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Unit 1 : Introduction to Computer Networks

Syllabus :
Introduction: Data communication, Components, Computer networks and its historical
development, distributed processing, Internet.
Network Models: OSI model and TCP/IP Model.
Physical Layer: Physical layer functions, Data Representation, Simplex, Half Duplex and
Full Duplex Transmission, Modulation and Multiplexing, Packet and circuit switching,
Transmission media, Topologies, connectionless and connection-oriented services.
Data Link Layer: Data link layer functions and services, MAC Addressing, Framing, Stop
and Wait, Go back – N ARQ, Selective Repeat ARQ, Sliding Window Protocol.

Section 1 : Introduction

1.1 Data Communication

Overview
Data communications is simply the exchange of data between two devices locally or
globally via some form of transmission medium (e.g., wire cable, bluetooth, wifi, etc.) to
share resources with each other. Here, the data refers to information presented or
represented in relevant format.

The effectiveness of a data communication system relies on four key characteristics:

delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

1.​ Delivery: The system must ensure that the data reaches the correct destination. It
is important that the data is received by the intended user or device and no one
else.
2.​ Accuracy: The data must arrive at its destination without any errors. If data is
altered during transmission and goes uncorrected, it becomes unusable.
3.​ Timeliness: Data needs to be delivered on time. In real-time applications like video
or audio streaming, data must be transmitted in the correct order and without
delays. Late data is often of no use, especially in real-time communication.
4.​ Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the time it takes for data packets to arrive. In
applications like video or audio streaming, inconsistent packet arrival times can
result in poor quality, such as jerky video playback or distorted audio.

Importance of Data Communication

●​ Facilitates resource sharing and coordination.
●​ Enhances faster communication.
●​ Access to information.
●​ Supports business operations and personal communications.
●​ Enables the operation of information systems and the Internet.

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Components of Data Communication System

A data communication system is made up of five key components that work together to
transfer information between devices. These are:

1.​ Message: The information or data that is being sent from one device to another. It
can be text, image, audio, video, or any other type of data.
a.​ Text: Sent as a sequence of characters, typically encoded using standards
like ASCII or Unicode.
b.​ Image: Transmitted as a series of pixels, often compressed using formats
like JPEG or PNG to reduce size.
c.​ Audio: Sent as digital signals, usually compressed using codecs like MP3 or
AAC for efficient transmission.
d.​ Video: Transmitted as a sequence of frames, compressed using formats like
MP4 or AVI to reduce bandwidth.
e.​ Other Data: Files or binary data can be sent in raw or compressed formats
depending on the type of data and transmission needs.
2.​ Sender: The device or computer that sends the message. Examples include a
phone, computer, or any other device that can transmit data.
3.​ Receiver: The device or computer that gets the message. It could be another
phone, computer, or any other device meant to receive the transmitted data.
4.​ Transmission Medium: The path or channel through which the message travels
from the sender to the receiver. Examples include cables (wired) or radio waves
(wireless, like Wi-Fi).
5.​ Protocol: A set of rules that both the sender and receiver follow to ensure the
message is correctly sent and understood. These rules help with things like timing,
data format, and error checking.

1.2 Computer Networks

Definition
●​ A computer network is a group of interconnected computers and devices that
communicate and share resources with each other through various transmission
media, such as wires, optical fibers, or wireless links.
●​ These devices can include computers, servers, routers, switches, and other
networked devices.
●​ The primary goal of a computer network is to facilitate resource sharing among
different devices.

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Objectives of Computer Networks

●​ Data and Resource Sharing: Enables multiple users to share hardware (e.g.,
printers), software (e.g., applications), and data files.
●​ Communication: Facilitates communication between users through email, instant
messaging, video conferencing, etc.
●​ Connectivity: Connect various devices within an organization or across the world
to create a unified system for communication and resource sharing.
●​ Efficiency: Enhances productivity by allowing for the centralized management and
streamlined access to resources.
●​ Scalability: Allows for easy expansion of the network as the number of users or
devices increases.

Network Criteria

For a network to function effectively, it must meet certain key criteria. The three most
important criteria are performance, reliability, and security.

1. Performance:
Performance refers to how efficiently the network operates, and it can be measured by:
●​ Transit Time: The time it takes for data to travel from one device to another.
●​ Response Time: The time between sending a request and receiving a response.​
Several factors impact network performance, such as the number of users, the type
of transmission medium (e.g., fiber optics, wireless), the hardware capabilities, and
the software's efficiency.

2. Reliability:
Reliability focuses on how dependable the network is, measured by:
●​ Frequency of Failures: How often the network experiences issues.
●​ Recovery Time: The time it takes for the network to recover after a failure.
●​ Robustness: The network’s ability to withstand and recover from major events like
hardware malfunctions or natural disasters.

3. Security:
Security is essential to protect the network from threats. It includes:
●​ Data Protection: Safeguarding data from unauthorized access.
●​ Data Integrity: Ensuring that data is not damaged or tampered with.
●​ Recovery: Implementing measures to recover from data breaches or losses.

Historical Development of Computer Networks

The development of computer networks began in the 1960s when researchers started
exploring ways for computers to communicate with each other.

1.​ 1960s: The ARPANET was created by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1969,
becoming the first packet-switching network and the foundation of the modern

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internet. It connected computers at universities and research institutions It
connected four computers at UCLA, SRI, UCSB, and Utah.
2.​ 1970s: The TCP/IP protocol was developed, allowing different networks to
communicate. This became the standard protocol for networking and remains
crucial today.
3.​ 1980s: Local Area Networks (LANs), like Ethernet, were introduced, allowing
computers in close proximity to share resources like printers and data.
4.​ 1990s: The World Wide Web (WWW) was invented by Tim Berners-Lee,
revolutionizing the way people accessed and shared information online. The
internet rapidly expanded globally.
5.​ 2000s to Present: The rise of wireless networks, Wi-Fi, and mobile technologies
enabled seamless internet access from anywhere. Networks became faster and
more secure, supporting a wide range of applications like social media, cloud
computing, and online services.

Components of Computer Networks

Computer network components are essential parts needed to set up and operate a
network. These components can vary based on the type of network being installed. Below
are the major components required to establish a network:

1. Network Interface Card (NIC)

●​ NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer to a network.
●​ Transfer Rate: Supports 10, 100, to 1000 Mb/s.
●​ MAC Address: A unique identifier encoded on the network card chip, assigned by
IEEE, and stored in PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory).
●​ Types of NIC:
○​ Wired NIC: Present inside the motherboard, using cables and connectors for
data transfer.
○​ Wireless NIC: Contains an antenna for wireless connections using radio wave
technology (e.g., found in laptops).

2. Hub
●​ Function: A Hub is a hardware device that acts as a central connection point for
multiple devices in a network. It receives a request for data from one device and
distributes it to all connected devices.
●​ The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more
advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers.
●​ Limitation: Broadcasts data to all devices, leading to potential inefficiency and
data collisions.

3. Switch
●​ Function: A switch is a hardware device that is similar to a hub but more efficient
and advanced. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like

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the Hub. It connects devices within a network and forwards data only to the
specific device for which it is intended.
●​ Advantage: Reduces unnecessary data traffic and increases the speed of the
network improving network performance.

4. Router
●​ Function: A router is a hardware device which is used to connect different networks,
including LANs to the internet. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the
incoming data packets to another destination network.​
●​ Layer: A router operates at Layer 3 (Network Layer) of the OSI model.
●​ Routing Table: A router forwards the packet based on the information available in
the routing table.
●​ Path Determination: It determines the best path from available routes for packet
transmission.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Security: Only the specified addressed device can read the transmitted data.
○​ Reliability: Network reliability is maintained even if one server fails.
○​ Performance: Enhances network performance by reducing traffic load
through network segmentation.

5. Modem
●​ Function: A modem is a hardware device that connects a computer to the internet
over existing telephone lines. A modem is not integrated with the motherboard
rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found on the motherboard.
●​ Operation: It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts digital data to analog
signals over the telephonic lines.
●​ Types of MODEM:
○​ Standard PC Modem: Also known as Dial-up modem.
○​ Cellular Modem: Uses cellular networks.
○​ Cable Modem: Uses cable television infrastructure.

6. Cables and Connectors

●​ Function: Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
●​ Types of Cables:
○​ Twisted Pair Cable: Transmits data at high speeds, often exceeding 1Gbps.
○​ Coaxial Cable: Similar to TV cables, offers high data transmission speeds
and is more expensive than twisted pair cables.
○​ Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light beams for data transmission, offering very high
speeds and is commonly used in government and large-scale installations.

Types of Computer Networks

Computer networks can be categorized based on their size, geographical spread, and
purpose. Here are the main types of computer networks:

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1. Local Area Network (LAN):

●​ Definition: A LAN is a network that typically spans a small geographical area, such
as a single building, office, or campus.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Size: Covers a small area, usually within a few kilometers.
○​ Ownership: Often owned, controlled, and managed by a single organization.
○​ Technology: Uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi for communication.
○​ Purpose: Facilitates resource sharing (like printers, files, applications) and
communication among devices within the same organization or location.
●​ Examples: Office networks, school networks, home networks.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN):

●​ Definition: A WAN is a network that covers a broad area, connecting multiple LANs
and other types of networks over long distances, often across cities, countries, or
continents.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Size: Spans a large geographic area, potentially worldwide.
○​ Connectivity: Relies on public or private telecommunication infrastructures.
○​ Speed: Typically slower compared to LANs due to longer distances and
varying technologies.
●​ Examples: The Internet, global corporate networks connecting branch offices.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

●​ Definition: A MAN is a network that covers a larger geographic area than a LAN
but is smaller than a WAN, typically spanning a city or large campus area.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Size: Covers a metropolitan area or campus.
○​ Connectivity: Provides high-speed connectivity for businesses, universities,
or organizations within the area.
○​ Purpose: Supports communication and resource sharing over a larger
geographic region than a LAN.
●​ Examples: City-wide Wi-Fi networks, university campus networks.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN):

●​ Definition: A PAN is the smallest network type, typically centered around an

individual person's devices within a range of about 10 meters.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Devices: Includes personal devices like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and
wearable technology.
○​ Technology: Often uses Bluetooth, infrared, or NFC (Near Field
Communication) for connectivity.
○​ Purpose: Facilitates personal connectivity and data sharing between
devices.

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●​ Examples: Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and a smartwatch,
mobile hotspot, wireless keyboards and mice with a computer.

5. Campus Area Network (CAN):

●​ Definition: A CAN interconnects multiple LANs within a specific geographic area

such as a university campus, business park, or military base.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Scope: Covers a larger area than a single LAN but smaller than a MAN.
○​ Connectivity: Enables seamless communication and resource sharing
among different departments or entities within the campus.
○​ Purpose: Supports collaborative work environments and centralized
services.
●​ Examples: University campus networks, large corporate campuses.

6. Storage Area Network (SAN):

●​ Definition: A SAN is a dedicated high-speed network that connects storage devices

(such as disk arrays, tape libraries) to servers.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Functionality: Provides fast, reliable access to storage resources.
○​ Technology: Uses Fibre Channel or iSCSI protocols for high-speed data
transfer.
○​ Purpose: Supports centralized storage management and efficient data
access for servers in data centers.
●​ Examples: Enterprise data centers, cloud storage infrastructures.

7. Virtual Private Network (VPN):

●​ Definition: A VPN creates a secure, encrypted connection over a less secure

network (like the internet), allowing remote users to access a private network
securely.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Security: Encrypts data to ensure privacy and security.
○​ Access: Enables remote access to corporate resources, files, and
applications as if the user were physically present on the network.
○​ Purpose: Facilitates secure remote working, branch office connectivity, and
secure access to cloud resources.
●​ Examples: Remote worker VPNs, site-to-site VPNs between corporate offices.

8. Intranet:

●​ Definition: An intranet is a private network that uses internet protocols and

technologies to securely share any part of an organization's information or
operational systems within that organization.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Access: Restricted to authorized users within the organization.

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○​ Content: Hosts internal websites, document repositories, collaboration tools,
and other resources.
○​ Purpose: Enhances internal communication, collaboration, and information
sharing.
●​ Examples: Corporate intranets used by employees for internal communications and
accessing company resources.

9. Extranet:

●​ Definition: An extranet is a controlled private network that extends the intranet to

specific external users (such as partners, vendors, or customers) over the internet.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Access: Grants limited access to external users with specific permissions.
○​ Security: Maintains security and privacy while enabling collaboration with
external parties.
○​ Purpose: Facilitates secure sharing of information, collaboration on joint
projects, and customer/vendor interactions.
●​ Examples: Partner portals, customer support portals, supplier collaboration
platforms.

10. Client-Server Network:

●​ Definition: In a client-server network, one or more computers (servers) provide

services and manage resources for other computers (clients) on the network.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ Role: Servers provide centralized management of resources like files,
applications, databases, and printing services.
○​ Interaction: Clients request services or access resources from servers over
the network.
○​ Purpose: Supports centralized data management, efficient resource sharing,
and scalable network operations.
●​ Examples: File servers, email servers, database servers in business environments.

Features of Computer Networks

Computer networks offer a range of features that enhance communication, resource
sharing, and overall functionality. Below is a list of key features:

1. Communication Speed
●​ Description: Computer networks facilitate fast and efficient communication.
Technologies like video conferencing and email allow users to exchange
information quickly.
●​ Example: Video conferencing and instant messaging over the internet.

2. File Sharing
●​ Description: One of the significant advantages of computer networks is the ability
to share files between users easily.

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●​ Example: Sharing documents, images, and other files across a network.

3. Easy Backup and Rollback

●​ Description: Files stored on a central server can be easily backed up and restored.
This centralization simplifies data management and recovery.
●​ Example: Regular backups of a company’s data stored on a central server.

4. Software and Hardware Sharing

●​ Description: Applications can be installed on a central server, allowing users to
access them without needing to install the software on individual machines.
Similarly, hardware devices like printers can be shared.
●​ Example: Centralized installation of office software or sharing a single printer
among multiple computers.

5. Security
●​ Description: Networks can implement security measures to control access to files
and applications, ensuring that only authorized users can access certain resources.
●​ Example: User authentication and access control lists (ACLs) to protect sensitive
data.

6. Scalability
●​ Description: Networks can be expanded by adding new devices. Although adding
more devices may affect speed and increase the chance of errors, using routing
and switching devices can help manage these issues.
●​ Example: Expanding an office network to include new computers and devices.

7. Reliability
●​ Description: Networks can use alternative paths for data communication in case of
hardware failure, ensuring continuous operation and reducing downtime.
●​ Example: Redundant network paths and failover mechanisms to maintain
connectivity.

Computer Network Architectures

Computer Network Architecture refers to the structure of a computer network. It
encompasses the physical and logical design of software, hardware, protocols, and the
transmission media used for data communication. Essentially, it describes how computers
are organized and how tasks are distributed among them.

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network Model

In a Peer-To-Peer network, all computers or devices (peers) are interconnected with equal
privileges and responsibilities for data processing. This type of network is typically used in
small environments, usually consisting of up to 10 computers, and does not rely on a
dedicated server.
Usage: File sharing applications, small office/home office networks.

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Advantages:
●​ Cost-Effective: No need for a dedicated server reduces costs.
●​ Resilience: If one computer fails, the others continue to operate.
●​ Simplicity: Easy to set up and maintain as each computer is self-managed.

Disadvantages:
●​ Lack of Centralization: No centralized system means backing up data is
challenging, as data is stored in multiple locations.
●​ Security Issues: Each device manages its own security, which can lead to
vulnerabilities.

2. Client-Server Network Model

In a Client/Server network, end-users (clients) access resources (like files, applications,
and devices) from a central server. The server handles all major operations, including
security and network management.
Usage: Common in business environments for database access, email, file sharing, etc.

Advantages:
●​ Centralized System: Easier data backup and centralized resource management.
●​ Enhanced Performance: Dedicated server improves overall system performance.
●​ Improved Security: Centralized administration enhances security.
●​ Faster Resource Sharing: Centralized server facilitates quick sharing of resources.

Disadvantages:
●​ Cost: Requires an expensive server with large memory capacity.
●​ High Cost of Network Operating System (NOS): Servers need NOS, which can be
costly.
●​ Need for Network Administrator: Requires a dedicated network administrator to
manage resources.

1.3 Distributed Processing

Definition: Distributed processing refers to a computing model where processing tasks

are distributed across multiple interconnected systems (computers or servers) rather than
being executed on a single central system. This architecture allows for the simultaneous
execution of tasks, enhancing performance, scalability, and reliability.

Key Characteristics

1.​ Multiple Locations:

○​ Processing is distributed across various physical locations, which can be in
the same geographic area or spread globally.
2.​ Interconnected Systems:
○​ Systems communicate with each other over a network, sharing resources
and information.
3.​ Scalability:
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○​ Easily scalable by adding more machines to the network to handle increased
workloads.
4.​ Fault Tolerance:
○​ If one node fails, others can take over its tasks, improving system reliability
and availability.
5.​ Resource Sharing:
○​ Enables efficient use of resources, allowing for load balancing and optimal
performance.

Components of Distributed Processing

1.​ Clients and Servers:

○​ Clients: Devices that request resources or services from the server.
○​ Servers: Centralized systems that provide resources or services to clients.
2.​ Network:
○​ The communication medium (e.g., LAN, WAN, or the internet) that connects
the clients and servers.
3.​ Middleware:
○​ Software that facilitates communication and data management between
distributed applications.
4.​ Data Management:
○​ Distributed databases and data storage systems allow data to be stored and
accessed across multiple locations.

Advantages

1.​ Improved Performance:

○​ Tasks can be processed simultaneously, significantly reducing execution
time.
2.​ Scalability:
○​ Systems can be easily expanded to accommodate growing workloads.
3.​ Resource Utilization:
○​ Better use of resources by distributing workloads among multiple systems.
4.​ Enhanced Reliability:
○​ Redundancy ensures that the system can continue functioning even if
individual components fail.
5.​ Flexibility:
○​ Supports diverse environments and applications, adapting to different
processing needs.

Disadvantages

1.​ Complexity:
○​ Managing and coordinating multiple systems can be challenging, requiring
sophisticated algorithms and protocols.
2.​ Network Dependency:

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○​ Performance is dependent on network speed and reliability; network issues
can lead to delays.
3.​ Security Risks:
○​ Increased risk of security breaches due to multiple access points and data
transmission across networks.
4.​ Data Consistency:
○​ Maintaining data consistency across distributed systems can be complex,
especially in real-time applications.

Applications

1.​ Cloud Computing:

○​ Distributed processing powers cloud services, allowing users to access and
share resources over the internet.
2.​ Big Data Processing:
○​ Frameworks like Hadoop and Apache Spark distribute data processing tasks
across multiple nodes for handling large datasets efficiently.
3.​ Distributed Databases:
○​ Used in systems that require high availability and scalability, such as online
transaction processing (OLTP) systems.
4.​ Web Services:
○​ Supports microservices architectures where different services are deployed
on separate servers and communicate over the network.

1.4 The Internet

The Internet is a vast global network of interconnected computers and devices that
communicate with each other using standardized protocols. It enables the exchange of
information and resources across a wide range of platforms and services, facilitating
various applications, including the World Wide Web, email, file sharing, and more.

Key Characteristics

1.​ Global Reach:

○​ The Internet connects millions of devices across the world, allowing users to
access information and communicate regardless of geographical location.
2.​ Decentralization:
○​ No single entity controls the Internet; it operates on a decentralized model
where multiple organizations manage different components and services.
3.​ Interoperability:
○​ Different devices and networks can communicate using standardized
protocols, ensuring compatibility and facilitating global connectivity.
4.​ Dynamic and Evolving:
○​ The Internet continuously evolves, with new technologies, protocols, and
services being developed to enhance functionality and user experience.

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History of Internet
●​ Origins: Evolved from ARPANET in the 1960s.
●​ Expansion: Rapid growth in the 1980s and 1990s with the adoption of TCP/IP and
the development of the World Wide Web.
●​ Commercial Use: Internet became a major commercial network in the 1990s,
supporting e-commerce and various online services.

Components of the Internet

1.​ Physical Infrastructure:

○​ Comprises cables, routers, switches, and data centers that form the
backbone of the network. This includes various transmission media, such as
fiber optics, copper wires, and wireless technologies.
2.​ Protocols:
○​ Sets of rules governing data transmission over the Internet. Key protocols
include:
○​ TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The
foundational protocol suite for the Internet, ensuring reliable data
transmission.
○​ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): Governs the transfer of web pages.
○​ FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Facilitates the transfer of files.
3.​ Domain Name System (DNS):
○​ A hierarchical system that translates human-readable domain names (like
www.example.com) into IP addresses, enabling users to access websites
easily.
4.​ Web Services:
○​ Applications and services accessed via the Internet, including websites,
social media platforms, cloud computing services, and more.

Advantages

1.​ Information Accessibility:

○​ Provides instant access to a vast amount of information and resources,
fostering knowledge sharing and learning.
2.​ Communication:
○​ Facilitates real-time communication through various channels like email,
messaging apps, and video conferencing.
3.​ Business Opportunities:
○​ Enables e-commerce, online marketing, and global business collaboration,
driving economic growth and innovation.
4.​ Social Connectivity:
○​ Allows individuals to connect with others globally, fostering social
interactions and community building.
5.​ Entertainment:
○​ Provides access to a wide range of entertainment options, including
streaming services, online gaming, and social media.

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Disadvantages

1.​ Security Risks:

○​ Vulnerable to cyberattacks, data breaches, and other security threats,
posing risks to personal and organizational data.
2.​ Information Overload:
○​ The sheer volume of available information can be overwhelming, making it
difficult to find reliable sources.
3.​ Privacy Concerns:
○​ User data can be tracked, collected, and misused by various entities, leading
to privacy violations.
4.​ Digital Divide:
○​ Not everyone has equal access to the Internet, leading to disparities in
information access, education, and economic opportunities.
5.​ Misinformation:
○​ The ease of publishing information can lead to the spread of false or
misleading content, affecting public perception and decision-making.

Applications of the Internet

1.​ World Wide Web:

○​ A system of interconnected documents and resources accessed through web
browsers.
2.​ Email:
○​ A widely used communication tool for sending messages and sharing files.
3.​ Social Media:
○​ Platforms that enable users to share content, communicate, and build
communities (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, Instagram).
4.​ E-commerce:
○​ Online shopping platforms that allow consumers to purchase goods and
services directly through the Internet.
5.​ Online Education:
○​ E-learning platforms and resources that provide educational content and
courses.
6.​ Cloud Computing:
○​ Services that provide storage, computing power, and applications over the
Internet, enabling remote access and collaboration.

Section 2 : Network Models

Network models in computer science are frameworks that define the structure and
functions of a computer network. They ensure compatibility and interoperability among
devices by creating a common language for interfacing. The most well-known network
models are:
1.​ OSI Model: A seven-layer model that standardizes network communication and
facilitates interoperability between different systems.

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2.​ TCP/IP Model: A four-layer model that is the foundation for the internet and
standardizes communication over various types of networks.

Layered Architecture
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed a layered
approach to simplify network design and implementation.

Key Concepts

1.​ Layered Design:

○​ The design is divided into small, manageable pieces called layers.
○​ Each layer has a specific role and interacts with the layers directly above
and below it.
○​ Layers provide services to higher layers while hiding implementation details.
2.​ Modularity and Clear Interfaces:
○​ Modularity allows for independent development and troubleshooting of
layers.
○​ Clear interfaces define how layers interact, promoting a clean and organized
design.
3.​ Independence Between Layers:
○​ Changes in one layer do not affect others, enhancing flexibility and
maintainability.
○​ Services provided by lower layers are abstracted and do not expose their
implementation details to higher layers.

Basic Elements of Layered Architecture

1.​ Services:
○​ Actions provided by one layer to the layer above it.

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○​ Example: Data transport service offered by the transport layer to the
application layer.
2.​ Protocols:
○​ Rules that govern the exchange of information between peer entities in the
same layer on different machines.
○​ Example: HTTP, TCP/IP.
3.​ Interfaces:
○​ Mechanisms for passing data between layers.
○​ Example: Interface between the transport and network layers for routing
data packets.

Advantages of Layered Architecture

1.​ Divide-and-Conquer Approach:

○​ Simplifies design by breaking down complex tasks into manageable
components.
○​ Reduces overall complexity and enhances clarity.
2.​ Modularity:
○​ Promotes independence and clear understanding of each layer.
○​ Facilitates easier development, troubleshooting, and modification.
3.​ Ease of Modification:
○​ Allows changes in one layer without affecting others.
○​ Enhances flexibility and adaptability to new technologies.
4.​ Ease of Testing:
○​ Enables individual analysis and testing of each layer.
○​ Improves reliability and robustness through focused testing.

2.1 OSI Model

Overview
●​ The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a conceptual framework used
to understand and implement network communications between different systems.
●​ It divides the communication process into seven distinct layers, each with specific
functions and protocols.
●​ It was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984.
●​ The OSI model outlines how data should be transmitted from a software
application in one computer, through the network medium, to a software
application in another computer.

Characteristics of the OSI Model

●​ Layered Structure: Divides networking tasks into smaller, manageable functions.

●​ Upper and Lower Layers: Upper layers handle application-related issues
(software), while lower layers handle data transport (hardware and software).
●​ Modularity: Each layer is self-contained and operates independently.

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●​ Standardized Functions: Each layer performs a defined network function,
facilitating interoperability and standardization.

Key Points
●​ Encapsulation: Data is wrapped with the necessary protocol information as it
moves down the OSI layers.
●​ Decapsulation: Removing the protocol information as data moves up the OSI
layers at the receiving end.
●​ Standardization: The OSI model standardizes network functions to promote
interoperability between diverse communication systems.

Layers of the OSI Model

There are the seven layers in OSI model. Each layer has different functions:
1.​ Physical Layer - It provides a physical medium through which bits are transmitted.
2.​ Data Link Layer - It is used for error-free transfer of data frames.
3.​ Network Layer - It is responsible for moving packets from source to destination.
4.​ Transport Layer - It provides reliable process-to-process delivery from source to
destination.
5.​ Session Layer - It is used to establish, manage, and terminate the sessions.
6.​ Presentation Layer - It is responsible for encryption, compression, and translation.
7.​ Application Layer - This layer provides network services to the user.

Each layer has specific functions that help in data transmission, and each layer serves a
unique purpose in communication. Let’s break down the layers and understand their
working:

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The Physical Layer is responsible for the actual transmission of raw bits over a physical
medium, such as cables, radio waves, or fiber optics. Its functions include:

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●​ Signal Transmission: It converts digital data from the higher layers into electrical,
optical, or radio signals that can be transmitted across the physical medium.
●​ Transmission Medium: It deals with physical media such as copper wires, fiber
optic cables, or wireless signals (radio waves).
●​ Bit Synchronization: It ensures that the bits are sent and received in proper
synchronization between devices.

Example: In a wired network, the physical layer would manage the transmission of bits
over copper cables using signals, while in a wireless network, it would manage the
transmission of data via radio waves.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

The Data Link Layer ensures that data transfers between two devices on the same
network are reliable and error-free. Its functions include:

●​ Framing: It frames the data into packets and adds header and trailer information
to facilitate transmission over the physical medium.
●​ Error Detection: It checks for errors in the frames using techniques like cyclic
redundancy check (CRC).
●​ MAC Addressing: This layer assigns physical addresses (MAC addresses) to devices
on the local network, ensuring the proper identification and communication of
devices.

Example: When a packet is transmitted over Wi-Fi or Ethernet, the data link layer adds
the MAC address of the sender and receiver to ensure that the data reaches the correct
device on the local network.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

The Network Layer manages the routing of data from one device to another, even if they
are on different networks. Its functions include:

●​ Routing: The network layer determines the best route for data to take through the
network using routing protocols like RIP, OSPF, or BGP.
●​ Logical Addressing: This layer assigns unique logical addresses (such as IP
addresses) to devices to distinguish them on the network.
●​ Packet Forwarding: It encapsulates data into packets and forwards them based
on the destination IP address.

Example: When you send an email, the network layer ensures that the data is routed
through various devices and networks until it reaches the destination device.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end communication and reliability. It

ensures that data is transferred completely, reliably, and in the correct order. Key
functions include:

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●​ Segmentation and Reassembly: It divides large chunks of data into smaller
segments and reassembles them at the destination.
●​ Error Detection and Correction: The transport layer checks for errors in data
transmission and requests retransmission if errors are found.
●​ Flow Control: It ensures that data is sent at a rate that the receiving device can
handle, preventing network congestion.
●​ End-to-End Communication: It ensures that data is transferred between the
sender and receiver using protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) or
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

Example: When you download a file from the internet, the transport layer ensures that the
file is properly broken down into packets, transmitted, and reassembled correctly at the
receiving end.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session Layer manages sessions or connections between applications or two devices.
It is responsible for:

●​ Session Establishment: It sets up, manages, and terminates communication

sessions between applications.
●​ Dialog Control: This layer controls the dialog between two systems, ensuring that
communication is either half-duplex (one-way) or full-duplex (both ways).
●​ Synchronization: It synchronizes the exchange of data to ensure that long data
streams are correctly divided into smaller packets and reassembled correctly at the
destination.

Example: When you log into a website, the Session Layer keeps the session active while
you browse pages.

Example: In a video conference, the session layer ensures that each participant's video
and audio streams are synchronized.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation Layer acts as a translator between the data format used by the sender
and the format understood by the receiver. Its main functions include:

●​ Data Translation: It translates data from the application layer into a format that
the network can understand. For example, converting a text file from a Unicode
format to ASCII.
●​ Data Encryption and Decryption: It ensures that sensitive data can be encrypted
before transmission and decrypted upon reception.
●​ Data Compression: It can also compress data before transmission to reduce
bandwidth usage and decompress it at the destination.

Example: If you are sending an encrypted message, it is the presentation layer's job to
encrypt that message before transmission and decrypt it when received.

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7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

The Application Layer is the closest layer to the user. It provides the interface for users
and applications to interact with the network. It is responsible for:

●​ User Interface: This is where applications such as web browsers, email clients, and
FTP programs operate.
●​ Protocols: It includes protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3, and IMAP, which allow
different software applications to communicate.
●​ Data Handling: The application layer ensures that data is in the correct format for
the receiving application and establishes the communication interface for users.

Example: When you use a web browser to visit a website, the Application Layer handles
the request and response using the HTTP protocol.

Working of the OSI Model:

In practical communication, data flows from the application layer (Layer 7) on the
sending device to the physical layer (Layer 1) for transmission over the network. When the
data reaches the receiving device, it travels up from the physical layer to the application
layer.

●​ Sending Data:
○​ At the sender's side, the data starts at the application layer and is passed
down layer by layer.
○​ The data is segmented and each layer adds its own header or trailer to the
data.
○​ At the physical layer, the data is transmitted over the network medium.
●​ Receiving Data:
○​ On the receiving device, the data starts at the physical layer and moves up
to the application layer.
○​ Each layer processes the data, removes its corresponding header/trailer,
and passes it to the next higher layer.

2.2 TCP/IP Model

Overview
●​ The TCP/IP model is simpler than the OSI model, with its four layers often mapped
to the seven layers of the OSI model. It's widely used as the basis for the internet
and most modern networking systems.
●​ The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model is a simplified
and more practical model used to standardize the internet and network
communications.
●​ Developed before the OSI model, TCP/IP is practical and protocol-oriented,
focusing on the suite of protocols essential for Internet operations.

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●​ Unlike the OSI model, which has seven layers, the TCP/IP model has four layers:
Application, Transport, Internet and Network Access. The TCP/IP model integrates
several OSI layers into single layers, making it simpler and more streamlined for
real-world networking.

Characteristics of TCP/IP Model

●​ Simpler Structure: Consists of four layers compared to the OSI's seven.
●​ Protocol-Oriented: Focuses on a suite of protocols that facilitate Internet
communication.
●​ Hierarchical: Each upper layer protocol relies on the services of the lower layers.
●​ Flexibility: Easily adaptable to different network technologies and
implementations.

Layers of the TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model consists of four layers, each responsible for specific tasks in network
communication.
1.​ Network Interface Layer: Handles physical transmission of data over the network.
2.​ Internet Layer: Routes data across networks using IP addresses.
3.​ Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer between devices, using protocols
like TCP and UDP.
4.​ Application Layer: Provides network services to applications, like web browsing
and email.

1. Network Interface Layer (or Link Layer)

The Network Access Layer is the lowest layer and is responsible for the physical
transmission of data over a network medium and manages the interface between the
device and the physical network.

Functions:

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●​ Data Framing: Encapsulates data into frames for transmission.
●​ Media Access Control (MAC): Determines how devices on the network share the
physical medium.
●​ Error Detection: Ensures data integrity over the transmission medium.

Protocols:

●​ Ethernet
●​ Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
●​ PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

Example: When you connect to the Internet using Wi-Fi, the Network Access Layer
manages the actual transmission of data over the wireless network.

2. Internet Layer

The Internet Layer is responsible for logical addressing, routing, and ensuring that data
packets travel across networks to their destination. It determines the best path for data
transmission.

Functions:

●​ Logical Addressing: Assigns IP addresses to devices for unique identification.

●​ Routing: Determines the most efficient path for data packets using routing
protocols.
●​ Packet Forwarding: Transfers data between networks.

Protocols:

●​ IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and packet delivery.

○​ IPv4: 32-bit addressing, widely used but limited in address space.
○​ IPv6: 128-bit addressing, designed to overcome IPv4 limitations.
●​ ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for error reporting and
diagnostic purposes (e.g., ping).
●​ ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Translates IP addresses into MAC addresses
on local networks.

Example: When you send an email, the Internet Layer ensures that the email data is
routed correctly across the Internet to reach the recipient’s email server.

3. Transport Layer

The Transport Layer ensures end-to-end communication, reliability, and proper

sequencing of data packets. It is responsible for providing error detection, correction, and
flow control to deliver data without loss or duplication.

Functions:

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●​ Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides data into smaller packets for transmission
and reassembles them at the destination.
●​ Reliability: Ensures data integrity using acknowledgments and retransmissions.
●​ Port Management: Identifies applications using port numbers.

Protocols:

●​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, connection-oriented

communication with error checking and acknowledgment.
●​ UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless communication
but without reliability or error correction.

Example: When you download a file, the Transport Layer ensures that each part of the file
is delivered correctly and in the right sequence.

4. Application Layer

The Application Layer (top-most) in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of the
Application, Presentation, and Session Layers of the OSI model. It is responsible for user
interaction, data formatting, and application-specific communication. This layer
directly interacts with software applications to provide communication services.

Functions:

●​ Provides protocols and services for communication between devices and

applications.
●​ Converts data into a format understandable by the application.
●​ Handles data encoding, encryption, and compression.

Protocols:

●​ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): For web browsing.

●​ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For sending emails.
●​ FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For file transfers.
●​ DNS (Domain Name System): For domain name resolution.

Example: When you browse a website, the HTTP protocol in the Application Layer enables
communication between your browser and the web server.

Working of TCP/IP Model

When data is transmitted using the TCP/IP model:

1.​ At the sender's side, the data is generated by an application (e.g., an email client).
2.​ The Application Layer prepares the data for transmission using protocols like HTTP
or FTP.
3.​ The Transport Layer breaks the data into segments and adds control information
(e.g., TCP headers).

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4.​ The Internet Layer encapsulates these segments into packets, adding logical
addresses.
5.​ The Network Access Layer converts these packets into frames for physical
transmission.
6.​ At the receiver’s side, the process is reversed layer by layer until the data reaches
the application.

Advantages of the TCP/IP Model

1.​ Scalability: Designed to support large-scale networks like the Internet.

2.​ Interoperability: Allows different devices and systems to communicate.
3.​ Reliability: Provides mechanisms for error detection and retransmission.
4.​ Flexibility: Supports multiple routing and transport protocols.

2.3 Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models

The TCP/IP Model is more practical and widely used compared to the OSI Model,
especially for Internet communications. It simplifies the process by combining some of
the OSI layers and focusing on the core functions needed for data transmission.

Feature OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Transmission Control
Open Systems Interconnection
Full Form Protocol/Internet Protocol
Model
Model
Layers 7 Layers 4 Layers
Application, Presentation,
Application, Transport,
Layers Names Session, Transport, Network,
Internet, Network Access
Data Link, Physical
ISO (International DARPA (Defense Advanced
Developed By Organization for Research Projects Agency) in
Standardization) in 1984 1981
Protocol Suite No specific protocol suite Uses TCP/IP protocols
Used for Internet and similar
Usage General-purpose model
networks
Layer Each layer has a specific Layers combine multiple
Functionality function functions
Headers are added at the
Headers are added at each
Header Addition Transport, Internet, and
layer
Network Access layers
Standardization More standardized Less standardized
Flexibility More flexible and adaptable Less flexible, more rigid
More reliable due to clear Focuses on simplicity and
Reliability
separation of layers efficiency
Analogy Luxury Cars - Rolls Royce Sports Car - Ferrari

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Section 3 : Physical Layer

3.1 Functions of the Physical Layer

Overview
●​ The physical layer is the first and lowest layer of the OSI model, responsible for the
physical connection between devices and the transmission and reception of raw bit
streams over a physical medium.

Key Functions
●​ Transmission of Raw Bits: Converts digital data into electrical, optical, or radio
signals suitable for transmission over the chosen medium.
●​ Data Encoding and Signaling: Defines how data is encoded into signals and how
these signals are transmitted and interpreted.
●​ Transmission Medium: Specifies the physical medium used for data transfer, such
as cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals.
●​ Bit Rate Control: Manages the rate at which data is transmitted, ensuring
synchronization between sender and receiver.
●​ Physical Topology: Describes the physical layout of network devices and cables.
●​ Transmission Mode: Defines whether data transmission is simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex.

3.2 Data Representation

Bit and Byte Representation

●​ Bit: The smallest unit of data in a computer, representing a single binary value (0 or
1).
●​ Byte: A group of 8 bits, which can represent 256 different values (0-255).

Signal Representation
●​ Analog Signals: Continuous signals that vary over time and can represent a range
of values.
●​ Digital Signals: Discrete signals that represent binary data (0s and 1s).

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Data can be represented in either analog or digital form. Computers use the digital form
to store information. Therefore, data must be converted into digital form to be processed
by computers. Digital transmission involves converting and encoding data into a digital
format that can be transmitted over a communication medium.

Digital-to-Digital Conversion

Digital-to-digital encoding represents digital information using a digital signal. This

process converts binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer into a sequence of voltage
pulses that can be transmitted over a wire. This conversion is categorized into three main
types: Unipolar, Polar, and Bipolar encoding.

Unipolar Encoding

●​ Characteristics: Uses one voltage level.

●​ Representation: Binary 1 is represented by a positive voltage, and binary 0 is
represented by zero voltage.
●​ Advantages: Simple and inexpensive to implement.2+
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ DC Component: Presence of a constant DC level can cause issues.
○​ Synchronization: Lack of inherent synchronization mechanisms.

Polar Encoding

●​ Characteristics: Uses two voltage levels, one positive and one negative.
●​ Types:
○​ NRZ (Non-return to zero):
■​ NRZ-L (NRZ-Level): Signal level depends on the bit (positive for 0,
negative for 1).
■​ NRZ-I (NRZ-Inversion): Voltage inversion represents a 1 bit, while no
change represents a 0 bit.

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○​ RZ (Return to zero):
■​ Uses three values: positive, negative, and zero.
■​ Signal returns to zero halfway through each bit interval.
■​ Disadvantage: Requires more bandwidth due to two signal changes
per bit.
○​ Biphase Encoding:
■​ Manchester: Signal changes at the middle of the bit interval;
negative-to-positive for binary 1 and positive-to-negative for binary
0.
■​ Differential Manchester: Signal change at the middle of the bit
interval for synchronization; transition at the beginning of the interval
represents binary 0, no transition represents binary 1.

Bipolar Encoding

●​ Characteristics: Uses three voltage levels: positive, negative, and zero.

●​ Types:
○​ AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion):
■​ Binary 0 is represented by zero voltage.
■​ Binary 1 is represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
■​ Advantages: Zero DC component, good synchronization for
sequences of 1s.
■​ Disadvantages: Long strings of 0s can cause synchronization issues.
○​ B8ZS (Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution):
■​ Ensures synchronization by introducing violations in the pattern when
eight consecutive zeros occur.
■​ Advantages: Solves synchronization issues with long strings of 0s.
○​ HDB3 (High-Density Bipolar 3):
■​ Similar to B8ZS but designed for European and Japanese standards.
■​ Introduces violations based on the number of 1s since the last
substitution to ensure synchronization.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion

Analog signals need to be digitized for use by digital devices. This conversion involves
transforming continuous waveforms into discrete digital pulses. Two primary techniques
for analog-to-digital conversion are PAM and PCM.

PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

●​ Process: Samples the analog signal and generates a series of pulses based on the
amplitude of the signal at regular intervals.
●​ Disadvantage: Not inherently digital; requires further processing to become
suitable for digital communication.

PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

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●​ Process:
○​ Sampling (PAM): Measures the amplitude of the analog signal at regular
intervals.
○​ Quantization: Assigns discrete integral values to the sampled amplitudes.
○​ Binary Encoding: Converts quantized values into binary format.
○​ Digital-to-Digital Encoding: Encodes the binary data into a format suitable
for transmission.
●​ Advantages: Standard method for converting analog signals to digital, widely used
in digital communication systems.

3.3 Transmission Media

Transmission media are communication channels that carry information from the sender
to the receiver through electromagnetic signals. They provide a physical path between the
transmitter and receiver in data communication, ensuring that data can be transmitted
effectively.

OSI Model and Transmission Media

Transmission media are part of the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model. They are
responsible for the actual transmission of raw bitstreams over the physical medium.

Factors Affecting Transmission Media

1.​ Bandwidth: Higher bandwidth allows higher data transmission rates.

2.​ Transmission Impairment: Degradation of signal quality due to factors like
attenuation, distortion, and noise.
3.​ Interference: Disruption of the signal by unwanted external signals.
4.​ Attenuation: Loss of signal strength over distance.
5.​ Distortion: Change in signal shape, often due to different propagation speeds of
different frequency components.
6.​ Noise: Unwanted signals that get added to the data signal during transmission,
affecting signal quality.

Classification of Transmission Media

Transmission media are broadly classified into two categories: Guided (Wired) Media and
Unguided (Wireless) Media.

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Guided Media (Wired)

In guided transmission media (also known as bounded or wired media), signals are
transmitted along a physical path, such as copper wires or fiber optics. These media
include twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber optic cables, each with distinct
characteristics and uses.

1. Twisted-Pair Cable:
Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. This
twisting helps to reduce electromagnetic interference and crosstalk between pairs. The
degree of noise reduction depends on the number of twists per foot; more twists typically
result in less noise interference.

●​ Usage: Ethernet cables, LANs, telephone lines.

●​ Advantages: Inexpensive, easy to install, Lightweight.
●​ Disadvantages: Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
attenuation, Less reliable in high-noise environments.

Types of Twisted Pair:

a. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

●​ Does not contain a shielding (metal mesh) around the twisted wires.
●​ Categories:
○​ Category 1: Used for low-speed data and telephone lines.
○​ Category 2: Supports up to 4 Mbps.
○​ Category 3: Supports up to 16 Mbps.

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○​ Category 4: Supports up to 20 Mbps, suitable for long-distance
communication.
○​ Category 5: Supports up to 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Inexpensive
○​ Easy to install
○​ Suitable for high-speed LANs
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Limited to shorter distances due to attenuation

b. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

●​ Contains a shielding (metal mesh) around the twisted wires, reducing interference
and allowing for higher data transmission rates.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Higher capacity than UTP
○​ Provides better noise protection
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ More expensive than UTP and coaxial cable
●​ Higher attenuation rate

2. Coaxial Cable:

Coaxial cable consists of a central conductor (usually copper), an insulating layer, a

metallic shield (usually a copper mesh), and an outer insulating layer. It is widely used for
cable television and other broadband applications.

●​ Types of Coaxial Transmission:

○​ Baseband Transmission: Transmits a single signal at high speed.
○​ Broadband Transmission: Transmits multiple signals simultaneously.
●​ Advantages:
○​ High-speed data transmission
○​ Better shielding from electromagnetic interference (EMI) compared to
twisted pair
○​ Provides higher bandwidth than twisted pair
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ More expensive and difficult to install compared to twisted pair
○​ A fault in the cable can disrupt the entire network

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3. Fiber-Optic Cable:

Fiber optic cables use light pulses to transmit data, providing higher speeds and greater
bandwidth compared to copper cables. They consist of a core (light transmission area),
cladding (concentric layer of glass that reflects light back into the core), and a protective
jacket.

●​ Basic Elements:
○​ Core: The glass or plastic center where light signals travel.
○​ Cladding: Concentric layer of glass that causes reflection within the core,
enabling light wave transmission.
○​ Jacket: Protective plastic coating that absorbs shock and protects the
fibers.
●​ Types:
○​ Single-mode fibers: For long-distance transmission.
○​ Multi-mode fibers: For shorter distances.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Higher bandwidth and faster speeds.
○​ Can carry data over longer distances.
○​ More reliable and durable than copper cables.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ More expensive to install and maintain.
○​ Requires specialized knowledge to work with.

Applications of Guided Transmission Media

1.​ Local Area Networks (LANs): Twisted pair and coaxial cables are commonly used
to connect computers and devices within a confined area.
2.​ Wide Area Networks (WANs): Optical fiber cables are preferred due to their high
bandwidth and ability to transmit data over long distances.
3.​ Internet Backbone Networks: Optical fiber forms the backbone of the internet,
allowing for high-capacity data transmission across large geographical areas.
4.​ Telecommunication Networks: Optical fibers and coaxial cables are widely used to
handle large-scale data transfer for phone and internet services.

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Advantages of Guided Transmission Media

1.​ Reliability: Guided media, such as twisted pair and fiber optics, offer stable and
secure communication with minimal signal loss.
2.​ Security: More secure than wireless alternatives, guided media reduce the risk of
signal interception.
3.​ Higher Bandwidth: Especially with fiber optics, guided media allow for high-speed
data transfer, meeting the needs of data-intensive applications.
4.​ Less Susceptible to Interference: Twisted pair and coaxial cables are less affected
by electromagnetic interference, ensuring better signal integrity.
5.​ Predictable Performance: Guided media offer consistent and controlled
performance, making them ideal for applications that require stable
communication.
6.​ Long-Distance Communication: Optical fibers have low signal attenuation,
enabling them to transmit data over long distances with minimal signal loss.
7.​ Cost-Effective for Short Distances: Twisted pair cables are an economical choice
for short-distance connections, especially in local area networks.

Disadvantages of Guided Transmission Media

1.​ Limited Mobility: Devices connected through wired media have restricted
movement, making them unsuitable for mobile communications.
2.​ Vulnerability to Physical Damage: Guided media are prone to physical damage,
such as cuts and environmental factors, which can disrupt communication.
3.​ High Initial Costs for Long Distances: Installing optical fiber networks, especially
for long distances, can be expensive due to infrastructure costs.
4.​ Bandwidth Limitations in Some Media: Twisted pair cables have lower bandwidth
compared to optical fibers, limiting their use in high-speed applications.
5.​ Infrastructure Dependency: Network upgrades or changes can require substantial
infrastructure modifications, leading to downtime and increased costs.
6.​ Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of physical media,
particularly cables, can have environmental consequences.

Unguided Media (Wireless)

In unguided media, electromagnetic signals are transmitted through the air, vacuum, or
water without using any physical conductor. Unguided media are classified into three
main types: Radio Waves, Microwaves, and Infrared Waves.

1. Radio Waves:

Radio waves are electromagnetic waves transmitted in all directions. The frequency
range of radio waves spans from 3 kHz to 1 GHz. They are omnidirectional, meaning
signals can propagate everywhere in free space.

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●​ Characteristics: The sending and receiving antennas in radio wave transmission do

not need to be aligned. This characteristic makes radio waves suitable for
broadcasting.
●​ Example: FM radios and TV broadcasting are common uses of radio waves.
●​ Applications of Radio Waves:
○​ Used in multicasting scenarios where one sender communicates with
multiple receivers.
○​ Common in FM radios, television, and cordless phones.
●​ Advantages of Radio Transmission:
○​ Useful for wide area networks and mobile cellular phones.
○​ Radio waves cover large areas and can penetrate walls.
○​ Provide a relatively high transmission rate.

2. Microwaves:

Microwaves have frequencies ranging from 1 GHz to 1000 GHz and are used in
point-to-point communication systems. Microwaves are further divided into two types:
Terrestrial Microwaves and Satellite Microwaves.

A. Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

●​ Description: Uses focused beams of radio signals from one ground-based antenna
to another. Microwaves are unidirectional, meaning the sending and receiving
antennas must be aligned.
●​ Frequency Range: Microwaves operate within 1 GHz to 1000 GHz.
●​ Line-of-Sight Transmission: Antennas are mounted on towers and must be in
direct sight of each other for signal transmission.

Characteristics of Terrestrial Microwave Transmission:

●​ Frequency range: 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.

●​ Bandwidth: 1 to 10 Mbps.
●​ Distance: Inexpensive for short distances, but costly for longer distances due to
the need for taller towers.
●​ Attenuation: Signal loss affected by environmental conditions like weather.

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Advantages of Terrestrial Microwave Transmission:

●​ Cheaper than installing cables.

●​ No need for land acquisition as it operates wirelessly.
●​ Suitable for terrain and oceanic communication.

Disadvantages of Terrestrial Microwave Transmission:

●​ Vulnerable to eavesdropping due to signal interception in the air.

●​ Weather conditions such as rain can disrupt the signal.
●​ Bandwidth is limited in microwave transmission.

B. Satellite Microwave Communication

●​ Description: Satellites act as relays, amplifying and retransmitting signals between

earth stations.
●​ How it works: Signals from one earth station are received, amplified, and
retransmitted by the satellite to another earth station.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

●​ Covers a larger area than terrestrial microwave systems.

●​ Cost of transmission is independent of the distance from the center of the coverage
area.
●​ Used in mobile communication, weather forecasting, and TV/radio
broadcasting.
●​ Easy to install and flexible.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave Communication:

●​ Expensive and time-consuming to design and launch satellites.

●​ Satellites require continuous monitoring and control.
●​ Limited lifespan of 12-15 years, requiring future satellite launches for replacement.

3. Infrared Waves:

Infrared transmission is a wireless communication technology used for short-range

wireless communication, typically between devices in close proximity. Infrared signals
have frequency range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.

●​ Usage: Common in devices like TV remotes, data transfers between cell phones,
and compute peripherals communication.
●​ Characteristics of Infrared:
○​ High Bandwidth: Supports a high data rate due to a larger bandwidth.
○​ Infrared waves cannot penetrate walls, ensuring that communication is
confined to a single room.
○​ Offers better security with minimal interference.
●​ Disadvantages of Infrared:
○​ Limited range: Infrared transmission is ineffective over longer distances.
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○​ Infrared signals are unreliable in outdoor environments due to interference
from sunlight.

3.4 Transmission Modes

The way data is transmitted from one device to another is known as the transmission
mode or communication mode. Transmission modes are defined in the physical layer of
network protocols and are categorized into three main types:

1. Simplex Mode
●​ Description: One-way or unidirectional communication where data is transmitted
in only one direction. A device can either send or receive data, but not both. This
transmission mode is not very popular as mainly communications require the
two-way exchange of data.

●​ Example:
○​ Television broadcasting, where signals travel only from the transmitter to the
receiver, Radio stations (broadcast to listeners), Keyboard (inputs data),
Monitor (displays data).
●​ Advantages:
○​ Station can utilize the entire bandwidth of the communication channel, so
that more data can be transmitted at a time.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Lack of inter-communication between devices due to unidirectional
communication.

2. Half-Duplex Mode
●​ Description: Two-way communication, but not simultaneously. Data can be sent
and received, but only one direction at a time. The entire bandwidth of the
communication channel is utilized in one direction at a time.

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 NotesNeo
●​ In half-duplex mode, it is possible to perform the error detection, and if any error
occurs, then the receiver requests the sender to retransmit the data.
●​ Example: Walkie-talkies (only one person can speak at a time and one party
speaks, then the other responds).
●​ Advantages:
○​ Utilization of entire bandwidth in one direction at a time.
○​ Possible error detection and retransmission.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Communication delay due to waiting for turn to transmit.

3. Full Duplex Mode

●​ Description: Two-way communication with simultaneous transmission and
reception of data. Both the stations can send and receive the message
simultaneously.

●​ Full-duplex mode has two simplex channels. One channel has traffic moving in one
direction, and another channel has traffic flowing in the opposite direction.
●​ Example: Telephone conversations, where both peoples can talk and listen at the
same time.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Simultaneous data transmission and reception.
○​ Fastest mode of communication between devices.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Communication channel capacity is divided if no dedicated path exists.

Comparison of Transmission Modes

Basis for Simplex Mode Half-Duplex Mode Full-Duplex Mode

Comparison

Direction of Unidirectional Bidirectional (one at Bidirectional

Communication a time) (simultaneous)

Send/Receive Device can only Devices can send and Devices can send
send or receive receive data, but not and receive data
data simultaneously simultaneously

Performance Lower than Better than simplex Best among all

half-duplex three modes

Example Radio, keyboard, Walkie-talkies Telephone network

monitor

36
 NotesNeo

3.5 Modulation

Definition

Modulation is the process of altering a carrier signal (such as radio waves) to transmit
data. Since digital signals can’t be easily sent over long distances without loss, modulation
helps convert the data into a form suitable for transmission over communication mediums
like radio, telephone lines, or optical fiber.

Message (Information) Signal:

●​ This is the original signal containing the information we want to transmit, such as
audio, video, or digital data.

Carrier Signal:

●​ A carrier signal is a high-frequency waveform that is modulated with the message

signal (the data to be transmitted).
●​ The carrier signal's frequency is typically much higher than that of the message
signal.

Why Modulation is Necessary

1.​ Efficient Use of the Medium:

○​ Modulation allows the signal to be transmitted at a frequency suitable for
the medium, optimizing the use of the available bandwidth.
2.​ Long-Distance Transmission:
○​ Higher frequency carrier waves can travel longer distances and penetrate
obstacles more effectively.
3.​ Multiplexing:
○​ Multiple signals can be transmitted simultaneously over a single channel by
using different carrier frequencies (Frequency Division Multiplexing).
4.​ Noise Reduction:
○​ Certain modulation schemes, such as FM and digital modulation, are more
resistant to noise and interference.
5.​ Signal Compatibility:

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 NotesNeo
○​ Allows different types of data (audio, video, digital) to be transmitted over
the same medium.

Types of Modulation

Modulation can be broadly classified into analog and digital modulation, depending on
the type of signal being modulated.

Analog Modulation

Analog modulation involves modulating an analog signal onto an analog carrier wave.
The primary types of analog modulation are:

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM):

●​ How It Works: In AM, the amplitude (strength) of the carrier wave is varied in
proportion to the amplitude of the information signal.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ The frequency remains constant while the amplitude changes.
○​ Used in AM radio broadcasting.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Simple and cost-effective to implement.
○​ Provides a reasonable quality of sound over long distances.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ More susceptible to noise and interference.
○​ Requires a larger bandwidth compared to other modulation techniques.

2. Frequency Modulation (FM):

●​ How It Works: In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied according to the
information signal.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ The amplitude remains constant while the frequency changes.
○​ Commonly used in FM radio broadcasting.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Better sound quality and resistance to noise and interference than AM.
○​ More efficient use of bandwidth.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ More complex and expensive to implement.
○​ Requires larger bandwidth than AM.

3. Phase Modulation (PM):

●​ How It Works: In PM, the phase of the carrier signal is changed according to the
information signal.
●​ Characteristics:
○​ The amplitude and frequency of the carrier remain constant while the phase
changes.

38
 NotesNeo
●​ Applications: Often used in digital communication systems, such as GPS and Wi-Fi.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Provides better noise immunity than AM.
○​ Efficient for transmitting digital data.

Digital Modulation

Digital modulation involves modulating a digital signal onto an analog carrier wave. The
primary types of digital modulation are:

1.​ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):

○​ The amplitude of the carrier wave is varied between discrete levels to
represent binary data (0s and 1s).
○​ Simple but susceptible to noise.
2.​ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
○​ The frequency of the carrier wave is changed between discrete levels to
represent binary data.
○​ Used in modem signals and RF communications.
3.​ Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
○​ The phase of the carrier wave is shifted between discrete values to represent
binary data.
○​ Common types include Binary PSK (BPSK), Quadrature PSK (QPSK), and
Differential PSK (DPSK).
4.​ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM):
○​ Combines both amplitude and phase modulation.
○​ Can transmit multiple bits per symbol, making it efficient for high data rate
transmissions.
○​ Widely used in digital television, cable modem, and wireless communication
systems.

Advantages of Modulation

1.​ Efficient Transmission: Allows signals to travel long distances with minimal loss.
2.​ Multiplexing: Enables multiple signals to share the same channel without
interference.
3.​ Better Signal Quality: Reduces susceptibility to noise and interference, enhancing
signal clarity.
4.​ Bandwidth Utilization: Uses available bandwidth efficiently for various signals.
5.​ Versatility: Supports the transmission of voice, video, and data.
6.​ Improved Reception: Higher frequency signals improve reception in obstructed
areas.

Disadvantages of Modulation

1.​ Complexity: Can be complex to design and implement, especially digital

modulation.

39
 NotesNeo
2.​ Bandwidth Requirements: Some techniques require larger bandwidth, limiting
simultaneous signals.
3.​ Noise and Interference: Certain modulations can still be susceptible to
interference.
4.​ Equipment Cost: Modulation equipment can be expensive.
5.​ Signal Distortion: Poor implementation can lead to distortion, affecting quality.

Uses of Modulation

1.​ Broadcasting: Used in radio and TV to transmit audio and video signals.
2.​ Telecommunications: Essential for transmitting voice and data in telephone
systems.
3.​ Data Communication: Employed in modems and broadband for data transfer.
4.​ Satellite Communication: Transmits signals for services like GPS and satellite TV.
5.​ Wireless Communication: Facilitates connections in mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and
Bluetooth.
6.​ Remote Sensing: Used in radar and sonar for object detection and tracking.

3.6 Multiplexing

Definition
Multiplexing is the technique of combining multiple signals into one signal for transmission
over a single shared medium. This allows the efficient use of available bandwidth by
allowing multiple data streams to be transmitted simultaneously over the same
communication link. Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth.

This process is carried out using a device called a multiplexer (MUX), which merges the
data streams. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer (DEMUX) is used to separate the
combined signal back into its original components.

History of Multiplexing
●​ Multiplexing technique is widely used in telecommunications in which several
telephone calls are carried through a single wire.
●​ Multiplexing originated in telegraphy in the early 1870s and is now widely used in
communication.
●​ George Owen Squier developed the telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.

Concept of Multiplexing
●​ The 'n' input lines are transmitted through a multiplexer and multiplexer combines
the signals to form a composite signal.
●​ The composite signal is passed through a Demultiplexer and demultiplexer
separates a signal to component signals and transfers them to their respective
destinations.

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 NotesNeo

Why Multiplexing is Needed

1.​ Efficient Use of Medium: A transmission medium can only carry one signal at a
time. Multiplexing divides the medium's bandwidth among multiple signals,
allowing simultaneous data transmission.
2.​ Cost Efficiency: Reduces the need for multiple transmission paths, lowering overall
communication costs.
3.​ Collision Avoidance: By dividing the medium among signals, multiplexing
minimizes the chances of collision, ensuring smoother communication.

Types of Multiplexing:

There are five main types of multiplexing techniques, each suited for different types of
data and communication needs:
1.​ Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2.​ Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
a.​ Synchronous TDM
b.​ Asynchronous or Statistical TDM
3.​ Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
a.​ Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
b.​ Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM)
4.​ Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
5.​ Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

●​ How It Works: The available bandwidth of the communication channel is divided
into multiple smaller frequency bands. Each user or signal is assigned a unique
frequency band. All signals are combined to form a composite signal, which is then
transmitted.

●​ Analog Technique: FDM modulates input signals into different frequency bands
and combines them.

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 NotesNeo
●​ Applications: FDM is used in radio broadcasting, TV networks, and some
telecommunication systems.
●​ Guard Bands: To prevent interference (cross-talk) between channels, unused
frequency strips called guard bands are placed between them.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Simple to implement.
○​ Supports multiple signals simultaneously.
○​ No need for synchronization between sender and receiver.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Limited to lower-speed channels.
○​ Prone to crosstalk (interference between signals).
○​ Requires a large bandwidth and many modulators.

3. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

●​ How It Works: The time on a communication channel is divided into small time
slots. Each user or signal is assigned a specific time slot to transmit their data.

●​ Digital Technique: TDM divides the total time available for transmission into time
slots.
●​ Applications: TDM is used in telephone systems, allowing multiple users to share
the same communication line.

Types of TDM:

●​ Synchronous TDM:
○​ Fixed Time Slots: Every device gets a fixed time slot, even if it has no data
to send, which can lead to inefficiencies.
○​ Applications: Used in T-1 multiplexing, ISDN, and SONET.
○​ Disadvantages:
■​ Inefficient when devices have no data to transmit (empty slots).
■​ Requires high-speed transmission media.

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 NotesNeo

●​ Asynchronous TDM (Statistical TDM):

○​ Dynamic Time Slots: Only active devices get time slots, making better use
of the channel's capacity.
○​ Efficient: Data slots are fully utilized and contain information identifying the
data source.
○​ Advantages:
■​ Efficient use of available bandwidth.
■​ Reduces transmission time.

2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

●​ How It Works: WDM operates like FDM but with optical signals. It combines
multiple optical signals, each on a different wavelength of light, and sends them
through a single fiber optic cable. WDM increases the capacity of optical fibers by
transmitting multiple optical signals over different wavelengths on the same fiber.
●​ Analog Technique: Multiple light signals are combined to form a broader light
spectrum.
●​ Applications: WDM is used in fiber-optic communication to increase data-carrying
capacity.
●​ Advantages: WDM allows for high data rates, lower power consumption, and easy
network upgrades.

Types of WDM:

●​ Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM):

○​ More channels are packed into the same fiber by using tightly spaced
wavelengths.
○​ Used in long-distance telecommunications and high-capacity data
transmission.
●​ Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM):
○​ Fewer channels with wider spacing between wavelengths, suitable for
shorter-distance communication.
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 NotesNeo
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

●​ How It Works: CDM allows multiple signals to share the same frequency band by
assigning each signal a unique code. This code ensures that only the intended
receiver can decode the signal.
●​ Example: CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), which is used in mobile networks,
where multiple users can share the same frequency band without interfering with
each other.
●​ Applications: Used in mobile communications, satellite communication, GPS, and
secure military communication.
●​ Advantages: CDM allows multiple users to share the same frequency band and
offers better security against interception.

5. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)

●​ How It Works: In SDM, multiple signals are transmitted simultaneously using
different physical paths (like separate cables or fibers).
●​ Applications: SDM is used in wired networks, such as in multi-core optical fibers or
multiple antennas in MIMO (Multiple Input, Multiple Output) wireless systems.
●​ Advantages: Greatly increases network capacity by utilizing separate paths for
transmission.

Advantages of Multiplexing

1.​ Efficient Use of Bandwidth: Allows multiple signals to be transmitted over a single
channel, optimizing bandwidth use.
2.​ Increased Data Transmission: Enhances the amount of data sent simultaneously,
boosting overall capacity.
3.​ Scalability: Facilitates easy network expansion without major infrastructure
changes.
4.​ Flexibility: Different multiplexing types can be applied based on specific
communication system needs.

Disadvantages of Multiplexing

1.​ Synchronization Issues: Keeping multiple data streams synchronized can be

challenging, leading to potential data loss if not managed well.
2.​ Latency: Combining signals can introduce delays due to processing and
synchronization.
3.​ Signal Degradation: Multiplexed signals can degrade over long distances,
necessitating signal boosters or repeaters.
4.​ Resource Management: Managing resources for multiplexing can be complex,
requiring careful planning to avoid congestion.

Uses of Multiplexing

Multiplexing has several key applications in data communications that enhance network
efficiency and capacity:

44
 NotesNeo
1.​ Efficient Resource Utilization:
○​ By allowing multiple signals to share the same communication channel,
multiplexing maximizes the use of available bandwidth, which is crucial in
limited-bandwidth environments.
2.​ Telecommunications:
○​ In telephone networks, multiplexing enables the simultaneous transmission
of multiple phone calls over a single line, significantly increasing network
capacity.
3.​ Internet and Data Networks:
○​ Multiplexing is used to send data from multiple users over a single network
connection, improving both efficiency and data transfer speed.
4.​ Satellite Communications:
○​ It helps utilize available bandwidth on satellite transponders effectively,
allowing multiple signals to be transmitted and received at the same time.

3.7 Network Switching

Rise of Switching: From Hubs to Switches

Unlike hubs that broadcast data to all devices, causing unnecessary network congestion,
switches direct data only to the intended recipient using MAC addresses, significantly
reducing network traffic and improving overall performance.

Switching techniques are crucial in determining the best routes for data transmission
across large networks, enabling one-to-one communication between systems. These
techniques can be broadly classified into three types:

1.​ Circuit Switching

2.​ Message Switching
3.​ Packet Switching

1. Circuit Switching
●​ A dedicated communication path is established between two devices for the
duration of the transmission. The dedicated path remains until the connection is
terminated.
●​ Examples: Traditional telephone networks, where a dedicated circuit is established
for each call.

Phases:

1.​ Circuit Establishment: A complete end-to-end path is established.

2.​ Data Transfer: Data is transmitted over the established path.
3.​ Circuit Disconnect: The path is released after the communication ends.

Technologies:

●​ Space Division Switches: Use separate physical crosspoints (e.g., crossbar

switches) to achieve high-speed, high-capacity, and non-blocking switching.
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 NotesNeo
○​ Crossbar Switch: Has n×nn \times nn×n intersection points (crosspoints) for
nnn input and nnn output lines.
○​ Multistage Switch: Reduces the number of crosspoints by interconnecting
smaller units, offering alternate paths if one path fails.

Advantages:

●​ Dedicated communication channel ensures consistent bandwidth.

●​ Reliable connection with a fixed data rate.
●​ Reliable for voice transmission.

Disadvantages:

●​ Long setup time (approx 10 seconds) before data transfer.

●​ Inefficient use of resources if no data is transferred.
●​ Expensive due to the need for dedicated paths.
●​ Less scalable and flexible compared to other methods.

2. Packet Switching
●​ Data is divided into smaller packets, each of which is transmitted independently
and can take different paths to the destination. Reassembled at the destination.
Packets take the shortest path available, enhancing network efficiency.
●​ Employed in modern internet communications.
●​ Examples: Internet data transfer, where data is sent in IP packets.

Approaches:

1.​ Datagram Packet Switching (Connectionless):

○​ Each packet (datagram) is an independent entity with its own routing
information.
○​ Paths are not fixed, allowing flexible routing.
2.​ Virtual Circuit Switching (Connection-Oriented):
○​ Establishes a preplanned route before sending messages.
○​ Uses call request and call accept packets to set up the connection.
○​ Maintains a fixed path for the duration of the connection.

Advantages:

●​ Cost-effective due to minimal storage requirements.

●​ Reliable communication as packets can be rerouted if nodes are busy.
●​ Efficient use of available bandwidth, supporting simultaneous communication from
multiple users.
●​ Robust and scalable

Disadvantages:

●​ Not suitable for applications requiring low delay and high-quality service.
●​ Complex protocols with high implementation costs.

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 NotesNeo
●​ Potential loss of critical information if packets are lost or corrupted during
transmission.

Comparison of Datagram and Virtual Circuit Approaches

Aspect Datagram Approach Virtual Circuit Approach

Routing Taken at each node Preplanned route, no routing

Decisions independently decisions at nodes

Congestion Less likely as packets take Can occur if nodes are busy
different paths

Flexibility High, as each packet is Less flexible due to fixed

independent path

Reliability and More flexible and efficient in Reliable for planned routes
Efficiency diverse conditions but less flexible

3. Message Switching:
●​ Entire messages are sent from the source to the destination as complete units,
which are routed through intermediate nodes that store and forward them. No
dedicated path between sender and receiver.
●​ An early form of data transmission in computer networks.
●​ Now largely obsolete due to the inefficiencies in handling large volumes of data.

Advantages:

●​ Efficient use of bandwidth by sharing data channels among devices.

●​ Reduced traffic congestion due to temporary storage of messages at intermediate
nodes.
●​ Supports variable message sizes and prioritization.

Disadvantages:

●​ Requires sufficient storage at intermediate nodes.

●​ Long delays due to storing and forwarding.

Importance of Switching

Switching is essential for several reasons:

●​ Bandwidth Utilization: Efficiently uses the maximum transfer rate of a cable,

which is a critical and costly resource.
●​ Collision Reduction: Prevents data collisions by ensuring that only one device
transmits data at a time on a given path.

Advantages of Switching

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 NotesNeo
●​ Increased Bandwidth: Enhances network capacity by efficiently managing data
transmission.
●​ Reduced Workload on PCs: Directs data only to the addressed device, minimizing
unnecessary data processing.
●​ Improved Network Performance: Reduces traffic congestion, leading to faster
and more reliable communication.
●​ Minimized Frame Collision: Each connection has its collision domain, significantly
lowering the chances of data collisions.

Disadvantages of Switching

●​ Cost: Switches are more expensive than simpler network devices like bridges.
●​ Troubleshooting: Identifying network connectivity issues can be more complex.
●​ Configuration: Proper design and configuration are necessary to manage
multicast packets and ensure optimal performance.

Switching Modes in Layer 2 Switches

Layer 2 switches operate on the Data Link layer of the OSI model, facilitating data
transmission by forwarding packets based on MAC addresses. They perform error
checking on transmitted and received frames, using different switching modes to enhance
efficiency and reliability. The primary switching modes are:

1.​ Store-and-Forward Switching

2.​ Cut-Through Switching
3.​ Fragment-Free Switching

1. Store-and-Forward Switching

Process:

●​ The switch waits until the entire frame is received.

●​ The frame is stored in the switch buffer memory.
●​ The frame undergoes error checking using techniques such as Cyclic Redundancy
Check (CRC).
●​ If errors are found, the frame is discarded; otherwise, it is forwarded to the next
node.

Advantages:

●​ High level of security: Corrupted frames are discarded, preventing them from
affecting the destination network.
●​ Reliability: Collided frames are not forwarded.

Disadvantages:

●​ High latency: The switch waits for the entire frame to be received before
forwarding, resulting in higher latency.

48
 NotesNeo
●​ High wait time: The entire frame must be stored and checked before forwarding.

2. Cut-Through Switching

Process:

●​ The switch forwards the packet as soon as the destination address is identified,
without waiting for the entire frame.
●​ The first six bytes of the frame (following the preamble) are checked to determine
the destination address.
●​ The frame is forwarded to the outgoing interface port specified in the switching
table.

Advantages:

●​ Low latency: The switch forwards the packet immediately after identifying the
destination MAC address.
●​ Low wait time: Frames are forwarded without storing the entire packet.

Disadvantages:

●​ No error checking: Frames with errors can be forwarded to the receiver.

●​ Collision: Collided frames may be forwarded, as collision detection is not
implemented.

3. Fragment-Free Switching

Process:

●​ The switch reads at least 64 bytes of the frame before forwarding to the next node.
●​ Combines the speed of cut-through switching with error-checking functionality.
●​ The first 64 bytes are checked for errors and collision information.

Advantages:

●​ Balanced approach: Combines the low latency of cut-through switching with the
error-checking benefits.
●​ Collision detection: Frames with collisions within the first 64 bytes are not
forwarded, enhancing transmission quality.

Disadvantages:

●​ Moderate latency: Slightly higher latency than cut-through but lower than
store-and-forward.

Differences between Store-and-Forward and Cut-Through Switching

Aspect Store-and-Forward Switching Cut-Through Switching

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 NotesNeo

Frame Waits until the entire frame is Checks the first 6 bytes following
Processing received. the preamble to identify the
destination address.

Error Performs error checking; No error checking; frames with

Checking frames with errors are errors are forwarded.
discarded.

Latency High latency due to waiting for Low latency as only the initial
the entire frame. bytes are checked.

Reliability Highly reliable; only error-free Less reliable; error-prone frames

frames are forwarded. may be forwarded.

Wait Time High wait time as the whole Low wait time; frames are
frame must be received before forwarded without waiting for the
forwarding. entire packet.

3.8 Nework Topology

Network topology defines the structure of how all the components of a network are
interconnected. There are two main types of topology: physical and logical.
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are
six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Star Topology,
Tree Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1. Bus Topology

Structure:

●​ In bus topology, all network nodes (computers, printers, etc.) are connected to a
single central cable known as the backbone or bus.
●​ Nodes can be connected to the backbone cable either directly or through drop lines
and taps.
●​ The backbone acts as a shared communication medium that every node in the
network can use to transmit data.

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 NotesNeo
Communication:

●​ When a node wants to send data, it transmits a broadcast message onto the
backbone cable.
●​ All nodes in the network receive this message, but only the intended recipient
processes it; others discard the message.
●​ Data transmission is typically controlled by a media access control method like
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) or CSMA/CA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance).

Access Methods:

●​ CSMA/CD: Nodes listen to the network and only transmit when it is free. If a
collision is detected, the nodes stop transmitting and try again after a random
delay.
●​ CSMA/CA: Nodes attempt to avoid collisions by checking if the network is free
before transmitting. If it is busy, they wait for a random period before checking
again.

Advantages:

1.​ Low Cost:

○​ Requires less cable than some other topologies, reducing initial setup cost.
No need for expensive hubs or switches.
2.​ Simple Installation:
○​ Easy to set up and extend.
3.​ Familiar Technology:
○​ Well-known and well-understood technology, making troubleshooting and
maintenance straightforward for technicians.
4.​ Limited Failure Impact:
○​ A failure in one node does not affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantages:

1.​ Extensive Cabling:

○​ Requires a lot of cabling, especially in large networks.
2.​ Difficult Troubleshooting:
○​ Identifying the fault in the backbone cable can be challenging and requires
specialized equipment.
3.​ Signal Interference:
○​ If two nodes transmit simultaneously, their signals collide, causing network
disruption.
4.​ Reconfiguration Issues:
○​ Adding or removing nodes can be difficult without disrupting the network.
5.​ Attenuation:
○​ The signal can degrade over long distances, requiring repeaters to amplify
and restore the signal.

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2. Ring Topology

Structure:

●​ In a ring topology, each network node is connected to exactly two other nodes,
forming a single continuous pathway for signals through each node – a ring.
●​ Each node is connected to its adjacent nodes via point-to-point links, creating a
closed loop.

Communication:

●​ Data travels in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions (bidirectional)

around the ring.
●​ Each node receives data from its predecessor, processes it, and then forwards it to
its successor.
●​ The most common method of data transmission in a ring topology is token passing.

Access Methods:

●​ Token Passing:
○​ A token (a small data packet) circulates around the network. Only the node
holding the token can transmit data.
○​ When a node receives the token, it attaches its data and the destination
address to the token and sends it on. The token continues to circulate until it
reaches the destination node, which removes the data and sends an
acknowledgment.
○​ After the data transmission is complete, the token is released back into the
network to allow other nodes to transmit data.

Advantages:

1.​ Orderly Network Operation:

○​ Token passing ensures that no collisions occur, as only one node can transmit
data at a time.
2.​ Easy Fault Isolation:

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 NotesNeo
○​ Faulty devices can be identified and removed from the network without
bringing down the entire system.
3.​ Efficient Data Transmission:
○​ Each node regenerates the signal, which can help in maintaining the signal
strength over long distances.
4.​ Scalability:
○​ Additional nodes can be added without significant impact on the network’s
performance.

Disadvantages:

1.​ Single Point of Failure:

○​ A failure in any single node or connection can disrupt the entire network.
2.​ Difficult Troubleshooting:
○​ Identifying and isolating faults can be challenging and may require
specialized equipment.
3.​ Latency:
○​ Data transmission delays increase with the number of nodes, as each node
must pass the data to the next node in the ring.
4.​ Reconfiguration Issues:
○​ Adding or removing nodes can be complex and may require the network to
be temporarily taken offline.
5.​ Limited Speed:
○​ Generally slower than star topology due to the need for token passing and
data forwarding through multiple nodes.

3. Star Topology

Structure:

●​ In a star topology, all network nodes are connected to a central hub, switch, or
server.
●​ The central hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
●​ Each node has a dedicated point-to-point connection to the central hub, making
the topology resemble a star.

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 NotesNeo
Communication:

●​ All data transmissions are routed through the central hub. When a node sends data,
it is received by the hub and then forwarded to the destination node.
●​ This centralization allows the hub to manage and control all communications within
the network.

Advantages:

1.​ Efficient Troubleshooting:

○​ Issues are easier to locate and fix because each device is connected to the
hub individually.
2.​ Network Control:
○​ Centralized management makes implementing complex network controls
and monitoring simpler.
3.​ Limited Failure Impact:
○​ If one node or its cable fails, it does not affect other nodes or the overall
network.
4.​ Scalability:
○​ New nodes can be easily added to the network by connecting them to the
hub without disrupting the existing network.
5.​ High Data Speeds:
○​ Supports high bandwidth and data transfer rates, making it suitable for
networks that require fast data transmission.
6.​ Simple Layout:
○​ The straightforward design and layout make it easy to set up and
understand.

Disadvantages:

1.​ Central Point of Failure:

○​ The hub or switch represents a single point of failure. If the hub fails, the
entire network goes down.
2.​ Higher Costs:
○​ Requires more cable than some other topologies, as each node must be
individually connected to the hub.
3.​ Potential for Network Bottlenecks:
○​ If the hub becomes overloaded with data traffic, it can become a
bottleneck, slowing down communication across the network.
4.​ Cable Routing:
○​ In large networks, managing and routing the cables can become complex
and cumbersome.

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 NotesNeo
4. Tree Topology

Structure:

●​ Tree topology is a hierarchical network structure that combines characteristics of

both bus and star topologies.
●​ It consists of a root node (usually a central hub or switch) with a hierarchy of
additional nodes branching out in a parent-child relationship, resembling a tree
structure.
●​ The root node is connected to intermediate nodes (branch nodes), which in turn are
connected to other nodes (leaf nodes).

Communication:

●​ Data transmission in a tree topology starts from a root node and can travel
through the branches to reach any leaf node.
●​ Communication pathways follow the hierarchical structure, ensuring data moves
from the parent nodes to the child nodes or vice versa.

Advantages:

1.​ Scalability:
○​ Easy to expand by adding new nodes to the network without disrupting the
existing structure.
2.​ Manageability:
○​ The hierarchical nature allows for easier management and troubleshooting
as the network is divided into manageable segments (branches).
3.​ Support for Broadband Transmission:
○​ Effective for transmitting data over long distances without signal
attenuation, making it suitable for wide area networks (WANs).
4.​ Isolation of Faults:
○​ Faults in one segment do not affect the entire network, allowing for isolated
troubleshooting and repair.
5.​ Hierarchical Organization:
○​ Facilitates organized and structured network operations, making it easier to
implement policies and security measures.

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Disadvantages:

1.​ Complexity:
○​ More complex to design and install compared to simpler topologies like bus
or star.
2.​ High Cost:
○​ Requires more cabling and specialized devices, such as repeaters and hubs,
increasing the overall cost.
3.​ Dependency on Root Node:
○​ The entire network depends on the root node. If it fails, it can disrupt the
entire network or large segments of it.
4.​ Reconfiguration Issues:
○​ Adding or removing nodes can be challenging and may require
reconfiguration of the entire network hierarchy.
5.​ Troubleshooting:
○​ While faults are isolated to specific branches, identifying and resolving
issues can be more complex due to the hierarchical structure.

5. Mesh Topology

Structure:

●​ In a mesh topology, every node is connected to every other node in the network,
creating a web-like structure of interconnections.

●​ Mesh topology can be categorized into:

○​ Full Mesh Topology: Every node is connected to every other node.
○​ Partial Mesh Topology: Only some nodes are connected to all other nodes,
with others connected only to nodes they frequently communicate with.

Full Mesh vs. Partial Mesh

Full Mesh Topology:

●​ Structure: Every node is connected to every other node.

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●​ Advantages: Maximum redundancy and reliability.

●​ Disadvantages: High cost and complexity due to the large number of connections.

Partial Mesh Topology:

●​ Structure: Some nodes are fully interconnected, while others are connected only to
the nodes they communicate with most frequently.

●​ Advantages: Reduced cost and complexity compared to full mesh, while still
providing redundancy.
●​ Disadvantages: Less redundancy than full mesh, but more manageable and
cost-effective.

Communication:

●​ Mesh topology supports multiple paths for data transmission between any two
nodes.
●​ If one path fails, data can be rerouted through another path, enhancing reliability
and fault tolerance.
●​ Data can travel directly from one node to another without needing a central hub or
switch, reducing the likelihood of congestion and bottlenecks.

Advantages:

1.​ High Reliability:

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○​ Multiple redundant connections ensure network reliability and fault
tolerance. A failure in one connection does not affect the network as a
whole.
2.​ Robustness:
○​ The network remains operational even if several connections fail.
3.​ High Performance:
○​ Direct communication paths between nodes can lead to faster data
transmission and reduced latency.
4.​ Scalability:
○​ Easy to expand by adding new nodes without disrupting the existing
network.
5.​ Efficient Load Handling:
○​ Load is evenly distributed due to multiple pathways, preventing any single
point from becoming a bottleneck.

Disadvantages:

1.​ High Cost:

○​ The extensive cabling and number of connections required for a full mesh
topology are costly.
2.​ Complex Installation and Maintenance:
○​ The network setup is complex and time-consuming due to the high number
of connections.
3.​ Complex Management:
○​ Managing and maintaining a mesh network can be challenging due to its
complexity.
4.​ Redundant Connections:
○​ The presence of many redundant connections can reduce the overall
efficiency of the network.

6. Hybrid Topology

Structure:

●​ Hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different types of network

topologies, such as star, ring, bus, and mesh, integrated into a single network.
●​ This combination can leverage the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of the
constituent topologies.
●​ The specific structure of a hybrid topology depends on the needs and requirements
of the network.

Common Examples:

●​ Star-Bus Topology: Multiple star topologies connected by a single bus.

●​ Star-Ring Topology: Multiple star topologies connected in a ring configuration.
●​ Mesh-Star Topology: A mesh topology used for interconnecting star-configured
sub-networks.

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Communication:

●​ Data transmission in a hybrid topology follows the rules of the underlying

topologies. For example, in a star-bus topology, data would travel from a node to
the central hub (as in a star topology), and then across the bus to another hub (as
in a bus topology).

Advantages:

1.​ Flexibility:
○​ Hybrid topology can be designed to meet the specific needs of different
parts of the network, providing a tailored solution.
2.​ Scalability:
○​ New nodes and sub-networks can be added easily without disrupting the
existing network.
3.​ Reliability:
○​ Combines the fault tolerance of multiple topologies. For example, if a bus
segment fails in a star-bus topology, the star-configured sub-networks can
still function independently.
4.​ Efficient Troubleshooting:
○​ Fault isolation is more straightforward since problems can often be traced to
a specific segment or sub-network.
5.​ Performance Optimization:
○​ Network performance can be optimized by using high-speed topologies like
star or mesh for high-traffic areas and simpler topologies like bus for
low-traffic areas.

Disadvantages:

1.​ Complex Design:

○​ Designing a hybrid topology can be complex, requiring careful planning to
ensure compatibility and efficiency between different topologies.
2.​ Higher Cost:
○​ The combination of different topologies can lead to higher costs for cabling,
network devices, and maintenance.
3.​ Complex Management:
○​ Managing a hybrid network can be challenging due to the variety of
technologies and configurations involved.
4.​ Potential for Bottlenecks:
○​ If not designed properly, hybrid networks can suffer from bottlenecks,
especially at the junction points between different topologies.

3.9 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Data communication allows sending and receiving data between devices. There are two
main types of services: Connection-Oriented and Connectionless.

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Connection-Oriented Services
●​ Description: A dedicated path is established before data transfer, ensuring reliable
delivery.
●​ Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
●​ Operation:
○​ A sender initiates communication with a request (SYN).
○​ The receiver acknowledges the request (SYN-ACK).
○​ Data is sent in a specific order and can be tracked for delivery confirmation.
○​ The connection is terminated once data transfer is complete.

●​ Advantages:
○​ Reliable and ordered data delivery.
○​ Suitable for applications requiring accuracy, like file transfers and web
browsing.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Requires more bandwidth and resources.
○​ Slower due to connection establishment and teardown.

Connectionless Services
●​ Description: Data is sent in the form of packets without establishing a dedicated
path, and packets are routed independently.
●​ Examples: UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
●​ Operation:
○​ Data packets are sent directly to the receiver without a handshake.
○​ Packets can arrive in any order and may not be received at all.

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●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster and more efficient for simple data transmissions.
○​ Requires less bandwidth and resources.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ No guarantee of delivery or order, making it less reliable.
○​ Potential for data loss due to network congestion.

Differences between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Connection-oriented services are ideal for applications needing reliable and ordered
communication, while connectionless services are better suited for speed and efficiency in
less critical data transmissions.

Parameter Connection-Oriented Service Connectionless Service

Related System Based on telephone systems Based on postal systems

Connection Establishes a connection No connection established

Virtual Path Creates a virtual path No virtual path

Authentication Requires authentication No authentication needed

Data Packet Packets received in order Packets may arrive out of

Order order

Bandwidth Higher bandwidth required Lower bandwidth required

Requirement

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Reliability More reliable Less reliable

Congestion No congestion Potential congestion

Examples TCP UDP, IP, ICMP

Section 4 : Data Link Layer

4.1 Functions and Services

●​ The Data Link Layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model, responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error
detection and correction. It plays a critical role in the functioning of networks by
ensuring that data is transmitted accurately and reliably between adjacent nodes.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

1.​ Framing: Divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
2.​ Addressing: Uses MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to identify devices on the
network.
3.​ Line Discipline: Ensures proper coordination between devices on a network,
determining which device can send data and when it can do so.
4.​ Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission between two nodes to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
5.​ Error Detection and Correction: Detects and corrects errors that may occur in the
physical layer.
6.​ Access Control: Determines which device has control over the transmission
medium at any given time.

Data Link Controls

Data Link Control refers to the set of services provided by the Data Link Layer to ensure
reliable data transfer over the physical medium. In scenarios like half-duplex
transmission, where devices can only transmit data one at a time, the data link layer
prevents collisions and data loss by coordinating the communication.

The Data Link Layer provides three main functions:

1.​ Line Discipline

2.​ Flow Control
3.​ Error Control

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1. Line Discipline

Line Discipline ensures proper coordination between devices on a network, determining

which device can send data and when it can do so. This prevents collisions and ensures
orderly communication.

ENQ/ACK

ENQ/ACK (Enquiry/Acknowledgement) is used when there's a dedicated path between

two devices.

●​ ENQ (Enquiry): The sender transmits an ENQ frame to check if the receiver is
ready.
●​ ACK (Acknowledgement): The receiver responds with an ACK if ready or a NACK if
not.

Working of ENQ/ACK:

●​ The sender transmits an ENQ frame.

●​ The receiver responds with an ACK if it's ready to receive data, or a NACK if not.
●​ If the response is positive, the sender transmits the data and finishes with an EOT
(End-of-Transmission) frame.
●​ If the response is negative or no response is received, the sender retries or
disconnects.

Poll/Select

The Poll/Select method is used in network topologies with a primary device and multiple
secondary devices.

Select Mode:

●​ The primary device sends a Select (SEL) frame to the intended secondary device.
●​ The secondary device acknowledges readiness.
●​ The primary device sends data frames.

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Poll Mode:

●​ The primary device polls secondary devices to check if they have data to send.
●​ If a secondary device responds with ACK, it sends data to the primary device.

2. Flow Control

Flow Control manages the rate of data transmission to prevent the receiver from being
overwhelmed.

Stop-and-Wait

●​ The sender transmits a frame and waits for an ACK before sending the next frame.
●​ Simple but inefficient due to waiting for each ACK before sending the next frame.

Sliding Window

●​ Allows the sender to transmit multiple frames before needing an ACK.

●​ Frames are acknowledged collectively, improving efficiency.
●​ Uses a window size to control the number of frames sent before requiring an ACK.

Sender Window:

●​ The sender can send frames within the window size limit.
●​ As frames are sent and acknowledged, the window slides to allow new frames to be
sent.

Receiver Window:

●​ The receiver can receive a specific number of frames before sending an ACK.
●​ The window slides as frames are received and acknowledged.

3. Error Control

Error Control detects and corrects errors in transmitted data.

Stop-and-Wait ARQ

●​ The sender keeps a copy of the last frame until it receives an ACK.
●​ Frames and ACKs are numbered alternately (0 and 1).
●​ Uses a timer to detect lost frames.

Scenarios:

●​ Damaged Frame: The receiver sends a NAK for damaged frames, and the sender
retransmits.
●​ Lost Frame: If no ACK is received within a time limit, the sender retransmits the
frame.

Sliding Window ARQ

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●​ The sender keeps copies of transmitted frames until they are acknowledged.
●​ The receiver sends ACKs or NAKs, and the sender retransmits as necessary.

Protocols:

●​ Go-Back-N ARQ: The sender retransmits all frames after a damaged or lost frame.
●​ Selective-Reject ARQ: Only the damaged frames are retransmitted, making it more
efficient.

4.2 MAC Addressing

Overview
●​ MAC Address (Media Access Control Address) is a unique identifier assigned to
network interfaces for communications at the data link layer.
●​ It is used to ensure that data packets are delivered to the correct hardware
destination within a local network.

Structure
●​ Format: MAC addresses are 48 bits long, typically represented in hexadecimal
format (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
●​ Components:
○​ OUI (Organizationally Unique Identifier): The first 24 bits, assigned by the
IEEE to the manufacturer.
○​ NIC (Network Interface Controller) Specific: The last 24 bits, assigned by the
manufacturer.

Importance
●​ Ensures unique identification of devices within a local network.
●​ Used in various data link layer protocols for addressing and communication.

4.3 Framing

Definition
●​ Framing is the process of dividing data into frames to facilitate error detection and
flow control.

Types of Framing
1.​ Fixed-size Framing: Frames of a fixed size, easy to implement but can lead to
inefficiency.
2.​ Variable-size Framing: Frames of variable sizes, more efficient but complex to
implement.

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Frame Structure
●​ Header: Contains control information, such as source and destination MAC
addresses, frame type, and sequence number.
●​ Payload: The actual data being transmitted.
●​ Trailer: Contains error-checking information, like a CRC checksum, to detect
transmission errors.

Methods
1.​ Character Count: Uses a field in the frame header to specify the number of
characters in the frame.
2.​ Character Stuffing: Uses special characters to mark the beginning and end of the
frame, with stuffing characters to avoid confusion.
3.​ Bit Stuffing: Inserts non-information bits into the data stream to ensure the frame
delimiter patterns do not appear in the data.
4.​ Physical Layer Coding Violations: Uses specific signal patterns to indicate the start
and end of a frame.

4.4 Flow Control

Flow control is a set of procedures used to manage the rate of data transmission between
two nodes to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed by too much data. The
receiving device may have limited processing speed and memory, so flow control ensures
that the sender transmits data at a manageable rate. This is typically achieved using
buffers, temporary storage areas for data.
Two primary methods for flow control are Stop-and-Wait and Sliding Window.

Stop-and-Wait Protocol
In the Stop-and-Wait protocol, the sender sends one frame at a time and waits for an
acknowledgement (ACK) from the receiver before sending the next frame. This simple
technique ensures that the receiver is ready to process the next frame before it is sent.

Process:

1.​ Send Frame: The sender transmits a data frame.

2.​ Wait for ACK: The sender waits for an acknowledgement from the receiver.
3.​ Receive ACK: If the sender receives an ACK, it sends the next frame.
4.​ Timeout and Retransmission: If no ACK is received within a specified timeout
period, the sender retransmits the frame.

Advantages:

●​ Simple and easy to implement.

●​ Ensures that each frame is successfully received before sending the next one,
preventing data overflow at the receiver.

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Disadvantages:

●​ Inefficient for high-speed or long-distance networks due to waiting time because

the sender spends a lot of time waiting for ACKs.
●​ The communication channel remains idle during the waiting period, leading to poor
utilization of bandwidth.
●​ High latency, as each frame and its corresponding ACK must traverse the entire
link.

Sliding Window Protocol

The Sliding Window Protocol is a more efficient method of flow control compared to
Stop-and-Wait. It allows the sender to send multiple frames before needing an
acknowledgment (ACK) for any of them, improving the efficiency of data transmission.
This method is based on maintaining a window at both the sender and receiver sides to
keep track of which frames have been sent and acknowledged.

Basic Concepts:

1.​ Window Size:

○​ The window size determines the maximum number of frames that can be
sent before waiting for an ACK.
○​ Both sender and receiver maintain their own windows.
2.​ Sender Window:
○​ The sender window size is the number of frames the sender can transmit
before needing an acknowledgment.
○​ As frames are sent, the left boundary of the window moves inward, reducing
the window size. When an ACK is received, the window expands accordingly
by sliding forward.
3.​ Receiver Window:
○​ The receiver window represents the number of frames that can be received
before an acknowledgment is sent.
○​ As frames are received, the window size shrinks. When an acknowledgment
is sent, the window expands.

Example:

●​ Window Size and Numbering:

○​ Frames are numbered modulo-n, meaning the numbers cycle through from 0
to n-1. If n=8, frame numbers will be 0, 1, 2, ..., 7, 0, 1, 2, etc.
○​ The window size is n-1. Therefore, with n=8, the window size is 7, allowing up
to 7 frames to be sent before an acknowledgment is needed.
●​ Sender Window Example:
○​ If the sender window size is 7 and frames 0 through 4 are sent, the sender
window now has 2 frames left. If an ACK is received for frames up to 3, the
window expands to include the next frames, say 5, 6, and 7.
●​ Receiver Window Example:

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○​ If the receiver window size is 7, it can hold 7 frames. If it receives frames 0
through 4, the window size shrinks to 2. Once an acknowledgment is sent, the
window expands back to 7.

Advantages:

●​ More efficient use of the communication channel as multiple frames can be sent
before needing an acknowledgment.
●​ Reduced latency as frames can be acknowledged in batches rather than
individually.

Disadvantages:

●​ More complex to implement compared to Stop-and-Wait.

●​ Requires additional mechanisms to handle lost or out-of-order frames.

4.5 Error Control

Error control is a crucial function of the Data Link Layer, ensuring the reliable delivery of
data frames over a network. It involves both error detection and error correction
mechanisms to manage errors that occur during data transmission. It ensures reliable
communication by identifying errors and facilitating retransmission of corrupted or lost
frames.

Error Detection:
Error detection mechanisms identify the presence of errors in transmitted frames. The
primary methods are:
●​ Parity Check: Adds a parity bit to the data to make the number of 1s either even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity). The receiver checks the parity to detect errors.
●​ Checksum: Adds the binary values of data segments and transmits the sum. The
receiver verifies the sum to detect errors.
●​ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): Adds a sequence of redundant bits (CRC bits) to
the data. The receiver uses polynomial division to check for errors.

Error Correction:
Error correction mechanisms not only detect errors but also correct them without the need
for retransmission. The primary methods are:
●​ Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ): If an error is detected, the receiver requests
the sender to resend the frame.
●​ Hamming Code: Redundant bits is added to the data frame, allowing the receiver
to both detect and correct single-bit errors.
●​ Forward Error Correction (FEC): The sender adds redundant data to help the
receiver detect and correct errors (multi-bit) without needing retransmission.

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4.6 ARQ Protocols

●​ Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) is a method of error control in data transmission
where the receiver can request the sender to resend lost or corrupted frames.
●​ ARQ protocols combine error detection and retransmission strategies to ensure
reliable data transmission. The main types of ARQ protocols used in the data link
layers are:

1. Stop-and-Wait ARQ

●​ In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the sender transmits one frame and waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver before sending the next frame.

Process:

1.​ Send Frame: The sender transmits a singe data frame.

2.​ Wait for ACK: The sender waits for an ACK from the receiver.
3.​ Receive ACK: If the ACK is received, the sender sends the next frame.
4.​ Timeout and Retransmission: If no ACK is received within a specified timeout
period, the sender retransmits the frame.

Advantages:

●​ Simple and easy to implement.

●​ Each frame is acknowledged, ensuring no frame is lost.

Disadvantages:

●​ Inefficient for high-speed networks due to waiting times.

●​ Bandwidth is underutilized as the sender waits for an ACK before sending the next
frame.

2. Go-Back-N ARQ
●​ In In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, , the sender can send several frames before needing an
acknowledgment but must retransmit all frames starting from the one that was not
acknowledged.

Process:

1.​ Send Frames: The sender transmits multiple frames up to a window size (N).
2.​ Receive Frames: The receiver processes each frame and sends ACKs for correctly
received frames.
3.​ Detect Error: If an error is detected in a frame, the receiver discards the erroneous
frame and all subsequent frames.
4.​ Retransmit: The sender retransmits the erroneous frame and all subsequent frames
starting from the error.

Advantages:

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●​ More efficient than Stop-and-Wait as multiple frames are sent before waiting for
an ACK.
●​ Effective use of available bandwidth.

Disadvantages:

●​ Can lead to redundant retransmissions if an error occurs, as frames after the error
need to be resent.
●​ Inefficient use of bandwidth if errors are frequent.

3. Selective Repeat ARQ

●​ In Selective Repeat ARQ, the sender can send multiple frames before needing an
ACK and retransmit only those frames that were not acknowledged (erroneous
frames).

Process:

1.​ Send Frames: The sender transmits multiple frames up to a window size.
2.​ Receive Frames: The receiver processes each frame and sends ACKs for correctly
received frames.
3.​ Detect Error: If an error is detected, the receiver requests a retransmission of only
the erroneous frame.
4.​ Retransmit: The sender retransmits only the erroneous frame.

Advantages:

●​ More efficient than Go-Back-N as it avoids redundant retransmissions.

●​ Ensures that only erroneous frames are retransmitted, saving bandwidth.

Disadvantages:

●​ Requires more complex logic and buffering at both sender and receiver.
●​ More memory required to store the received frames until they can be processed in
order.

4.7 Sliding Window Protocol

●​ The Sliding Window Protocol combines flow control and error control, allowing for
efficient and reliable data transmission.
●​ Sliding Window Protocol allows multiple frames to be sent before needing an
acknowledgment, with a sliding window controlling the number of frames sent and
acknowledged.

Basic Concepts
●​ Window Size: Defines the number of frames that can be sent without
acknowledgment.
●​ Acknowledgment: Receiver sends acknowledgments for received frames, allowing
the sender to slide the window forward and send new frames.
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●​ Sender Window: Allows the sender to transmit multiple frames before waiting for
an ACK. It slides forward as ACKs are received.
●​ Receiver Window: Allows the receiver to accept multiple frames and slide forward
as frames are correctly received and acknowledged.

Process:
1.​ Send Frames: The sender transmits multiple frames within the window size.
2.​ Receive Frames: The receiver accepts and processes frames within its window.
3.​ Send ACKs: The receiver sends cumulative ACKs for received frames.
4.​ Slide Window: Both sender and receiver slide their windows forward as frames are
acknowledged.

Sliding Window Protocol is a more efficient error control method that allows continuous
transmission of frames. The sender can transmit multiple frames before needing an
acknowledgment, and both sender and receiver maintain a window that slides over the
sequence of frames.

Sliding Window Protocols:

1. Go-Back-N ARQ:

If an error is detected or a frame is lost, the receiver sends a NAK for the erroneous
frame. The sender retransmits the erroneous frame and all subsequent frames.

●​ Damaged Frame: The receiver sends a NAK for the damaged frame. The sender
retransmits the damaged frame and all following frames.
●​ Lost Frame: If a frame is lost, the receiver detects a sequence gap and sends a
NAK for the missing frame. The sender retransmits the missing frame and all
subsequent frames.
●​ Lost ACK: If an ACK is lost, the sender retransmits frames after the last
successfully acknowledged frame when the timer expires.

2. Selective-Repeat ARQ:

Only the frames that are negatively acknowledged (NAK) are retransmitted, rather than
all subsequent frames. This requires the receiver to buffer out-of-order frames until the
missing frame is correctly received.

●​ Efficiency: More efficient than Go-Back-N ARQ because only specific frames are
retransmitted.
●​ Receiver Buffering: The receiver stores all received frames, including out-of-order
frames, until the correct sequence is restored.
●​ Selective Retransmission: The sender retransmits only the frames requested by the
NAKs, using a mechanism to identify and resend specific frames.

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Important Questions

1.​ What is the OSI model? Explain its working in detail.

2.​ Describe the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
3.​ What are the functions and services of the Data Link Layer (DLL)?
4.​ Explain different types of transmission media, along with their advantages and
disadvantages.
5.​ Explain different types of topologies with their advantages and disadvantages.
6.​ Differentiate between Connectionless and Connection-Oriented services.
7.​ Discuss sliding window protocol.
8.​ What is computer network ? Explain its historical development in detail.
9.​ Describe various network types in detail.
10.​Compare (similarities and differences) OSI and TCP/IP models.
11.​ What is data communication system. Explain various components and usage of
data communication system.
12.​Write short notes on:
a.​ Framing in the data link layer
b.​ Packet Switching
c.​ Ring Topology
d.​ Internal History
e.​ Transmission Modes
f.​ Circuit Switching
g.​ Bus Topology
h.​ Parity Check Code
i.​ Mesh Topologies
j.​ Parity Check Code
k.​ DLC (Downloadable Content) Services

MDU PYQs

March - 2021
1.​ Write short note on :
a.​ Framing in data link layer
2.​ (a) What is OSI model? Explain the working of OSI model in detail.
(b) What do you mean by sliding window protocol ? Explain.
3.​ (a) Give a brief description about computer network and its historical development.
(b) Explain data link layer functions and services in detail.

July - 2021

1.​ Write short notes on the following :

(a) Packet switching
(b) Ring topology
2.​ Describe the various network types in detail.

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 NotesNeo
3.​ Describe the various layers of TCP/IP protocol.

Feb - 2022

1.​ Explain the following terms :

(a)​Internal History
(b)​Transmission modes
2. (a) What is data communication system explain various components and
usage of data communication system
(b) Explain different types of transmission media in detail .Also discuss
advantages and disadvantages of each media
3. (a) What is TCP/IP model ? Explain functions, services and protocols of
each layer.
(b) Discuss various similarities and differences between OSI and TCP/IP
model.

July - 2022

1.​ Write short notes on the following:

(a) Circuit switching
(b) BUS topology
(c) Parity Check Code
2. Explain various Layers of OSI Model.
3. (a) Explain DLC services in detail.
(b) Describe ALOHA protocol in detail

Dec - 2022

1. Define the following:

(c) Types Of topologies
2. (a) Explain different types of topologies with their advantages and
Disadvantages.
(b) Differentiate between connectionless and connection oriented
Services.
3. Discuss the OSI model with suitable diagram.

Nov - 2023
1.​ Write a short note on the following:
a.​ Mesh Topologies
2.​ (a) What is computer network ? Explain its historical development in detail.
(b) Explain Data Link Layer functions in detail.
3.​ (a) Explain TCP/IP model in detail.
(b) Describe various Transmission media used in Computer Networks.

73