Human-Centered Design: Changing Perspectives on Design Education in the East and West

Author(s): Richard Buchanan

Source: Design Issues, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Winter, 2004), pp. 30-39
Published by: MIT Press
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Document Human-centeredDesign:
ChangingPerspectiveson Design
inthe EastandWest
Education
Richard
Buchanan

Introduction
Design educationis evolving rapidlyin the People'sRepublicof China. In
the era of the "plannedeconomy,"from1949 to the early 1980s, therewere
few design schools, and those schools that did exist based their programs
firmly on the arts-and-crafts tradition of China. As new ideas about the
"marketeconomy"emergedin the 1980s, new ideas about moderndesign
also entered the country. This thinking is documented in an article by
Zhou Zhi Wang, "ChineseModern Design: A Retrospective,"published
in Design Issues in the late 1980s (Vol. VI, No. 1). One of thefoundersof
China'smoderndesign educationmovement-and one of the most respected
design scholarsin China-Wang explains the shiftfrom "arts-and-crafts"
toward 'form andfunction," a classic theme of twentieth-centurydesign
in the West. The uneasy relationshipof traditionaland modernapproaches
to design education in China continues to the present, butfrom the mid-
1990s to 2003 the number of design schools in China increased rapidly
to approximately450. As the manufacturing capability of the People's
Republicincreases-the Pearl River Delta, adjacentto Hong Kong, is now
the largest concentration of manufacturing in the world-thefocusing
question is whetherand how China can be transformedfromthe makerof
products designed elsewherein the world to an original source of design.
Theanswer to this questionwill be determined,at least in part, by theform
that design educationin China takesin thefuture.
As the People'sRepublicof China preparesforfull membershipin
the WorldTradeOrganization,a specialtwo-dayconference,"Equippingfor
the Future:An InternationalConferenceon Design Educationin China,"
was held at Shantou TechnicalUniversity. Shantou University has special
status among the institutions of higherlearningin the People'sRepublic.It
is the only private-or semi-private-university in the country,and it has
beengiven a mandateto explorenew approachesto education in a variety
offields. The purpose of the conferencewas to review the present state of
design education in China, identify problems,and explore ideas about a
new design educationstrategyfor China. The documentpresentedhere is
a keynoteaddressby RichardBuchanan.OtherkeynotespeakerswereJohn
Heskett, Andrew Whittle, and Kan Tai-keung.More than 400 individu-
als-students,faculty members,and programleaders-representing many
of the leading design schools of China attended the conference.The public

(C2004RichardBuchanan
30 DesignIssues:Volume
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 presentations bya day-longroundtable
werefollowed discussionin which
Chinesedesigneducators theirideasandresponded
presented to suggestions
fromthekeynotespeakers.

This is the first national conference on Chinese design education.

Many other design conferences have been held in China over the
past five or ten years, but this is the first to focus specifically on the
nature and practices of design education in China. For this reason
alone, the meeting is historically significant. However, it is significant
for another reason. The organizers have framed this conference as
an international meeting, and they have deliberately oriented our
thinking toward the future. We want to discuss what changes must
take place in Chinese design education if design itself is to play a
significant role in preparing Chinese industry for competition in
international markets.
This theme does not deny the many accomplishments of
Chinese design throughout history. Nor does it seek to repudiate
the historical development of design education in China and its
current expression in the schools. We are all mindful-Chinese
educators and international guests, alike-of the history of design
and design education in China.1 Indeed, more literature on Chinese
art and design and Chinese design education is published in the
West than in China itself-either on the mainland or in greater China
as a whole. This is testimony to the importance that the international
community places on Chinese art and design from the past.
However, the organizers of this meeting have asked us to
take on a very difficult task. They have asked us to consider whether
past practices and theory in Chinese design are suited to the new
circumstances of international economic development. They have
asked us to think about the changes in design education that may
lead to a new expression of Chinese talent and design thinking. This
is why our meeting is both national and international. It is a national
conference because all of the design schools in China face a similar
challenge of preparing for a new and stronger role in support of
industry. It is an international conference because economic devel-
opment will inevitably connect China to the rest of the world in
many new and unexpected ways. It is wise to begin exploring the
significance of this as soon as possible. Furthermore, the perspective
of Western design education may help to identify some of the key
issues for discussion in the community of Chinese design educators.
This is not because anyone naively expects Chinese design education
to follow or be led by Western models. Rather, Western experience
may help China anticipate the problems of the future and find its
1 Forexample, see ShouZhiWang, own solutions. Educators in the East and West share many similar
"ChineseModern Design:A
problems, but we do not have to reach the same solutions. Our solu-
Retrospective,"
DesignIssues6: 1 (Fall
1989):49-78.Also,see thespecialissue tions will be diverse and pluralistic, suited to different social and
of DesignIssueson"Design inHong cultural circumstances as well as personal visions. It is my hope that
Kong," 19:3(Summer 2003). there will be important lessons for western educators to learn from

Design Issues: Volume20, Number1 Winter2004 31

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 their eastern colleagues, lessons that we can take back and adapt to
our own local situations.
What are the new circumstances that we face in common?
What is the new environment that forces us to rethink design and
design education in the East and West? In the simplest terms, the
new environment is international competition in the marketplace.
The most immediate signal of this new environment for China comes
in 2005, when China becomes a full member of the World Trade
Organization, with all of the obligations and opportunities that this
represents. Will Chinese industry be ready to operate successfully
in the new circumstances? Will China be competitive in the new
environment of international trade?
The primary advantage of Chinese industry today is the
low cost of labor. Many goods are now manufactured in China
for companies based abroad because labor costs are low. In addi-
tion, Chinese industry also displays rising technological prowess,
evident in a well-skilled and well-educated segment of workers.
Chinese industry continues to adopt new technology and, increas-
ingly, contributes to technological development. However, low labor
costs and technological competence will not be enough for China to
prevail in competitive international markets. They were not enough
for Japan or South Korea, and they will not be enough for China over
the long term. Labor costs will eventually rise and, to be honest, high
technology is already one of the attributes shared by all of the lead-
ing industrial powers of the world. What will make the difference
for Chinese industry in the future is the quality of design thinking
that distinguishes its products and makes them desirable abroad
and at home.
This is why we have gathered to discuss Chinese design
education. We want to know what changes must take place in
Chinese design education-what knowledge and skills will be
needed-if graduates are to provide the essential difference that
elevates Chinese industry. Indeed, we may also consider what
knowledge and skills will help Chinese designers eventually move
into positions of leadership in industry, something that is now
happening in the West as a result of changes in design education
and a recognition in industry of the many talents of well educated
designers.
For my own contribution to this meeting, I would like to
provide a brief overview of the historical development of design
education in the West and compare this with development in China.
Then, I would like to identify several fundamental issues that are
driving change in Western design education and suggest connections
with Chinese design education. It is not my goal to provide a formula
for changes in Chinese design education. Rather, my goal is to point
toward the fundamental issues and topics that I believe eventually
will have to be discussed and resolved for Chinese design educa-
tion to play a central role in the development of Chinese business

32 DesignIssues:Volume
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 and industry in the new circumstances of international competition.
Identifying fundamental issues for further conversation is the key to
moving forward. I want to contribute to the dialogue that emerges
from this meeting.
There is a fundamental similarity between the history of
design education in the East and West. It may be obvious, but it must
to be explicitly recognized if one is to understand the subsequent
development of contemporary design education. Despite immense
differences between the East and West, design education in both
cultures began as apprenticeship.2 By whatever method of selection,
young people were apprenticed to masters, who oversaw their devel-
opment, encouraged the most talented, and were eventually replaced
by their students. This model of design education continues to the
present as one of the avenues by which the young are introduced and
cultivated in the ways of design thinking and making. Indeed, one
of the keynote speakers of this conference, the highly distinguished
designer Kan Tai-keung, entered the profession through apprentice-
ship and reached the highest levels of accomplishment and respect
in the East and the West. By genius and natural talent he has grasped
the principles of design more thoroughly than most others have. This
is evident in his professional work as well as his writings.
Another important and obvious similarity between the East
and West is the early and close association of design with the so-
called fine arts. In one sense, I believe this association is an accident
in both of our cultures. Design thinking could have arisen in associa-
tion with other areas of learning such as philosophy, religion, politics
or science. Indeed, as serious reflection on design develops in the
future, I believe scholars will discover the rise of design in many
other fields of learning and practice, broadening our understand-
ing of the richness of design throughout culture. For now, however,
we are most conscious of the rise of design through the fine arts,
and this is not entirely mistaken. There is one good reason that
we celebrate the association of design and fine art: both activities
are concerned with "making." Designers and artists are concerned
with "making" new works. In the West this is called "poeisis," from
the Greek word that means "to make." Poeisis is the origin of the
word "poetry" in the West, though in the earliest times of antiquity,
"poeisis" meant all of the arts of making.3 Comparing the East and
West, it is important to recognize that the division of the arts of
2 R.Buchanan, "TheProblem of
Characterin DesignEducation:Liberal
making has been important in Western culture, but in the East the
ArtsandProfessionalSpecialization," arts of making have remained closely associated. In fact, they are
TheIntemational Journalof so closely connected that the Western division of the arts appears
TechnologyandDesignEducation, strangely artificial to many people from the East. The interconnection
11:1 (2001). of the arts in the East is a direct result of the dominance of dialecti-
3 R.Buchanan, "Rhetoric,
Humanism,
cal thought throughout history. Dialectical thinking is certainly a
andDesign," inDiscovering
Design.
inDesignStudies,editedby
Explorations significant thread in Western culture, but it is seldom the dominant
R.Buchanan andV.Margolin,(Chicago: mode of thinking.
of Chicago
University Press,1995).

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 The association of design and the fine arts led naturally
to the next step in design education, also similar in the East and
West. Design education became part of art education in general. Art
schools and art academies were first established in the West in the
sixteenth century. They were established independent of universities
because university education at the time did not recognize the intel-
lectual significance or cultural importance of design thinking. Design
was not regarded as a domain of significant learning. In China, too,
design education was incorporated within the institutional structure
of art schools and academies. In the East and West, design was a
stepchild of the fine arts, but it did have a home. The gradual rise of
design in the twentieth century was strongly influenced by the ethos
or character of art school education, and much of the development
of design in the West in this period has been a struggle to discover
the distinguishing qualities of design that make it an independent
discipline or art. Obsession with style and self-expression is part of
the legacy of design education in the art schools.
This is where design education in the West and in China
diverges. Until quite recently, design education in China remained
firmly within the domain of art school education. Although the
ultimate goal was creativity, the emphasis was on imitation of
masters, cultivation of style, and preservation of academic tradi-
tion. In contrast, there has been a remarkable broadening of design
education in the West. The art schools remain as one of the threads
of professional development, but design programs are now located
in a variety of other disciplinary settings. Some are located within
engineering departments and technological institutes, others are
located within-or are dominated by a vision derived from-one
or another of the social sciences, including management. Perhaps
most important, a growing number of design programs in the West
are best understood as "university" design programs, emphasizing
the essential humanism of the design enterprise. The latter deserve
special attention. They have formed around a "human-centered"
approach to design.
We should take some care in understanding what "human-
centered" means in this context. There is a reasonable sense in
which all design throughout history has been, and is today, human
centered. Design is an art of making products that serve people.
Whether the knowledge and vision of the designer comes from the
fine arts or from any other branch of learning, human beings are the
center of attention. But the humanism of university design programs,
as they are emerging in the West, gives a more specific meaning
to human-centered design. This form of design education seeks a
balance or harmony among the different kinds of knowledge needed
to make effective and valuable products. It seeks to balance and inte-
grate aspects of the fine arts, engineering, and the social sciences in
the activity of design thinking. It seeks the center of balance among
these factors rather than emphasizing one or another as primary.

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 For example, self-expression is not an end in itself for this form of
human-centered design. Self-expression is only a means toward
the deeper goal of serving other people. We serve other people by
strengthening their individual dignity and supporting collective
social values, all within the pluralism of human experience.4
The movement of design education into the university envi-
ronment is the most important and least remarked development in
our field in the latter part of the twentieth century and the beginning
of the twenty-first century. It is well advanced in the West, and it is
advancing in China. The implications of this relocation of design are
still unfolding, but they will change design thinking in many ways
in the future.
The fundamental issue driving change in Western design
education is the search for knowledge. What knowledge is needed
by designers if they are to work effectively in the new circumstances
of world culture in the twenty-first century? Those circumstances
involve great technological complexity and even greater human
complexity. How do we bring new knowledge into design think-
ing? How do we give our students deeper knowledge of technol-
ogy and human nature? It is no accident that design is moving into
universities. Nor is it an accident that many art schools of design in
the West are seeking closer ties with universities or with the differ-
ent disciplines that make up university culture. Design is no longer
a self-contained discipline that can exist in isolation. Designers must
understand and work closely with colleagues in other disciplines.
We may disagree about which are the most important disciplines
for designers to understand-cognitive psychology, engineering,
computer science, anthropology, drama, rhetoric, marketing, and
so forth-but there is no dispute in the West that knowledge from
other disciplines must now inform design thinking. This is part of
the transformation of design from a trade activity to a significant
discipline and cultural art.
The issue of creativity is equally important as a driving
factor of change in design education in the West. This is a complex
subject, and I will not attempt to summarize the diverse theories
and practices that our schools explore. However, there are two
observations on the West that may be directly relevant for Chinese
design educators. The first observation is a widely held belief among
Western design educators. While we believe that some individuals
are born with genius and natural creative talent, we also believe
that creativity in most students can be nurtured and taught. We
seek to cultivate creativity among our students not through the
imitation of the work of design masters but through the acquisition
of design skills and, most important, through encounter with the
4 R.Buchanan, "Human Dignityand
problems faced by people in their daily lives. Hard work in acquir-
HumanRights:Thoughtsonthe
Principles
of Human-Centered Design," ing fundamental design skills will come as no surprise to Chinese
DesignIssues,17:3 (Summer, 2001): educators. Creativity without the discipline of design skills is almost
35-39. meaningless for the design professions. But exercises of monotonous

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 repetition in developing design skills seem to dull the creative edge
of most people. Instead of sheer repetition, Western educators have
found that the creative energy of students is enhanced by encounter-
ing real problems and real difficulties among the people that we seek
to serve. We call this "creative problem solving," and we attempt to
encourage every effort that gives the student confidence in seeking
and expressing a solution. Over time, with widening experience and
ongoing discussion with teachers, many students gradually focus
their own efforts in creative ways.
The second observation on creativity in design is that it is
not focused solely on form giving. Early in the twentieth century
many believed that the creativity of the designer found expression
only in giving visible form to communication and artifacts. Today,
we recognize that form giving is only one of the manifestations of
design talent. There are many areas of design in which a student
may develop special creativity. This reflects a broadening of our
understanding of design, based on the recognition of new skills and
new methods in the design process. Indeed, the success of products
is often based on the ability of a team of designers to work together
in developing a new idea. This observation may have particular rele-
vance to Chinese design education, where form giving-based on the
skill of drawing-appears to be the focus of most school programs.
Without question, drawing is an important skill for designers. But it
is not the only skill, and it is not the skill that best reveals whether a
student will become a fine designer. Many superb draftsmen in the
West lack the creativity that distinguishes a fine designer. Drawing
is a representation, but the most important question is what shall be
represented? Having an idea to communicate is, in the end, a more
important sign of creativity than the mere ability to represent what
already exists.
The next issue driving change in Western design education
is the curriculum. The studio remains the fundamental element of
design education in the West, because it is the place where students
integrate their diverse skills and knowledge in the act of making a
new communication or a new product. However, other elements are
now regarded as essential. These elements reflect wider and deeper
understanding of the different kinds of knowledge that are needed
by the designer in the new circumstances of our time. One element is
sometimes called "concepts and methods of design practice." As the
name suggests, this includes instruction in the many new methods
and techniques that are now part of contemporary design practice.
Human factors, cultural factors, and user research are some of the
subjects taught in this element. The concepts and methods are taught
individually, with an understanding that they will be integrated in
the design studio as the student develops. Another element is called
"design studies." It includes design history, theory, and criticism, as
well as the aspects of business and economics that bear on design
today. Our field is mature enough that education can include serious

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 reflection on where we have been and where we are going. The final
element is best called "general education," in the tradition of Western
liberal education. In the best design schools in the West, fully one-
third of all instruction is taken in areas of study outside design. The
subjects may include literature, the natural sciences, and the social
sciences, as well as mathematics or technical subjects in engineering
and computer science. The point is that students must have a breadth
of learning if they are to work effectively in contemporary culture.
How does Chinese design education address these curricular issues
today and what will happen in the future?
Along with the issue of curriculum comes the issue of
interdisciplinary study. In the past, Western education emphasized
specialized study. The division among the disciplines was strong,
and students were seldom encouraged to cross over into other areas
of study. Today, design educators recognize the value of courses
that combine one or more disciplines along with design. These are
typically studio courses, and they are sometimes taught by several
faculty members, each representing a different discipline. The reason
is simple. In the work environment that our students will face, the
ability to work with individuals from many disciplines is necessary.
Are such courses available to Chinese design students?
The next issue driving change in Western design education is
the nature of a product. What is a product of design thinking? In the
past, the word "product" meant the outcome of industrial design-a
tangible artifact. Today, "product" means any outcome of design
work, whether a result of graphic design, information design, indus-
trial design, or any other kind of design. This is important because in
the West we are beginning to develop a new theory of products that
applies to all areas of design. We may call this the "iceberg" theory,
because it is based on the idea that a product is much more than its
appearance. Style and form are the most evident features of a prod-
uct, but what goes on beneath the surface is most important-and
falls well within the domain of design thinking. A product must be
desirable in form and style, but it must also be useful and usable
to be successful in the marketplace. What is useful in a product is
usually technical and often technological, based on careful study of
people as they perform tasks and on the application of engineering
to make a product that works. What makes a product usable is its
fit to the hand and mind of the human user, and this is based on
knowledge of human beings in general and on research into the way
individuals work. Design schools that prepare students for stylistic
and formal expression address only a small part of the discipline
of design. The more important schools strive to integrate stylistic
and formal expression with the ability to conduct user research,
task analysis, and a variety of other technical activities suited to
different branches of design. Once again, creativity is stimulated
when the substance of a product-whether communication or
industrial-is part of the environment of design thinking. How are

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 Chinese students being prepared for such work? Is design education
in China formed around a rich concept of the nature of a product?
The assumptions we make about products and human beings may
be relevant only within an isolated population. Meeting the needs of
the international marketplace depends on broadening our assump-
tions and exploring diverse realities.
The issues I have identified are fundamental in Western
design education. They find immediate expression in undergradu-
ate education. However, another major change in Western design
education is the development of graduate programs and programs of
design research.5If undergraduate programs have the goal of prepar-
ing students to enter the professions of design, graduate programs
have the goal of bringing student preparation to the level of mastery
of their discipline. Mastery comes in two forms. One is the mastery
of professional practice, accomplished through "master's" programs
that teach students the most advanced methods and techniques of
design work in specific areas of design. The other is mastery of the
discipline itself for teaching and research. This is the goal of the new
doctoral programs in design that are emerging around the world.
We are at a very early stage in developing doctoral programs in
design, but each year we see the growing force of such programs in
shaping design practice and design education. The development of
design research will, in the long term, have a profound effect on the
practice of design and on design education.6 It is not too early for
Chinese design educators to participate in shaping doctoral study
and research.
Finally, the last issue I would like to identify as driving
change in Western design education is the development of new areas
of design practice. Foremost among these is "interaction design."
Because this area of practice first reached consciousness in the West
through the development of computers, it is often associated with
digital culture in general. This is a misunderstanding. Interaction
design is a new approach to design that has application in many
areas of practice. It is prominent in designing the interaction between
5 R.Buchanan, "DesignResearchand human beings and computers, but it is also prominent in new
the New Learning," DesignIssues,1]: approaches to traditional media and traditional design problems.
4 (Fall,2001):3-23. It is important for information design, service design, transaction
6 TheDesignResearch Societyis theinter- design, many forms of print communication, new product develop-
national learned societyofthedesign
ment, corporate identity, industrial design, organizational design,
research community,withextensive
multi-disciplinary
and systems design. Interaction design is about the relationships
membership. Founded
in1967intheUnitedKingdom, withan among people, particularly as human relationships are mediated by
Executive Councilandofficesbasedin all forms of products. Interaction design has brought the professions
theUK,thesocietyfacilitates a research of design from a "posters and toasters" culture to a new culture of
network in35 countries.Facultymembers human-centered design. Western design educators
do not always
andstudentswhoareinterested inthe
use the term "interaction design" to describe their new ventures in
development of designresearch willfind
the DRSwebsiteveryuseful.Theinter- design thinking, but the concepts and methods of interaction design
netaddressis:http://www.dmu.ac.uk/ln/are a new foundation for a wide variety of work. What efforts are
4dd/drs.html underway to develop new areas of design practice in China?

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 Graphic design and industrial design appear to be the focus of most
programs, but are there new ideas about information design and
interaction design that are suited to Chinese culture? What place will
new design practice have in the China of the future?
I would like to conclude with a deeper question about
Chinese design education. What are the philosophical and theoreti-
cal roots of Chinese design and design education that will continue
to influence the development of design in China? Can those roots
lead to new forms of practice and education that are suited to the
emerging environment of international competition in the market-
place? How will those roots help Chinese designers make an original
contribution to design thinking that is more than an imitation of the
West? Admittedly, these are difficult and challenging questions for
which no quick answer can be given. However, I believe they are the
beginning and the end of the road on which Chinese design is now
moving. We all look forward to the continued discussion that will
shape Chinese design in the future.

Issues:Volume
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2004 39

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