Lecture Notes on Memory

BS English - First Semester | Introduction to Psychology (PSY-321)

Introduction to Memory

Memory is one of the most essential cognitive functions that allows individuals to encode, store,
and retrieve information over time. It plays a crucial role in learning, problem-solving, and daily
functioning. Understanding memory helps psychologists and educators develop better methods
for improving learning and retention.

Memory can be divided into different types based on duration and capacity, which we will
explore in detail.

Types of Memory
The first point under memory in the syllabus refers to different types of memory. There are three
broad categories based on duration and function:

1. Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the shortest form of memory, lasting only a few milliseconds to a few
seconds. It acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the five senses before they are either
transferred to short-term memory or discarded.

Characteristics of Sensory Memory:

●​ Large capacity but extremely brief duration.

●​ Operates automatically without conscious effort.
●​ Helps us perceive continuity in our environment.

Types of Sensory Memory:

1.​ Iconic Memory (Visual Memory) – Retains images for about 250-500 milliseconds.
Example: The afterimage of a flashlight moving in a circle.
2.​ Echoic Memory (Auditory Memory) – Stores sounds for 3-4 seconds, helping us
recognize speech patterns. Example: When someone asks a question, and you need a
moment to process it before responding.
3.​ Haptic Memory (Tactile Memory) – Stores touch-related stimuli briefly. Example: The
sensation of a chair after you stand up.
Sensory memory is essential for filtering vast amounts of information and determining what is
relevant for further processing.

2. Short-Term Memory (STM)

Short-term memory (also called working memory) is responsible for temporarily holding and
processing information. It has a limited capacity and duration, typically retaining information for
15-30 seconds unless rehearsed.

Characteristics of Short-Term Memory:

●​ Capacity: Around 7±2 items (Miller, 1956).

●​ Duration: 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.
●​ Easily disrupted by distractions.

How Short-Term Memory Works:

●​ Encoding: Information enters through sensory memory and is actively processed.

●​ Rehearsal: Repeating information to extend retention.
●​ Chunking: Grouping related items to improve capacity (e.g., remembering
199519971999 as 1995, 1997, 1999).

Example: When someone tells you a phone number, you can remember it for a short while
before forgetting it unless you repeat it.

Short-term memory is critical for problem-solving, language comprehension, and

decision-making.

3. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Long-term memory stores information for extended periods, ranging from minutes to a lifetime.
Unlike short-term memory, its capacity is unlimited.

Types of Long-Term Memory:

Long-term memory is divided into two main categories:

A. Explicit (Declarative) Memory – Conscious, intentional memory of facts and experiences.

1.​ Episodic Memory – Memory of personal experiences and events (e.g., remembering
your first day of college).
 2.​ Semantic Memory – General knowledge and facts (e.g., knowing the capital of France
is Paris).

B. Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory – Unconscious memory affecting thoughts and

behaviors.

1.​ Procedural Memory – Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bicycle, typing).
2.​ Priming – Previous exposure influencing behavior (e.g., seeing a brand logo and later
recognizing it easily).

Long-term memory is essential for learning and personal identity. It is strengthened by repeated
exposure and meaningful connections.

Memory Processes
Memory involves three key processes:

1. Encoding (Acquisition)

●​ Converting sensory input into a meaningful neural code.

●​ Strategies:
○​ Visual Encoding – Remembering images.
○​ Acoustic Encoding – Remembering sounds.
○​ Semantic Encoding – Understanding meaning (most effective).

2. Storage

●​ Retaining information over time.

●​ Short-term memory relies on electrical activity, whereas long-term memory involves
structural changes in neurons (synaptic plasticity).

3. Retrieval

●​ Accessing stored information when needed.

●​ Retrieval can be enhanced by cues, repetition, and context.

Memory Models
Psychologists have proposed several models to explain how memory functions.
1. Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model (1968)

This model suggests that memory is divided into three components:

●​ Sensory Memory (brief storage of raw data).

●​ Short-Term Memory (limited capacity, temporary storage).
●​ Long-Term Memory (unlimited storage).

2. Baddeley’s Working Memory Model (1974)

This model expands on short-term memory, dividing it into components:

●​ Phonological Loop (handles verbal and auditory info).

●​ Visuospatial Sketchpad (processes images).
●​ Central Executive (controls attention).

Forgetting and Memory Failures

Forgetting is the loss or inability to retrieve information. Some common explanations include:

1. Decay Theory

●​ Memory fades over time if not rehearsed.

2. Interference Theory

●​ Proactive Interference – Old information disrupts new learning.

●​ Retroactive Interference – New information replaces old memories.

3. Retrieval Failure

●​ Inability to recall due to lack of cues.

4. Amnesia

●​ Anterograde Amnesia – Inability to form new memories.

●​ Retrograde Amnesia – Loss of past memories.

How to Improve Memory

 1.​ Rehearsal and Repetition – Strengthens neural connections.
2.​ Mnemonics and Chunking – Helps organize information.
3.​ Healthy Lifestyle – Sleep, diet, and exercise improve cognitive function.
4.​ Active Engagement – Teaching, discussing, and applying knowledge boosts retention.

Conclusion

Memory is a complex psychological process crucial for human cognition. Understanding its
types, processes, and limitations helps in improving learning and information retention.
Research in psychology continues to explore ways to enhance memory, benefiting education
and mental health.

References

1.​ Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes.
2.​ Baddeley, A. D. (1974). Working memory and language processing.
3.​ Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our
capacity for processing information.
4.​ Schacter, D. L. (2001). The seven sins of memory: How the mind forgets and
remembers.

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