Brahmins muttering [proper mantras] should
be made to dwell for a week. Then the master of the dramatic art who has
been initiated [for the purpose] and has put on new clothes, fasted for three
days, lived away from his bedroom [literally, the dwelling house], has kept his
senses under control and has [thus] become purified, will besprinkle his limbs
with water over which purificatory mantras have been muttered, and
consecrate the playhouse. (3:1-3)

Note: Here Bharata explains the ritual consecration of theatre buildings.

Nāṭyaśāstra

Its different parts which are to be performed in due order with the playing of
drums and stringed instruments as well as with recitatives (pāṭhya), are as
follows: pratyāhāra, avataraṇa, ārambha, āśrāvaṇā, vaktrapāṇī, parighaṭṭānā,
saṃghoṭanā, mārgāsārita and asārita of the long, the medium and the short
types. These songs outside [the performance of a play] are to be sung by
persons behind the curtain to the accompaniment of drums and stringed
instruments.

Then after removing the curtain, dances and recitals are to be

performed with the laying of all musical instruments, and some song of the
madraka class is to be sung, or one of the vardhamānaka class along with the

23
 class dance [suitable to it] should be applied. Then should take place [one
after another] during the preliminaries the following: utthāpana, walking
round, benediction, suṣkāpakṛṣṭā, raṅga-dvāra, cāri, mahācāri, three men’s talk
and laudation. (5:8-15)

Note: Here Bharata describes the pūrvaraṅga (preliminary performance) to please the
gods and the audience.

Nāṭyaśāstra

Just as connoisseurs of cooked food [bhakta] while eating food which has been
prepared from various spices and other articles, taste it, so the learned people
taste in their mind the dominant states [such as love, sorrow, etc.] when they
are represented by an expression of the states with gestures. Hence these
dominant states in a drama are called the sentiments.

(The relation between the sentiments and psychological states:)

Now one enquires, ‘Do the states (bhāva) come out of the sentiments (rasa) or
the sentiments come out of the states?’ On this point, some are of opinion
that they arise from their mutual contact. But this is not so. Why? It is
apparent that the sentiments arise from the states and not the states from the
sentiments. For [on this point] there are [traditional] couplets such as:

The states are so called by experts in drama, for they cause to originate
(bhāvayanti) the sentiments in connexion with various modes of dramatic
representation. Just as by many articles of various kinds auxiliary cooked
food (vyañjanā) is brought forth, so the states along with different kinds of
histrionic representation will cause the sentiments to originate.

24
 There can be no sentiment prior to [literally, without] the states and no
states without the sentiments [following it], and during the histrionic
representation they are produced from their mutual relation.

Just as a combination of spices and vegetables imparts good taste to the

food cooked, so the states and the sentiments cause one another to originate
(bhāvayanti).

Just as a tree grows from a seed, and flowers and fruits [including the
seed] from a tree, so the sentiments are the source [literally, root] of all the
states, and likewise the states exist [as the source of all the sentiments].

(The eight sentiments from the four original ones:)

Now we shall describe the origins, the colours, the [presiding] deities, and
examples of these sentiments. Sources of these [eight] sentiments are the
four [original] sentiments — erotic, furious, heroic and odious.

The comic [sentiment] arises from the erotic, the pathetic from the
furious, the marvellous from the heroic, and the terrible from the odious.
(6:32-39)

Note: Here Bharata gives definitions of the eight rasas.

Nāṭyaśāstra

When the meanings presented by determinants and consequents are made to

pervade (gamyate) [the heart of the spectators] they are called bhāvas (states).

As in these the inner idea of the playwright (kavi) is made to pervade

[the mind of the spectators] by means of words, gestures, colour of the face
and the representation of the temperament they are called bhāvas [states].

25
 As they cause the sentiments relating to various kinds of histrionic
representation to pervade [the mind of the spectators], they are called bhāvas
(states) by those who produce a drama.

(Vibhāvas — determinants — explained:)

‘Now, why is the word vibhāva used?’ [Answer:] The word vibhāva is used for
the sake of clear knowledge. It is synonymous with kāraṇa, nimitta and hetu.
As words, gestures and the representation of the temperament are vibhāvyate
[determined] by this, it is called vibhāva [determinant]. Vibhāvita [also] means
the same thing as vijñāta [clearly known]. On this point there is a śloka:

As many things are vibhāvyate [determined] by this through words,

gestures and the representation of the temperament, it is named vibhāva
[determinant].

(Anubhāvas — consequents — explained:)

‘Now, why is the word anubhāva used?’ [Answer:] Because the histrionic
representation by means of words, gestures and the temperament are
anubhāvyate [made to be felt] by this, it is called anubhāva [consequent]. (7:1-
8)

Note: Here Bharata throws light on the constituents of rasa: bhāvas (emotions), vibhāvas
(actors/stage-sets) and anubhāvas or gestures as crucial elements of emotional
experience in theatre.

Nāṭyaśāstra

I shall now define [literally, relate the characteristics of] the two practices
(dharmī) which have been mentioned before.

26
 If a play depends on natural behaviour [in its characters] and is simple
and not artificial, and has in its [plot] professions and activities of the people
and has [simple acting and] no playful flourish of limbs and depends on men
and women of different types, it is called realistic (lokadharmī).

If a play contains speech, activity, beings and states of the extraordinary

kind, and requires acting with playful flourish of limbs and possesses
characteristics of dance, and requires conventional enunciation, and is
dependent on emotionally carried characters, it is to be known as
conventional (nāṭyadharmī).

If anything used by [literally, among] people, appears [literally, set foot]

in a play [literally, here] as endowed with a corporal from and speech the
practice is [also] called conventional (nāṭyadharmī). (14:61-67)

Note: Here, Bharata explains two kinds of dharmīs (theatrical representations).

Nāṭyaśāstra

I shall now describe the tenfold division of plays together with their names,
functions and modes of production.

For their definition (lakṣaṇa) plays are known to be of ten kinds such as
nāṭaka, prakaraṇa, aṅka (utsṛṣṭikāṅka), vyāyoga, bhāṇa, samavakāra, vīthī,
prahasana, ḍima and īhāmṛga. I shall describe their characteristics in detail.

Styles (vṛtti) are known as the constituent elements of all dramatic

works [literally, poems]. Considering their production the ten kinds of play
are considered to have proceeded from these.

Just as the jātis and the śrutis of notes (svara) constitute a scale (grāma),
so varieties of styles make up the dramatic composition (kāryabandha).

27
 Just as the ṣaḍja and the madhyama scales include all the notes, so these
two [kinds of] dramatic compositions (nāṭaka and prakaraṇa) are made up of
all the styles.

The nāṭaka and the prakaraṇa are to be known as made up of all the
styles and they utilize all the different methods of constructions.

Plays of the vīthī, the samavakāra, the īhāmṛga, the utsṛṣṭikāṅka (aṅka),
the vyāyoga, the bhāṇa, the prahasana and the ḍima classes should be made
devoid of the graceful style. (20:1-9)

Note: Here Bharata explains dasarūpakas (ten kinds of plays).

Nāṭyaśāstra

In this connexion, heroines (nāyikā) are known to be of eight kinds such as,
‘one dressed up for union’ (vāsakasajjā), ‘one distressed by separation’
(virahotkaṇṭhitā), ‘one having her husband in subjection’ (svādhinabhartṛkā),
‘one separated [from her lover] by a quarrel’ (kalahāntaritā), ‘one enraged
with her lover’ (khaṇḍitā), ‘one deceived by her lover’ (vipralabdhā), ‘one with
a sojourning husband’ (proṣitabhatṛka) and ‘one who moves to her lover’
(abhisārikā). (24:210-211)

Note: Here Bharata defines eight types of nāyikās (heroines).

Nāṭyaśāstra

I shall now describe their classes according to their conduct. Among these
[characters], heroes (nāyakas) are known to be of four classes, and they belong
to the superior and the middling types and have various characteristics.

28
 The hero is described as being of four kinds: the self-controlled and
vehement (dhīroddhata), the self-controlled and light-hearted (dhīralalita), the
self-controlled and exalted (dhīrodātta) and the self-controlled and calm
(dhīrapraśānta).

Gods are self-controlled and vehement (dhīroddhata), kings are self-

controlled and light-hearted (dhīralalita), councillors are self-controlled and
exalted (dhīrodātta), and Brahmins and merchants are self-controlled and
calm (dhīrapraśānta) classes of heroes. (34:17-20)

Note: Here Bharata defines four types of nāyakas (heroes).

***

Comprehension

1. What is the difference between reading a play, watching a play and watching a
movie?
2. The Nāṭyaśāstra introduces asuras or demons among the characters on the stage.
Which characters in contemporary theatre or films would you parallel with them?
3. What are some of the recurrent themes that we see in movies? Compare them
with those in Nāṭyaśāstra.
4. Drama is mimicry of actions and conducts of people. Work out some examples on
the basis of Nāṭyaśāstra.
5. In the Nāṭyaśāstra, what are the various themes for performing nāṭya?

Match the following

Match these heroes as per the descriptions of the Nāṭyaśāstra:

29
 1. Kṛṣṇa, Rāma, Buddha, Rāvaṇa.

2. Dhīrodātta: the ideal man, brave, confident, determined, disciplined yet down-to-
earth.

3. Dhīroddhatta: brave and self-controlled but very egotistical, hot-tempered,

deceitful.

4. Dhīralalita: brave yet always very cheerful and pleasant.

5. Dhīrapraśānta: pure at heart, confident and passionate.

Activity 1

Write a script using one of the themes for drama described by the Nāṭyaśāstra.

Activity 2

Complete the following table: find the correct emotions (rasas) from the Nāṭyaśāstra
corresponding to the first four entries, and find examples of songs/movies/dramas
corresponding to the last four.

Song / movie / drama Rasa (emotion)

Vande Mātaram (song)
Angoor (Hindi movie)
Comedy of Errors (play)
Romeo and Juliet (movie)
karuṇa (pathetic)
raudra (furious)
bhayānaka (horrific)
bībhatsa (disgust)

30
 Activity 3

Recall your favourite movies and the best of your theatrical experiences. Make a list of
themes/scenes that appealed to you the most. Draw similarities between present-day
heroes and heroes described in Nāṭyaśāstra. Cite examples from modern-day
drama/films/advertisements.

Activity 4

Read the given extract from A Monograph on Bharata’s Natyashastra by P.S.R. Apparao on
the origin of drama and do the activities that follow:

The gods got together to create a play asuraparājaya (the defeat of the
demons) in the open air at the time of the festival of indradhvaja or Indra’s
flag. The production of this play offended the demons as it was pointing
against them. The demons disappeared from the audience under the
leadership of virūpāksha and saw to it that the speech, movement, and
memory of the actors and actresses were paralyzed. Indra angered at the
discovery of the hand of the demons in disturbing the production, beat them
with his jarjara or flag staff. The production started again and the remainder
of the demons started to frighten the actors and actress with their guiles.
Then Brahmā ordered Visvakarma, the celestial architect, to construct a
nātyagṛha or a theatre so that admission could be restricted. Visvakarma, one
of the gods, immediately brought into being a theatre. Brahmā also stated
that the gods that guard the production and the theatre should be
worshipped before a production started. The worship is included in the
pūrvaraṅgavidhi or pre-presentational rituals.

31
 ¾ Search and draw pictures of different kinds of nāṭyagṛha as described in
Nāṭyaśāstra.
¾ Draw a comparison between contemporary theatre and nāṭyagṛha.
¾ Explore where the paramparā (tradition) of artists bowing before entering the
stage came from.

Let us explore

Read the following comment made by the Nāṭyaśāstra’s translator Manomohan Ghosh
and explore:

It may appear that these items of the Preliminaries to be performed behind

the front curtain have been made needlessly elaborate. But it is not so. In
ancient times people due to different conditions of their lives, were not so
much punctual in coming to the theatrical show, they did not come to it all at
once and at any fixed time. Quite a long time passed before they all
assembled. Hence from behind the curtain the Director offered to the early-
comers (naturally the people who had no haste in their lives) whatever they
could, while preparing for the actual performance. The same practice about
the Preliminaries maybe observed even now in case of the Jātrās or the open
air theatrical performances in Bengal.

Exercise

¾ What is the significance of pūrvaraṅgavidhi (pre-presentational rituals) in

performing arts?
¾ How is pūrvaraṅgavidhi (pre-presentational rituals) conducted in various forms of
classical dance and traditional theatre? How long does the ritual last?

32
¾ Collect and share various audiio and videos on pre-p
presentation
nal rituals from
different parts of Ind
dia.

P
Project idea

¾ Prepare a presentaation on aṣṣṭanāyikas — the eightt types of heroines — as

d in Nāṭyaśāāstra. (Clue: you
described y can seaarch the classsical dancees of India to get
relevant images.)
i

YZ

Performer plaaying Sugrīva in

i a kuṭiyaṭṭam
m play (Courtessy: Wikipedia))

33
 FG
“Theatre is the highest expression of the civilization that produces it.
Whether it expresses or interprets real life, theatre must summarize
it in striking fashion: life is depicted as shorn of the insignificant
accessories that burden it, reduced to its essential lines, generalized
under a symbol. India’s originality wholly expressed itself in her
dramatic art; she combined and condensed in it her dogmas, her
doctrines and her institutions. ... The Indian genius created a new art,
which the term rasa summarizes and symbolizes in a brief formula:
the poet does not express, he suggests. ...
“Thanks to his audience’s natural faculties, the poet is certain of
being understood without having to be explicit; he can dispense with
an integral expression of the thought or the sentiment; he is free to
choose, from among the elements of the idea or the impression, the
most happy, exquisite, delicate or even subtle traits. The listener’s
intelligence will seize on the hidden or veiled meaning, and good
taste will be grateful to the poet for having been spared
uninteresting details.
“The audience’s moral nobility imposes a moral obligation on
the poet. ... Emotion is the essence of poetry: the drama will choose
the noblest sentiments, and if it admits of any others, it will take care
to relegate them to a minor rank and use them to enhance and
glorify virtue.”
Sylvain Lévi, Indian Theatre (1890)
(tr. from the French by Michel Danino)

ED

34
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
Shiksha Kendra, 2, Community Centre, Preet Vihar, Delhi-110 092 India