Chapten

Voltmeters and
Multimeters 4
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The most commonly used de meter is based on
the fundamental principle of the
the flow of a small amount of current
motor. Thc motor action is produced by field. This
through a moving coil which is positioned in permanent magnetic referred to
a

movement. is also
basic moving system, often called the D'Arsonval
as the basic meter.
the basic meter
Different instrument forms may be obtained by starting with
movement and adding various elements, as follows.
1 The basic meter movement becomes a de instrument, measuring
a microammeter, a
(1) dc current, by adding a shunt resistance, forming
milliammeter or an ammeter.
milli
(11) de voltage. by adding a multiplier resistance. forming
a

voltmeter, voltmeter or kilovoltmeter.

(ii) resistance, by adding a battery and resistive network. forming
an

ohmmeter.
The basc meter movement becomes an ac instrument, measuring
(i) ac voltage or current. by adding a rectifier, forming a rectifier type
meter for power and audio frequencies.
ii) RF voltage or current, by adding a thermocouple-type meter for RF.
i ) Expanded scale for power line voltage, by adding a thermistor in a
resistive bridge network, forming an expanded scale (100 140 V)
ac meter tor power line monitoring.

BASIC METER AS A DC VOLTMETER 4.2

To use the basic meter as a de volumeter, it is necessary to know the amount of
current required to deflect the basic meter to full scale. This current is known
as full scale deflection current ( ) . For example, suppose a 50 uA current is
required for full scale deflection.
This full scale value will produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 Q per V.
The sensitivity is based on the fact that the full scale eurrent of 50 uA results
whenever 20,000 2 of resistance is present in the meter cireuit for each voltage
applied.
 S = 5 k2/V
Therefore

DC VOLTMETER
converted into de voltmetes
a
er by addi
movement can be
A basic D'Arsonval in Fig. 4.1. The fino
known as multiplier, as shown tion of
a series resistor the
limit the current through
multiplier is to Multiplier
exceed
m o v e m e n t so that the
current does not

the full scale deflection value. A

dc voltmeter Rs
measures the potential
difference between two

points in a dc circuit or a circuit component.

To measurethe potential difference be-
tween two points in a dc circuit or a circuit
component, a de voltmeter is always connect-
ed across them with the proper polarity.
Fig. 4.1 Basic dc voltmeter
The value of the multiplier required is
calculated as follows. Referring to Fig. 4.1,
f u l l scale deflection current of the movement ( d
Rinternal resistance of movement
R, = multiplier resistance

V= full range voltage of the instrument

From the circuit of Fig. 4.1

V Im(R+R,)
V -IR
R, - R
I I
Therefore R,
I
.
-

R
The multiplier limits the current through the to not
the value of the füll scale
deflection If movement, so
SO as
as

The above equation is also

used to further
extend the range im
Example 4.Z (D) Calculate the value of multiplier resistance on the 50V
range dc voltneter that
of a uses a 500 uA meter movement with an internal
resistance of1 k2.

Solution
Step 1: The sensitivity of 500 pA meter movement is given by
S= 1/= 1/500 HA =2 k2/V.
Step 2: The value of the multiplier resistance can be calculated by
R,=Sx range - R
R =2 k2/Vx 50 V-1 kQ
=
100 k2-1 kQ =99 k2

MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER 4.4

As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multirange ammeter, a number of shunts
are connected across the movement with a multi-position switch. Similarly,
a dc voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a
number of resistors (multipliers) along
with a range switch to provide a greater
number of workable ranges. V
w
R
Figure 4.2 shows a multirange V2 R2
voltmeter using a three position switch w- m
and three multipliers R1, R2, and R, for V3 Ra
Rm
voltage values Vi, V2, and V3.
Figure 4.2 can be further modified
to Fig. 4.3, which is a more
practical
arrangement of the multiplier resistors Fig. 4.2 Multirange voltmeter
of a multirange voltmeter.
In this arrangement, the
multipliers connected in a series string, and the
are
range selector selects the appropriate amount of resistance
the movement. required in series with
 N4
R3
R2
R
V2 Va
V Rm

in series string
Fig. 4.3 Multipliers connected
This arrangement is advantageous compared t0 the previous one, becae
causke
multiplier resistances except the first have the standard resistance value av
also casily available in precision tolerances.
The first resistor or low range multiplier, Ra, is the only special
has to be specially manufactured to meet the circuit
resistor
requirements.
Example 4.3 AD'Arsonval movement with a full scale
deflectioncu
of 50 uA and internal resistance of 500 2 is to be converted into a mulirak
voltmeter. Determine the value of multiplier required for 0-20 V, O-50 Vt
0-100 V.

Solution Given = 50
Case 1:
uA and R =
500 Q
For range 0-20V
R 20
- R =50x 106 -500= 0.4x
Case 2: For
10-500 -500
400 K - 500= 5399.5
range (0- 50 V
V
R, - R 50
50x10-600=1x 10- 500
Case 3: For range 0- =100
000 K -500 =
K-500
999.5

100 V
R, 50x 100
50x 10-6-500 =2x
10-500= 2000
000 K
K -500
=1999.
500
 R t R,4 9 5 0
+
+ 50)
20 k
R,-(R,+R,

R -(25 k
+

Therefore -
125 k
= 125 k - 50 k n-standard val
n o n - s t a n d a r d
val

75 k2 has a
multiplier)
range
r e s i s t a n c e R, (low
Only the

EXTENDING VOLTMETER RANGES

voltages, hy m
to
measure high
be
extended
resistor, as shoun
voltmeter can multiplier
of external
current rana
a
The range an
probe or by using is used
on the
lowest

a high voltage m e t e r s the basic movement

Fig.4.4. In
most
can be
determined
W
multipliers Meter Set External
Values for
procedure of Section 4.4. to Multiplier
using the can be used
to
meter
movement Lowest
The basic
great
voltages. However, Current
mcasure very low Range
the voltage
care must be
used not to exceed
for full scale deflection of the Extending voltage range
drop required Fig. 4.4
basic m o v e m e n t .

voltmeter is the rato

or Ohms per Volt rating of a
Sensitivity The sensitivity essentiaily is
total circuit resistance R, to the voltage range. Sensitivity
the
of the full scale deflection current of the basic movement. Thereo
reciprocal
S 1/ 2V
DE used
The sensitivity 'S" of the voltmeter has the advantage that it can
calculate the value of multiplier resistors in a dc voltmeter. As,
 Voltmeters and Multir

R= total circuit resistance [R, = R, + R,]

S sensitivity of voltmeter in ohms per volt

V= voltage range as set by range switch
R=internal
m
resistance ofthe movement
Since R,= R,-R and R, ==Sx V
R, (Sx V)-R
Example
Example 4.7 Calculate the value of the multiplier resistance on
range of a dc voltmeter, that uses a 200 uA meter movement with ar
resistance of 100 2

Solution As R,= Sx Range - internal resistance, and S=1/gd

The sensitivity of the meter movement is

S=1/ld= 1/200 uA =5 k2/V.
The value of multiplier R, is calculated as
R= Sx Range -

internal resistance =
Sx V-R
=
5 kx 50- 100
250 k - 100
249.9 k2
 The current thro the meter is 93.8% of the expected current, therefore the
meter current caused a 6.2% error due to effects of loading

TRANSISTOR VOLTMETER (TVM) 4.7

Direct coupled amplifiers are economical and hence used widely in general
purpose low priced VTVM's. Figure 4.9 gives a simplified schematic diagram of
a de coupled amplifier with an indicating meter. The dc input is applied to a range

attenuator to provide input voltage levels which can be accommodated by the de

amplifier. The input stage of the amplifier çonsists ofa FET which provides high
input impedance to effectively isolate the meter circuit from the circuit under
measurement. The input impedance of a FET is greater than 10 M2. The bridge
is balanced, so that for zero input the dial indicates zero.
The two transistors, Q and Q, forrns a de coupled amplifier driving the meter
movement. Within the dynamic range of the amplifier, the meter deflection is
proportional to the magnitude of the applied input voltage. The input overload
does not burn the meter because the amplifier saturates, limiting the maximum
current through the meter. The gain of the dc amplifier allows the instrument
to be used for measurement of voltages in the mV
range. Instruments in the
 LICCiruiic Wat Ui
dc ampliso
92
require
a gain amplif
gh gain
high to Supi
m e a s u r e m e n t
orderto
In order avoi
to avoid
e drift prok
of m o v e m e n t .

V range the
meter
are monly use in
a r e commonl
current fordriving
amplifiers,
chopper type de
amplifiers
high sen
dc
voltmeters.

+Vcc
22 k
:
WW/H
DC
Input 10kCalibrationn7 33 k
10k

FET Balanced Bridge -VEE

Input Amplifier
Amplifier
Fig 4.3 Transistor voltmeter

CHOPPER TYPE DC AMPLIFIER VOLTMETER

(MICROVOLTMETER)
In a chopper type
amplifier the dc input voltage is converted into an ac vols
amplified by amplifier and then converted back into a
an ac
volta
to the original input signal. cvoltage proporio
The balanced bridge voltmeter
has
amplifier. Any fluctuations of voltage limitations caused by drift
due to ageing or rise in supply variation in the "Q'problems jn
or

balance. This drift in the temperature causes a change in the zero characteris
output indications to steady state conditions of a dc setting
limits the minimum change as if the signal
input amplifier
had changed. This causes
chopper type de amplifiervoltage that can be measured. drift probla
is To measure small
A
chopper amplifier is used. voltage
very sensitive
instruments ofnormally used for the first
is
chopped to alow frequency of uV range. In such anstage of amplifica
a few

capacitor,
to remove amplified and then
100-300 Hz. It is amplifier the de vone
the de drift passed passed through a DI k
The or offset of the through another blocking in or
has a principle of operation is as amplified capaci
very small drift signal.
given in Fig. 4.10.
mechanical or compared to a dc An ac amplifier wh
for
modulation electronic. Photo diodes amplifier is used.sed. The anp
The cchopper n
(conversion of dc to ac) used as
m a y

dc). Photo are

few
thousandconductors have a low and nonmecnai ho
choppe
The
photo ohms, when resistance,
stance, demodulation of
tion (conversi fac
they
conductor resistance
when not illuminated. are
illuminatedranging from (Cohatndres
increases nh
a few hundred
by a neon T andescent 3
 UUL
Chopper ac Low
Modulator Amplifier Chopper Pass
Low Demodulator
Filter
Level dc
Input Amplified
Signal Output

Oscillator

Fig. 4.10 Principle of operation (Chopper type voltmeter)

4.11 (a) shows
Figure a simple circuit for basic
modulator.
an principle of an electronic
A flashing light
source, whose intensity varies from maximum to minimum
almost instantaneously, causes the photo diode resistance to change from Rmin to
R nax quickly. Therefore the output voltage is an ac, because the photo diode has
a high
output when its resistance is high and a low output when its resistance is
low, as shown in Fig. 4.11 (b).

R Vout
dc
Output
Photo(Vout)
Device
Flashing
LLight Time
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.1 (a) Basic principle of an electronic modulator (6) Output obtained from circuit
in Fig.4.1 I (a) (Output voltage waveform)
In the circuit diagram of Fig. 4.12, an oscillator drives two neon lamps into
illumination on alternating half cycles of oscillation. The oscillator frequency is
limited to a few 100 cycles, because the transition time required for the photo
diode to change from high resistance to low resistance limits the choppinng
range.
Each neon lamp illuminates one photo diode in the input circuit of the amplifier
and one in the output circuit. The two photo diodes form a series shunt half
wave modulator or chopper. When one photo diode or the input has maximum
 sOLID STATE VOLTMETERR
4.9
r e 4,13 shows the circuit of electronic voltmeter using an 1C
an

741C. This is a directly coupled very high gain amplifier. The gain of the OpAmp
an be adjusted to any suitable lower value by providing OpAmp
appropriate resistance
hetween its output terminal, Pin No. 6, and inverting input, Pin No.
2, to provide
a negative feedback. The ratio R/R, determines the
gain, i.e. 101 in this case,
provided by the OpAmp. The 0.1 uF capacitor across the 100 k resistance R, is for
stability under stray pick-ups. Terminals 1 and 5 are called offset null terminals.
A 10 k2 potentiometer is connected between these two offset null terminals with
its centre tap connected to a - 5V supply. This potentiometer is called zero set
and is used for adjusting zero output for zero input conditions.

100 V
8.2 M
10V 820 k
820 k
0.1 uF
82 k
82 k R
100 k
8.2 k
100 mv 1k 1k +5V
AM 3
8.2k
10 mV
8202 Lw
-5 V
Ra
1k
Ri1k Ra

Voltage Op Amp
Divider
Fig. 4.13 Solid state mV voltmeter using OpAmp

The two diodes used are for IC protection. Under normal conditions, they are
 96 ElectronkInstr
teok.

oltmeter techni
D I F F E R E N T I A L V O L T M E T E R

d
diif
tfe
èrential
l
voltmeter
vol
ue, is one
nknown
unknow

Measurement
ment
The
of
measuring

bet..
difference betwe
tag
ges. In h
known known a
m e t h o d s difierence

the
to aa kn
Differential
a c c u r a t e

to
i
innd
diic
caat
tee

Basic and to
voltage
C o m p a r e d

c o m m o n

used
u sed
voltageis
most
v o l t m eter
is
is voltmat

based on t
the eter

the unknown
d i f f è r e n t i a l

circuit ofa
technique,
i.e., a n
voltages, basic also called potentio
called a p ote
also
unknown shows a s o m e t i m e s

4.14 (a) is
Figure
p o t e n t i o m e t r i c
method;
hence it Null Indicator

O-
Potentiometer
meter. potentiometer

method,
the
In this across t
until the voltage
is varied wnien 1s Unknown
unknown voltage,
cquals the indicator reading
Voltage
Voltage
indicated by thenull

zero. Under null

conditions, the meter RefVoteraegen
retfer
draws current from neither the
nor the
unknown voltage
source, and hence
ence source the differential volt- Fig, 4.14 (a) Basic differential voltm
meter

meter presents an infinite impedance

an indicator only,)
to the unknown source. (The
null meter serves as
To detect small differences the meter movement must be sensitive, but it neei
indicated.
not be calibrated, since only zero has to be
The reference source used is usually a l V de standard source or a .
Zenei
controlled precision supply. A high voltage reference supply is used for measurine
high voltages. suring
The usual practice, however, is to employ voltage diViders or atteuatom
across an unknown source to reduce the voltage. The
input
a
relatively low input impedance, especially for unknown voltage divider has
voltages much
than the reference standard. The
attenuation will have a loading effect higher
input resistance of voltmeter is not and the
In order to measure ac infinity when an attenuator is used.
voltages, the ac voltage must be converted
incorporating a precision rectifier circuit. A block
into dc by
voltmeter is shown in diagram of an ac differential
Fig. 4.14 (b).

ac Input
Input Atten- ac
uator ac
Amplifier todc 1V
dc Reference
Fig. 4.14 (6) Block Converter
DC STANDARD/DIFFERENCEdiagram an ac of
VOLTMETER differential voltmeter
Multifunction Laboratory Instrument
Abasic
dc
The three standard differential 4.11
basic
operationvoltmeter
modes of
differential voltmeter, can be
are and (iil) as a d (i) as a dr operated in different
difre modes
 n e toW leve
voltages obtained from the decmal divider to a sufficient level. This reference
outout voltage is then applied to a high gain dc amplifier with positive feedback
to obtain precisely controlled gain characteristics.
Figure 4.15 (a) illustrates the standard mode of operation. In the standard
mode of operation, the differential voltmeter is used to provide a standard
reference source in the laboratory, where the instrument generates a precision
output voltage from 0- 10000 V as a reference source.
Reference Section Amplifier Section
1V Low Level High
Reference Decimal
Gain
Output
Divider dc Control
Supply Amplifier Amplifier Stage
1000 V
Precision dc Output
0-1000 VN

100 V
Feedback
10 V

Range
Selector
IV

Fig. 4.15 (a) Block diagram of dc standard/differential voltmeter

The dc amplifier consists of several stages in cascade, providing an open loop
gain (A) of i0 or higher. (The feedback network monitors the actual output voltage
and feeds a controlled fraction of the output back to the amplifier input.)
The closed loop gain of the feedback amplifier is given by
A
G
1+AB
where G= closed loop gain (voltage gain with feedback)
A = open loop gain (voltage gain without feedback)
B fraction of the output used as degenerative feedback
Ifthe open loop gain is very high and A ß is much greater than 1, G= 1/
implying that the gain ofthe amplifier depends only on the amount of degenerative
feedback.
From the equation (G=1/ß), it can be seen that as B decreases, the closed loop
gain of the amplifier increases. The value of B in turn depends upon the accuracy
of the voltage dividers used, 1.e. the precision value of the resistors used for
 AC VOLTMETER USING RECTIFIERS 4.12
Rectifier type instruments generally use a PMMC movement along with a rectifier
arrangement. Silicon diodes are preferred because of their low reverse current
and high forward current ratings. Figure 4. 16 (a) gives an ac voltmeter circuit
consisting of a multiplier, a bridge rectifier and a PMMC movement.
Rs
Multiplier
ac
Input
k ms
av
2 Im

Fig. 4.16 (a) ac voltmeter (b) Average and RMS value of current

The bridge rectifier provides a full

wave pulsating dc. Due to the inertia of
the movable coil, the meter indicates Linear
a steady deflection proportional to the Region

average value of the current (Fig. 4.16

Non-linear
(b)). The meter scale is usually calibrated Region
to give the RMS value of an alternating
Forward Voltage"
Sine wave input.
Practical rectifiers are non-linear
Fig. 4.16 (c) Diode characteristics
devices particularly at low values of
(Forward)
forward current (Fig. 4.16 (c)). Hence the
meter scale is non-linear and is generally crowded at the lower end of a low range
voltmeter. In this part the meter has low sensitivity because of the high forward
resistance of the diode. Also, the diode resistance depends on the temperature.
The rectifier exhibits capacitance
properties when reverse biased, and Rs wwT Im \lsh
tends to bypass higher frequencies.
The meter reading may be in error by ac
Input D2 Rsh Rm
as much as 0.5% decrease for everyl
kHz rise in frequency.
A general rectifier type ac voltmeter
arrangement is given in Fig. 4.17. Fig. 4.17 General rectifier type ac voltmeter
movelenl.

WAVE RECTIFIER
VOLTMETER
USING HALF
AC
added to the de
voltmeter, as shown Fig. 41
inin Fig. 4.18,vwehave
Ifa diode D, is cir- Rs=10kD D
half wave rectifier
voltmeter using
ac voltages. ww-D
cuit capable of measuring
voltmeter is
The sensitivity of the dc
given by ein=10 Vms sd

Sh/lpd 1/| mA =1 k2 Rm
value
Amultiple of 10 times this
means a 10 V dc input
would cause Fig. 4.18 ac voltmeter usine
exactly full scale deflection when con- half wave rectifier ng
nected with proper polarity. Assume
D, to be an ideal diode with negligible forward bias resistance. If thie
dciinpul
replaced by 10 V ms sine wave input. The voltages
a appearing at the
due to the +ve half cycle due to rectifying action. outpya
The peak value of 10V rms sine wave is

E,= 10 V ms x 1.414 14.14 V peak

The dc will respond to the average value of the ac input, therefore
Eay-E, x 0.636 14.14 x 0.636 = 8.99 V
Since the diode conducts only during the
positive half cycle, the average valu
over the entire
cycle is one half the average value of 8.99 V, i.e. about 4.5 V.
Therefore, the pointer will deflect for a full scale if 10 V dc is applied
when a 10 Vrms sinusoidal and 45
signal applied. This means that an ac voltmeter
is
not as sensitive as a dc voltmeter.

As
E-0.45 x rms
The value of the multiplier resistor can be calculated as
RR Edc -R, 0.45x Es-RR
lde
Example 4.15 Calculate the value of the 10 Vm
range on the voltmeter shown in multiplier resistorJo a

Fig. 4.19.
DigitalValtmeters

bemalogvol
con
instruments t h a t at Co
displayed
ca.

readout

INTRODUCTION measuring
digital

| output sienal

( D V M s )
are
r e a d o u t .
ThiIs

digital.
nut ssignal
output

Digital
voltmeters

or
numeric

as
an
electrical

analog
dc oltages.
voltages,

o f the
f
However,
owever,
DD
the DVM, With
w
quantitb
digital
a used
gnals
into and
aiso m e a s u r i n g

the
imput
of pr

the ffront
panel
r o n t pa capable
p r e c e d i n g
lemperature,
and
,ure ure can b
the is conditioners is
litioners is the
voltage
DVM c u r r e n t ,
c o n d i t i o n e r s

Any and
ac
signal
signal de
appropriate

voltages,
ohms,

in all
these
quantity
being measured. .Thi
being
clement u n k n o w n

ac
such a s common the
The level otf
to the tion operation and progran,
o p e r a t i o n a
m c a s u r e d .

DVM.
p r o p o r t i o n a l
the a u t o m a t i o
f o l l o w i n P O g

which is m e a s u r e d by speed,
in the following ways:
then such a s differ
is features which
dc o u t p u t
ofDVM
v a r i o u s

have varieties
DVMs
several
There are

ability. Number ofdigits

1. N u m b e r o fm e a s u r e m e n t s

Accuracy

4 Speed ofreading several types. numbers,

rather than :as a
output
of as
discrete

5. Digital
and de
voltages
voltmeter. A
numerica readout is
numerical
ae
DVM displays in an analog increase
The scale as eliminates
parallax error,
continuous

pointer
on a human error,
form suitable
for furthe
because it reduces digital
advantageous output in size, powe the
and often provides of IC modules,
reading speed With the
development
DVMs compete
with
and recording. so that
processing been reduced, are ther
DVMs have
and cost of outstanding qualities
requirements and size. Their
voltmeters in portability detailed below.
analog characteristics, as selection
performance automatic range
operating and + 1000 V with
from +1.000 V to
1. Input range
and overload indication
the reading
2.
2. Absolute accuracy as high as +0.005% of redon

(l pV reading can be read

or measu
3.
3. Resolution I part in million
IVrange) 40 pk entof
o
resistance typically 10 M2, input capacitance
45.4. Input
Calibration internally from stabilised reference sources, indcp Ce sources,
independent

5.
measuring circuit
 and voltage ratio.
ohms

RAMP TECHNIQUE 5.2

The operating principle is to measure the time that a linear ramp takes to change
he input level to the ground level, or vice-versa. This time period is measured
time-interval counter and the count is displayed as a number of
with an electronic
digits on an indicating tube or display. The operating principle and block diagramn
and 5.2.
ofa ramp type DVM are shown in Figs 5.1
Start of Ramp
+12 V
1st Coincidenee Voltage to
be measured
2nd Coincidence
Time
Voltage
0 Ramp

-12V-

Count Time Interval

Gate

Clock Pulses

Fig. 5.1 Voltage to time conversion

The ramp may be positive or negative, in this case a negative ramp has been
selected.
is reset
At the start of the measurement a ramp voltage is initiated (counter
a pulse which initiates the ramp
to 0 and sampled rate multivibrator gives
with the voltage that is
generator). The ramp voltage is continuously compared
two voltage become equal, a coincidence
being measured. At the instant these
circuit generates a pulse which opens a gate, 1.e. the input comparator generates
until the second comparator circuitthat senses
a start pulse. The ramp continues
the ramp has reached zero value. The ground comparator compares the ramp
or reaches ground potential, the
with ground. When the ramp voltage equals zero
The output pulse from this comparator
ground comparator generates a stop pulse.
closes the gate. The time duration of the gate opening is proportional to the input
voltage value.
In the time interval between the start and stop pulses, the gate opens and the
oscillator circuit drives the counter. The magnitude of the count indicates the
 which is displayed
mput voltage,
mngmitade of the by the
the vwoltage is converted into time and the time count
the voltage The sample rate multivibrator
of
Teadout
represents
etermines thetsratethe
meaurement Atypwcal vaue is S measuring cycles per secore a
of:0005 of the reading. The sample rate ircuit provide: Wiwith
for the ramp generator to start its next ramp voltage. At nan th
ini
anan
pulse is

Amy DVM has a fundamental

zero statethe same
generated. which resets the counter to the zero
cycle sequence which
me itiatimeting
dispiaying and reset sequences. in
Test Input
olves sa
Ranging
and Comparator
Attenuator
Start
Pulse

Oscillator Gate Counter

Counter
Ramp Stop
Generator Pulse Read
GND Out
Sampied Comparator
Rate
MV

Fig 52 Block
Advantages and diagram of
ramp type DVM
its cost is Disadvantages
low. Also, The ramp
However, the
single output pulse can technique
the
be circuit is
requires excellent transmitted overeasy
of the ramp to
ramp and time design
superimposed on the
long
measurement. Large characteristics
feeder lina
of converter. input signal.
Input filters errors are regarding lineanm
DUAL SLOPE
are
usuallypossible when nose
required with this ir
(VOLTAGE
In
TO INTEGRATING
TIME TYPE DVM
ramp
technique,techni ques,
noise is
CONVERSION)
superimposed noise
process of integration.averaged out can
by the cause
'ePrinciple of Dual positive andlargenegative
errors.
errors. In the dualr
n
is
integrat
input voltage. ed, Slope Type
with DVM
ta negative
ramps usingin
the After a the slope of theAs illustrated
will inhave
tegrator input is fixed time, souul integustrated
rtor in Fig, 5.3,
Fig. 5., the input
 V

Slope Constant Slope

Proportional to e Proportional to er

Time

Fig.5.3 Basic principle of dual slope type DVM

Comparator
(Zero detector)
R

er
S
VA 1
0t+2 0
Gate Gate
Open Close
Counter
&Displays
SwitchchF/F 0000 Gate
Drive

Oscillator
Fig. 5.4 Block diagram of a dual slope type DVM

At the start a pulse resets the counter and the F/F output to logic level 0. S,
is closed and S, is open. The capacitor begins to charge. As soon as the integrator
output exceeds zero, the comparator output voltage changes state, which opens
the gate so that the oscilator clock pulses are fed to the counter. (When the ramp
voltage starts, the comparator goes to state 1, the gate opens and clock pulse
drives the counter.) When the counter reaches maximum count, i.e. the counter
is made to nun for a time ' ' in this case 9999, on the next clock pulse all digits
go to 0000 and the counter activates the F/F to logic level '1'. This activates
the switch drive, e, is disconnected and -e, is connected to the integrator. The
integrator output will have a negative slope which is constant, i.e. integrator
output now decreases linearly to 0 volts. Comparator output state changes again
and locks the gate. The discharge time t, is now proportional to the
input voltage.
The counter indicates the count during time t. When the negative slope of the
integrator reaches zero, the comparator switches to state 0 and the gate closes,
 SIope. As
W I l

d i s c h a r g e d

that e, is the
capacitor
("is
now

finds that
zero,
zero

ounter is stoppe
r e l a t i o n . h

.e.the
c o m p a r a t o r
input
(zero
detector)

counter
thus
have a
direct on
with the inpu
counted by the
pulses
uring chang1ng

e dt RC
During discharging
2
-e,dt=.
e,2
RC
eRC
have
from 5.I we
Subtracting Eqs 5.2

e RC RC

0 _-94)
0 RC RC
e,2
RC RC

Ifthe oscillator period equals T and the digital counter indicates n

counts respectively, amd
inT
e i.e. e=e,

Now, n and e, are constants. Let

K=.Then e, =
K, n
From Eq. 5.3 it is evident that the
accuracy of the
independent of the integrator time constant. The times t measured voltage s
the count of the ciock t, are measurede and
given
Oscillator period equals T and by the numbers n, and
n, respectively. The C=
that the
if n, and are
accuracy of the method is also e, constants, then Eq. 5.4 md
The dual independent of the oscillator frequen
slope technique has excellent
superimposed ac are noise rejection
averaged out in the processofof gration.because 101se
accuracy are readily varied
of t0.05% in 100 ms is integration. The
according to specific Ine speed
o
available. requirements, als0o an acu
INTEGPATu