CBSE

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CHAPTER–1 : RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

1. CARTESIAN PRODUCT OF TWO SETS :
Given two non-empty sets A and B. The cartesian product A × B is the set of all ordered pairs of
the form (a, b) where the first entry comes from set A & second comes from set B.
A × B = {(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
Example : A = {1, 2, 3}and B = {p, q}
A × B = {(1, p),(1, q), (2, p), (2, q), (3, p), (3, q)}
Note :
(i) If either A or B is a null set, then A × B will also be empty set, i.e. A × B = 
(ii) If n(A) = m, n(B) = n, then n(A × B) = mn.
2. RELATIONS :

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Let A and B be two sets, then a relation R from A to B is a subset of A × B.
Thus, R is a relation from A to B  R  A × B.
Note :
(i) If (a, b)  R then b is the image of a under R and a is the pre-image of b under R.
(ii) If n(A) = m, n(B) = n, then the total number of relations defined from set A to B are 2mn.
3. DOMAIN AND RANGE OF A RELATION :
Let R be a relation from a set A to a set B. Then the set of all first components or coordinates of
the ordered pairs belonging to R is called the domain of R, while the set of all second
components or coordinates of the ordered pairs in R is called the range of R.
Thus, Domain (R) = {a : (a, b)  R}
And, Range (R) = {b : (a, b)  R}
It is evident from the definition that the domain of a relation from A to B is a subset of A and its
range is a subset of B.
Illustration 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {x, y, z}. Consider the subset R = {(1, x), (1, y), (2, z),
(3, x)} of A × B. Is R, a relation from A to B? If yes, find domain and range of R. Draw arrow
diagram of R.
Solution: Since every subset of A × B is a relation from A to B, 1 x
therefore, R is also a relation from A to B. 2 y
  Domain of R = {1, 2, 3}; Range of R = {x, y, z} 3 z
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4. TYPES OF RELATIONS :
(i) Void or Empty Relation : A relation R on a set A is called void or empty relation, if no
element of set A is related to any element of set A.
Example : The relation R on the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} defined by R = {(a, b) : a – b = 12}.
We observed that a – b  12 for any two elements of A.
 (a, b)  R for any a, b A.
 R does not contain any element of A × A.
 R is empty set.
   R is the void or empty relation on A.

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(ii) Universal Relation : A relation R on a set A is called universal relation, if each element
of set A is related to every element of set A.
Example : The relation R on the set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} defined by T = {(a, b)  R : |a – b|  0}.
We observe that
|a – b|  0 for all a, b  A
 (a, b)  R for all (a, b)  A × A
 Each element of set A is related to every element of set A
 R = A × A
 R is universal relation on set A.
(iii) Trivial Relation : Trivial Relation means either each element of set A is related to every
element of set A or no element of set A is related to any element of set A.
Example : Both empty relation or universal relation are trivial relation.

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(iv) Identity Relation : A relation IA on A is called the identity relation if every element of A is
related to itself only.
Example : If A = {1, 2, 3}, then the relation IA = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} is the identity
relation on set A. But, relation R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2)} and R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 3)} are
not identity relations on set A, because (3, 3) R1 and in R2 element 1 is related to
elements 1 and 3.
(v) Reflexive Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be reflexive if every element of A is
atleast related to itself.
Thus, R is reflective  (a, a)  R a A.
Example : In a set A = {1, 2, 3}, relation R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (3, 3)} is
reflexive because every elements of set A is related to itself under R 1, while relation
R2 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 3)} is not reflexive because (3, 3)  R2.
Note : Total number of reflexive relation on set A is 2n(n –1), where n is number of elements in
set A.
(vi) Symmetric Relation : A relation R on a set A is said to be a symmetric relation
iff (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for all a, b  A
i.e., a R b  b R a for all a, b  A.
Example : In a set A = {1, 2, 3}, relation R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1)} is symmetric
because (a, b)  R1 (b, a) R1,  a, b  A, while relation R2 = {(1, 1), (3, 3), (1, 3)} is
not symmetric because (3, 1)  R2.
n(n 1)
Note : Total number of symmetric relation on set A is 2 2 , where n is number of
elements in set A.
(vii) Transitive Relation : Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is said to be a transitive
relation iff (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A
i.e., a R b and b R c  a R c for all a, b, c  A
Example : In a set A = {1, 2, 3}, relation R1 = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1)} is
transitive because (a, b)  R1 and (b, c)  R1 (a, c) R1,  a, b, c  A, while relation
R2 = {(1, 3), (3, 2)} is not transitive because (1, 2)  R2.

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5. EQUIVALENCE RELATION :
A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation on A iff
(i) it is reflexive i.e. (a, a)  R for all a  A
(ii) it is symmetric i.e. (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for all a, b  A
(iii) it is transitive i.e. (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R for all a, b, c  A.
Note : Empty relation defined on set A is not reflexive but symmetric and transitive while
universal relation define on set A is reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
Illustration 2: Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R on A
given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is empty relation and R' = {(a, b) : the difference between
the heights of a and b is less than 5 meters} is the universal relation.
Solution : Since the school is boys school. Therefore, no student of the school can be sister of
any student of the school. Thus, (a, b) R for any a, b  A.
Hence, R = i.e. R is the empty or void relation on A.

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It is obvious that the difference between the heights of any two students of the school has to be
less than 5 meters.
  (a, b)  R for all a, b  A
  R' = A × A
  R' is the universal relation on set A.
Illustration 3: Relation R in the set N of natural numbers is defined as R = {(x, y): y = x + 5 and
x < 4}. Determine whether relation is reflexive, symmetric or transitive ?
Solution: R = {(x, y): y = x + 5 and x < 4}  R = {(1, 6), (2, 7), (3, 8)}
Reflexive: (1, 1)  R. R is not reflexive.
Symmetric : (1, 6) R. but (6, 1)  R. R is not symmetric.
Transitive : Since there are no three elements x, y, z  N such that (x, y)  R, (y, z)  R but (x, z)  R
  R is transitive. Hence, R is neither reflexive, nor symmetric but it is transitive.
Illustration 4 : Let L be the set of all lines in XY-plane and R be the relation in L defined as
R = {(L1, L2) : L1 is parallel to L2}. Show that R is an equivalence relation. Find the set of all
lines related to the line y = 2x + 4.
Solution: Reflexive : Since every line  L is parallel to itself, therefore ( , ) R   L
 R is reflexive.
Symmetric : Let L1 , L2  L such that (L1, L2)  R  L1 || L2
 L2 || L1  (L2, L1)  R.  R is symmetric.
Transitive : Let L1 , L2, L3  L such that (L1, L2)  R and (L2, L3)  R then
(L1, L2)  R  L1 || L2 …..(1)
and (L2, L3)  R  L2 || L3 …..(2)
From equations (1) and (2);
L1 || L3  (L1, L3)  R  R is transitive.
Hence, R is an equivalence relation.
Required set = { : is a line whose equation is y = 2x + k, k being any real number}.
Since (1, 6) R and these is no order pair in R which has 6 as the first element. Same in the case
for (2, 7) and (3, 8).

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Illustration 5: Show that the relation R in R defined as R = {(a, b) : a  b}, is reflexive and
transitive but not symmetric.
Solution: Reflexive: Given, R = {(a, b): a  b}
Let a R such that if (a, a)  R  a  a, which is true, a R
  R is reflexive
Symmetric: Let a, b  R such that if (a, b)  R  a  b  b  a  (b, a) R
Example: 1  2  (1, 2)  R
But 2  1  (2, 1) R
  R is not symmetric
Transitive: Let a, b, c  R such that if (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R
  a  b and b  c  a  c (a, c)  R

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  R is transitive
Hence, R is reflexive and transitive but not symmetric.
Illustration 6: Let N denote the set of all natural numbers and R be the relation on N × N defined
by (a, b) R (c, d)  ad(b + c) = bc(a + d). Check whether R is an equivalence relation on N × N.
Solution: Reflexive : Let (a, b)  N × N, then (a, b) R (a, b)
 ab(b + a) = ba(a + b) [by commutativity of addition and multiplication on N]
 (a , b) R (a, b)
Thus, (a, b) R (a, b) for all (a, b)  N × N. So R is reflexive on N × N.
Symmetric : Let (a, b), (c, d)  N × N. Then, (a, b) R (c, d).
 ad(b + c) = bc(a + d)
 cb(d + a) = da(c + b) [by commutativity of addition and multiplication on N]
 (c, d) R (a, b)
Thus, (a, b) R (c, d)  (c, d) R (a, b) for all (a, b), (c, d)  N × N
So, R is symmetric on N × N.
Transitive : Let (a, b), (c, d), (e, ƒ)  N × N Then,
bc ad 1 1 1 1
(a, b) R (c, d)  ad(b + c) = bc(a + d)       …….(1)
bc ad c b d a
de cf 1 1 1 1
and, (c, d) R (e, ƒ)  cf(d + e) = de(c + f)       …….(2)
de cf e d f c
Adding (1) and (2), we get
1 1  1 1   1 1  1 1
 c  b  e  d    d  a  f  c 
       
1 1 1 1 be af
       af(b + e) = be (a + f)  (a, b) R (e, f)
b e a f be af
So, R is transitive on N × N.
Hence; R being reflexive, symmetric and transitive; is an equivalence relation on N × N.

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6. EQUIVALENCE CLASS :
Let X be a nonempty set and R be an equivalence relation on X. Let a be an element of X. The
set of all elements of X which are in relation R and related to a is denoted by [a] and is called an
equivalence class.
Thus, [a] = {x : X  A, x R a i.e., (x, a)  R}
Given an arbitrary equivalence relation R in an arbitrary set X, R divides X into mutually disjoint
subsets Ai called partitions or subdivisions of X satisfying :
(i) all elements of Ai are related to each other, for all i.
(ii) no element of Ai is related to any element of Aj, i  j.
(iii) UA j = X and Ai  Aj = , i  j.
The subsets Ai are called equivalence classes.
Illustration 7: If the relation R in the set A = {x  Z : 0 < x < 15} given by R = {(a, b) : a, b  Z,

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|a – b| is multiple of 5} is an equivalence relation, then find the equivalence class [2].
Solution: Let x  A which is related to 2 by given relation.
 x R 2 |x – 2| is a multiple of 5
 |x – 2| = 0, 5, 10, 15  x = 2, 7, 12
Hence, equivalence class of [2] = {2, 7, 12}.
Illustration 8: If A = {1, 2, 3, ......, 9} and R be the relation in A × A defined by (a, b) R (c, d)
if a + d = b + c for a, b, c, d  A is an equivalence relation, then find the equivalence class
[(2,5)]. [Exemplar]
Solution: Given set A = {1, 2, 3, .......9}
Let (x, y)  A × A which is related to (2, 5) by given relation.
(x, y) R (2, 5)  x+5=y+2  y=x+3
Hence, equivalence class of [(2, 5)] = {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3,6), (4,7), (5, 8), (6, 9)}.

7. FUNCTION :
A relation R from set A to set B is called a function if each element of A is uniquely associated
with some element of B. It is denoted by the symbol :
f
f : A  B or A   B
which reads 'f' is a function from A to B ‘or’ f maps A to B,
If an element a  A is associated with an element b  B, then b is called ‘the f image of a’ or
‘image of a under f’ or ‘the value of the function f at a’. Also a is called the ‘pre-image of b’ or
‘argument of b under the function ƒ’. We write it as
b = f (a) or f : a  b or f : (a, b)
Thus a function ‘f’ from set A to set B is subset of A × B in which each a belonging to A appears
in one and only one ordered pair belonging to f.
Note : Total number of functions defined from set A to set B is nm, where n(A) = m and n(B) = n)
Representation of Function :
Ordered pair : Every function from A  B satisfies the following conditions :
(i) f  A × B
(ii)  a  A there exists b  B
(iii) (a, b)  f & (a, c)  f  b = c

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8. DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION :
Let f : A  B, then the set A is known as the domain of f and the set B is known as
co-domain of f. The set of f images of all the elements of A is known as the range of f.
Domain of f = {a a  A, (a, f (a))  f}
Range of f = {f (a) a  A, f (a)  B}
(a) If only the rule of function is given then the domain of the function is the set of those real
numbers, where function is defined.
(b) For a continuous function, the interval from minimum to maximum value of a function
gives the range
(c) It should be noted that range is a subset of co-domain.
Illustration 9: The domain of the function f : R  R defined by f(x) = x2  3x  2 is ?
[Exemplar]
2
Solution: Here, x – 3x + 2  0  (x – 1)(x – 2)  0  x  1 or x  2

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Hence, the domain of f = (–, 1]  [2, )
1
Illustration 10 : Let f : R  R be the function defined by f(x) = ; x  R, then find the range
2  cos x
of f. [Exemplar]
Solution: We know that range of cos x is :
–1  cos x  1  1  – cos x  –1  3  2 – cos x  1
1 1 1
   1   f(x)  1
3 2  cos x 3
Hence, range of f(x) = [1/3, 1]

9. CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS :
One-One Function (Injective mapping) :
A function f : A  B is said to be a one-one function or injective mapping if different elements
of A have different f images in B.
Thus there exists x1, x2  A & f(x1), f(x2)B , f(x1) = f(x2)  x1 = x2 or x1  x2  f(x1)  f(x2).
Diagramatically, an injective mapping can be shown as:
A B A B

or

n!
Note : Total number of one-one functions defined from set A to set B is  n Pm , where
(n  m)!
n(A) = m and n(B) = n (m  n))
Many-one function : A function f : A  B is said to be a many one function if two or
more elements of A have the same f image in B.
Thus, f : A  B is many one if there exists x1, x2  A such that f (x1) = f (x2) but x1  x2.
Diagramatically, many-one function can be shown as:
A B A B

or

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Note :
(i) If a line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function at atmost one point, then the
function is one-one.
(ii) If any line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function at atleast two points, then f is
many-one.
(iii) If continuous function f (x) is always increasing or decreasing in whole domain, then f(x) is
one-one.
(iv) All linear functions are one-one.
Onto function (Surjective mapping) :
If the function f : A  B is such that each element in B (co-domain) is the f image of atleast
one element in A, then we say that f is a function of A 'onto' B. Thus f : A  B is surjective
iff  b  B,  some a  A such that f (a) = b.
Diagramatically, surjective mapping can be shown as:

®
A B A B

or

Note that : if range is same as co-domain, then f (x) is onto.

Into function : If f : A  B is such that there exists atleast one element in co-domain which is
not the image of any element in domain, then ƒ (x) is into.
Diagramatically, into function can be shown as:
A B A B

or

Note :
(i) A polynomial of degree even defined from R  R will always be into
(ii) A polynomial of degree odd defined from R  R will always be onto.
(iii) A one-one function (injective) and onto function (surjective) is known as bijective function.
(Also known as Bijective mapping, Bi-uniform or non-singular)

Illustration 11: Let A  R – 

3
2
and B  R –
3
2 
. Consider the function f : A B defined by

 3x  2 
f(x)    . Is f one-one and onto? Justify your answer.
 2x  3 
Solution: Let x1, x2  A such that f(x1) = f(x2)
3x1 – 2 3x 2  2
   (3x1 – 2) (2x2 – 3) = (3x2 – 2) (2x1 – 3)
2x1 – 3 2x 2 – 3
  x1x2 – 9x1 – 4x2 + 6 = 6x1x2 – 9x2 – 4x1 + 6
 – 9x1 – 4x2 = – 9x2 – 4x1
  9x1 – 4x1 = 9x2 – 4x2 5x1 = 5x2 or x1 = x2
  f is one – one.

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Let y = f(x) y  B
3x  2
  y
2x  3
 xy – 3y = 3x – 2
  xy – 3x = 3y – 2
 x(2y – 3) = 3y – 2
3y  2
 x
2y  3
3
Now, 2y – 3  0  y 
2

 yR  3
,xA

®
2
i.e. every element of B has pre-images in A
Range = Codomain f is onto.
Hence, function f is one-one and onto.
Illustration 12: Show that the function f : R R given by f(x) = x3 + x is a bijection.
Solution:
Injectivity : Let x1, x2  R such that f(x1) = f(x2)
  x13  x1  x 32  x 2  x13  x 32  (x1  x 2 )  0

  (x1  x 2 )(x12  x1x 2  x 22  1)  0

  x1 – x2 = 0  x12  x1x2  x22  0 for all x1,x2  R,  x12  x1x2  x22  1  1, for all x1,x 2  R 
  x1 = x2
Thus, f(x1) = f(x2) x1 = x2 for all x1, x2  R
So, f is an injective mapping.
Surjectivity : Let y be an arbitrary element of R. Then,
f(x) = y x3 + x = y x3 + x – y = 0
We know that an odd degree equation has at least one real root. Therefore, for every real value of
y, the equation x3 + x – y = 0 has a real root  such that 3 +  – y = 0
  3 +  = y
 f() = y
Thus, for every y  R there exists   R.
So, every element of codomain has its preimage in domain.
  Range = Codomain.
So, f is a surjective mapping.
Hence, f : R  R is a bijection.

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SOME IMPORTANT POINTS FOR OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Total number of relations defined from set A to set B, if n(A) = m and n(B) = n, is 2mn

2. Total number of non-empty relations defined from set A to set B, if n(A) = m and n(B) = n, is 2mn – 1

3. Total number of reflexive relations on set A is 2n(n-1)

(Where n is number of elements in set A)

4. Total number of symmetric relations on set A is 2[(n(n1))/2]

(Where n is number of elements in set A)

5. Total number of functions defined from set A to set B is nm.

®
(Where n(A) = m and n(B) = n)

n!
6. Total number of one-one functions defined from set A to set B is  n Pm
(n  m)!

(Where n(A) = m and n(B) = n (m  n))

7. If n(A) = n(B) i.e. m = n; then total number of one-one functions from set A to set B is n!

8. If n(A) = m, n(B) = n and m n; then total number of onto functions from set A to set
n
  1
nr n
Cr r m , if m  n
B =  r 1
 0 , if m  n


n! , if m  n
9. Total number of bijective functions defined from set A to set B = 
 0 , if m  n

10. For deciding the nature of function in case of finite set A and set B, use the following conditions
directly:

(i) If f is an injection, then n(A) ≤ n (B)

(ii) If f is a surjection, then n(A) ≥ n (B)

(iii) If f is a bijection, then n(A) = n (B)

11. A polynomial of degree odd defined from R  R will always be onto.

12. A polynomial of degree even defined from R  R will always be into.

E 9